See also:

• KESTREL (Fr. Cresserelle or Crecerelle, O. Fr. Quercerelle and Quercelle, in Burgundy Cristel)

KESTREL (Fr. Cresserelle or Crecerelle, O. Fr. Quercerelle and Quercelle, in See also:

• BURGUNDY

Burgundy Cristel)  , the See also:

• ENGLISH

English name' for one of the smaller falcons . This See also:

• BIRD

bird, though in the See also:

• FORM (Lat. forma)

form of its See also:

• BILL

bill and ' Other English names are windhover and standgale (the last often corrupted into stonegale and stannell) . See also:

• KESTREL (Fr. Cresserelle or Crecerelle, O. Fr. Quercerelle and Quercelle, in Burgundy Cristel)

KESTREL length of its wings one of the true falcons, and by many ornithologists placed among them under its Linnaean name of Falco tinnunculus, is by others referred to a distinct genus Tinnunculus as T. alaudarius—the last being an epithet wholly inappropriate . We have here a See also:

• CASE
• CASE, JOHN (d. 1600)

case in which the propriety of the See also:

• CUSTOM (from O. Fr. costume, costume or coustume; Low Lat. costuma, a shortened form of consuetudo)

custom which requires the See also:

• ESTABLISHMENT (0. Fr. establissement, Fr. etablissement, late Norm. Fr. establishement, from O. Fr. establir, Fr. etablir, Lat. stabilire, to make stable)

establishment of a genus on structural characters may seem open to question . The See also:

• DIFFERENCES, CALCULUS OF (Theory of Finite Differences)

differences of structure which See also:

• SEPARATE

separate Tinnunculus from Falco are of the slightest, and, if insisted upon, must See also:

• LEAD
• LEAD (pronounced iced)

lead to including in the former birds which obviously differ from kestrels in all but a few characters arbitrarily chosen; and yet, if structural characters be set aside, the kestrels form an assemblage readily distinguishable by several peculiarities from all other Falconidae, and an assemblage separable from the true Falcons of the genus Falco, with its subsidiary See also:

• GROUPS
• GROUPS, THEORY

groups Aesalon, Hypotriorchis, and the See also:

• REST (O. Eng. rest, reste, bed, cognate with other Teutonic forms, e.g. Ger. Rast, Riiste, rest, and probably Gothic Rasta, league, i.e. resting or stopping place)

rest (see See also:

• FALCON
• FALCON (Lat. Falco;' Fr. Faucon; Teutonic, Falk or Valken)

FALCON) . Scarcely any one outside the walls of an ornithological museum or library would doubt for a moment whether any bird shown to him was a kestrel or not; and See also:

• GURNEY
• GURNEY, EDMUND (1847—1888)

Gurney has stated his belief (See also:

• IBIS

Ibis, 1881, p . 277) that the See also:

• AGGREGATION (from the Lat. ad, to, gregare, to collect together)

aggregation of See also:

• SPECIES

species placed by See also:

• BOWDLER

Bowdler See also:

• SHARPE, DANIEL (18o6-1856)

Sharpe (See also:

• CAT
• CAT, CIVET
• CAT, HOUSE

Cat . Birds Brit . See also:

• MUS

Mus. i . 423–448) under the generic designation of Cerchneis (which should properly be Tinnunculus) includes " three natural groups sufficiently distinct to be treated as at least separate subgenera, bearing the name of Dissodecles, Tinnunculus and Erythropus." Of these the first and last are not kestrels, but are perhaps rather related to the hobbies (Hypotriorchis) . The See also:

• ORDINARY (med. Lat. ordinarius, Fr. ordinaire)

ordinary kestrel of See also:

• EUROPE

Europe, Falco tinnunculus or Tinnunculus alaudarius, is by far the commonest bird of See also:

• PREY (0. Fr. preie, mod. proie, Lat. praeda, booty, from prae and the root hed—seen in prehendere, prendere, to grasp)

prey in the See also:

• BRITISH

British Islands . It is almost entirely a summer migrant, coming from the See also:

• SOUTH
• SOUTH, ROBERT (1634–1716)

south in See also:

• EARLY
• EARLY, JUBAL ANDERSON (1816-1894)

early See also:

• SPRING (from " to spring," " to leap or jump up," " burst out," O. Eng., springau, a common Teut. word, cf. Ger. springer, possibly allied to Gr. QnrFpxecOac, to move rapidly)

spring and departing in autumn, though examples (which are nearly always found to be birds of the See also:

• YEAR

year) occasionally occur in See also:

• WINTER, JOHN STRANGE
• WINTER, PETER (c. 1755-1825)

winter, some arriving on the eastern See also:

• COAST (from Lat. costa, a rib, side)

coast in autumn .

It is most often observed while See also:

• HANGING

hanging in the See also:

• AIR (from an Indo-European root meaning " breathe," " blow ")
• AIR, or ASBEN

air for a See also:

• MINUTE
• MINUTE (Lat. minutes, small; minuere, to make less)

minute or two in the same spot, by means of See also:

• SHORT, FRANCIS JOB (1857– )

short and rapid beats of its wings, as, with See also:

• HEAD (in 0. Eng. heafad; the word is common to Teutonic languages; cf. Dutch hoofd, Ger. Haupt, generally taken to be in origin connected with Lat. caput, Gr. KerbOvi7)
• HEAD, SIR EDMUND WALKER, BART
• HEAD, SIR FRANCIS BOND, BART

head pointing to windward and See also:

• EXPANDED

expanded tail, it is looking out for prey—which consists chiefly of mice, but it will at times take a small bird, and the remains of frogs, See also:

• INSECTS

insects and even earthworms have been found in its See also:

• CROP (a word common. in various forms, such as Germ. Kropf, to many Teutonic languages for a swelling, excrescence, round head or top of anything; it appears also in Romanic languages derived from Teutonic, in Fr. as troupe, whence the English " crupper "

crop . It generally breeds in the deserted See also:

• NEST

nest of a See also:

• CROW (Dutch, kraal, Ger. Krdhe, Fr. corbeau, Lat. corvus)

crow or See also:

• PIE

pie, but frequently in rocks, ruins, or even in hollow trees—laying four or five eggs, mottled all over with dark brownish-red, sometimes tinged with See also:

• ORANGE
• ORANGE (Citrus Aurantium)
• ORANGE, HOUSE OF

orange and at other times with See also:

• PURPLE

purple . Though it may occasionally snatch up a See also:

• YOUNG
• YOUNG, A
• YOUNG, ARTHUR (1741-1820)
• YOUNG, BRIGHAM (1801-1877)
• YOUNG, CHARLES MAYNE (1777–1856)
• YOUNG, EDWARD (1683–1765)
• YOUNG, JAMES (1811-1883)
• YOUNG, THOMAS (1773-1829)

young See also:

• PARTRIDGE (Du. Patrijs, Fr. perdrix, from Lat. perdix, apparently onomatopoeic from the call of the bird)
• PARTRIDGE, JOHN BERNARD (1861– )
• PARTRIDGE, WILLIAM ORDWAY (1861– )

partridge or See also:

• PHEASANT

pheasant, the kestrel is the most harmless bird of prey, if it be not, from its destruction of mice and cockchafers, a beneficial species . Its range extends over nearly the whole of Europe from 68° N. See also:

• LAT

lat., and the greater See also:

• PART

part of See also:

• ASIA

Asia—though the form which inhabits See also:

• JAPAN

Japan and is abundant in See also:

• NORTH
• NORTH, BARONS
• NORTH, MARIANNE (1830—1890)
• NORTH, ROGER (1653-1734)
• NORTH, SIR THOMAS (1535?-16o1?)

north-eastern See also:

• CHINA

China has been by some writers deemed distinct and called T. japonicus —it is also found over a See also:

• GREAT

great part of See also:

• AFRICA
• AFRICA, ROMAN

Africa, being, however, unknown beyond See also:

• GUINEA

Guinea on the See also:

• WEST
• WEST, BENJAMIN (1738-1820)
• WEST, NICHOLAS (1461-1533)

west and See also:

• MOMBASA

Mombasa on the See also:

• EAST
• EAST, ALFRED (1849- )

east coast (Ibis, 1881, p . 457) . The See also:

• SOUTHERN

southern countries of Europe have also another and smaller species of kestrel, T. tinnunculoides (the T. cenchris and T. naumanni of some writers), which is widely spread in Africa and Asia, though specimens from See also:

• INDIA
• INDIA, FRENCH

India and China are distinguished as T. pekinensis . Three other species are found in Africa—T. rupicola, T. rupicoloides and T. alopex—the first a See also:

• COMMON

common bird in the Cape, while the others occur in the interior . Some of the islands of the Ethiopian region have See also:

• PECULIAR

peculiar species of kestrel, as the T. newtoni of See also:

• MADAGASCAR

Madagascar, T. punctatus of See also:

• MAURITIUS

Mauritius and T. gracilis of the See also:

• SEYCHELLES

Seychelles; while, on the opposite See also:

• SIDE
• SIDE (mod. Eski Adalia)

side, the kestrel of the Cape Verde Islands has been separated as T. neglectus . The T. sparverius, commonly known in See also:

• CANADA

Canada and the See also:

• UNITED

United States as the " See also:

• SPARROW (0. Eng. spearwa; Icel. sporr; O.H.G. Sparo)

sparrow-See also:

• HAWK (O. Eng. hafoc or heafoc, a common Teutonic word, cf. Dutch havik, Ger. Habicht; the root is hab-, haf-, to hold, cf. Lat. accipiter, from capere)

hawk," is a beautiful little bird . Various attempts have been made to recognize several species, more or less in accordance with locality, but the See also:

• MAJORITY (Fr. majorite; Med. Lat. majoritas; Lat. major, greater)

majority of ornithologists seem unable to accept the distinctions which have been elaborated chiefly by Bowdler Sharpe in his See also:

• CATALOGUE (a Fr. adaptation of the Gr. KaraXoyos, a register, from Karalyety, to enrol or pick out)

Catalogue and R . Ridgway (North See also:

• AMERICAN

American Birds, iii . 159–175), the former of whom recognizes six species, while the latter admits but three— T. sparverius, T. leucophrys and T. sparverioides—with five See also:

• GEOGRAPHICAL

geographical races of the first, viz. the typical T. sparverius from the See also:

• CONTINENT (from Lat. continere, "to hold together "; hence " connected," " continuous ")

continent of North See also:

• AMERICA

America except the coast of the Gulf of See also:

• MEXICO
• MEXICO (Span. Mejico, or Mexico,)
• MEXICO, FEDERAL DISTRICT OF
• MEXICO, GULF OF

Mexico; T. australis from the continent of South America except the North See also:

• ATLANTIC

Atlantic and Caribbean coasts; T. isabellinus, inhabiting See also:

• CONTINENTAL

continental America from See also:

• FLORIDA

Florida to Fr .

See also:

• GUIANA (Guyana, Guayana')

Guiana; T. dominicensis from the Lesser See also:

• ANTILLES

Antilles as far northwards as St See also:

• THOMAS
• THOMAS (c. 1654-1720)
• THOMAS (d. 110o)
• THOMAS, ARTHUR GORING (1850-1892)
• THOMAS, CHARLES LOUIS AMBROISE (1811-1896)
• THOMAS, GEORGE (c. 1756-1802)
• THOMAS, GEORGE HENRY (1816-187o)
• THOMAS, ISAIAH (1749-1831)
• THOMAS, PIERRE (1634-1698)
• THOMAS, SIDNEY GILCHRIST (1850-1885)
• THOMAS, ST
• THOMAS, THEODORE (1835-1905)
• THOMAS, WILLIAM (d. 1554)

Thomas; and lastly T. cinnamominus from See also:

• CHILE, or CHILI (derived, it is said, from the Quichua chin , cold, or tchili, snow)

Chile and western See also:

• BRAZIL
• BRAZIL, or BRASIL

Brazil . T. leucophrys is said to be from See also:

• HAITI [HAITI, HAYTI, SAN DOMINGO, Or HISPANIOLA]

Haiti and See also:

• CUBA (the aboriginal name)

Cuba; and T. sparverioides peculiar to Cuba only . This last has been generally allowed to be a See also:

• GOOD, JOHN MASON (1764-1827)

good species, though Dr Gundlach, the best authority on the birds of that See also:

• ISLAND (O.E. ieg =isle, +land')

island, in his Contribution a la Ornitologia Cubana (1876), will not allow its validity . More recently it was found (Ibis, 1881, pp . 547–564) that T. australis and T. cinnamominus cannot be separated, that Ridgway's T. leucophrys should properly be called T. dominicensis, and his T. dominicensis T. antillarum; while Ridgway has recorded the supposed occurrence of T. sparverioides in Florida . Of other kestrels T. moluccensis is widely spread throughout the islands of the See also:

• MALAY

Malay See also:

• ARCHIPELAGO

Archipelago, while T. cenchroides seems to inhabit the whole of See also:

• AUSTRALIA

Australia, and has occurred in See also:

• TASMANIA

Tasmania (Prot . See also:

• ROY, WILLIAM (1726-1790)

Roy . See also:

• SOC

Soc . Tasmania, 1895, pp . 7, 8) . No kestrel is found in New See also:

• ZEALAND (also SEALAND Or SEELAND; Danish Sjaelland)

Zealand, but an approach to the form is made by the very peculiar Hieracidea(or Harpe)novae-zelandiae(of which a second See also:

• RACE

race or species has been described, H. brunnea or H. ferox), the " sparrow-hawk," " See also:

• QUAIL (0. Fr. Quaille, Mod. Fr. Caille, Ital. Quaglia, Low Lat. Quaquila, Du. Kwakkel and Kwartel, Ger. Wachtel, Dan. Vagtel)

quail-hawk " and " See also:

• BUSH

bush-hawk " of the colonists—a bird of much higher courage than any kestrel, and perhaps exhibiting the more generalized and ancestral type from which both kestrels and falcons may have descended . (A .