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KINGDOM
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KINGDOM . 'Iogpl' .,. n Ga ''---•- Tole ~~ '~ .~+,q1 Y Cordo s 4 II See also:Seville ~, 9 ti tit • d Boundary of the See also:Roman See also:Empire at the See also:death of See also:Theodoric b?B .: : ~..r~ Boundary of the Roman Empire at the death of Justinian 565 : .... Prankish Kingdom circa 500 .. . : Frankish Kingdom after 548 f Conquered from the See also:West Goths 507-511 West See also:Gothic Kingdom after 550 : IIIIIIIIIIII See also:East Gothic Kingdom at the death of Theodoric ~IIIlillllll Roar Kingdom after SBB ~ Lombard Kingdom after 5B8._ .. ••--•-- -- o too • See also:Scale, t:38,000,00e . Soo See also:Miles - nmrtylf/ between emperors of the East and West . It was the beginning not only of the break-up of the empire, but of that increasing divergence between the eastern and western types of See also:European See also:religion and culture which has continued to this See also:day . The pressure of the See also:Teutonic invasions became increasingly strong during the reigns of the See also:emperor See also:Valens and his successors . These invasions were of two types, (I) migrations of whole peoples with their old See also:German patriarchal organization See also:complete, (2) bands, larger or smaller, of emigrants in See also:search of See also:land to See also:settle on, without tribal cohesion, but organized under the leadership of military chiefs . The earlier invaders, Goths and See also:Vandals, and later the Burgundians and See also:Lombards were of the first type; to the second belonged the See also:Franks, " See also:free " men from the Saxon See also:plain, and the Saxon invaders of See also:Britain . The distinction was a vital one; for the Goths, Vandals, Burgundians and Lombards never took See also:root in the See also:soil, and succumbed in turn, while the Frankish and Saxon immigrants, each See also:man See also:lord in his own See also:estate, not only maintained themselves, but set up at the cost of the Roman organization and of the See also:power of their own See also:kings a wholly new polity, based on the See also:independence of the territorial unit, which later on was to develop into See also:feudalism . It was owing to the pressure of Turanian invaders from the East that the Teutonic peoples were first forced to take See also:refuge within the empire .
In 378 the Goths defeated and slew the emperor Valens in a See also:battle near See also:Adrianople; in 410 See also:Alaric, See also:
Though in Asia the emperor See also:Heraclius, in a See also:series of victorious See also:campaigns, See also:broke the See also:Persian power and succeeded even in extending the Roman dominion, Italy, See also:save for a while Ravenna itself and a few scattered See also:sea-See also:coast towns, was thence-forth lost to the empire of which in theory it still formed a See also:part,
This See also:catastrophe produced one result the importance of which it is impossible to exaggerate; the development of the See also:political power of the papacy
.
At the beginning of the 6th See also:century Rome, under Theodoric the Goth, was still the See also:city of the Caesars, the tradition of its See also:ancient See also:life was yet unbroken; at the end of the century Rome, under See also:Pope See also:Gregory the Great (590-604), had become the city of the popes
.
And with the city the popes entered into some of the See also:inheritance of the Caesars; in the See also:world-wide activity of Gregory we already have a foreshadowing of universal claims, often effectively asserted, which made the great See also:medieval popes, in a truer sense than the medieval emperors, the representatives of the See also:idea of Roman imperial unity (see Rona, sec. ii
.
See also:Middle Ages; PAPACY)
.
The Teutonic invasions
.
The next event that profoundly affected the history_of See also:Europe was the rise of Mahommedanism
.
.%A.d biz t;'s s'tktki>t Yeart{
r- -7
The He after Gregory's dead s oeeurred the # ht` %;r'of glra, A. a See also:Mahomet from A1ecca to See also:Medusa, which fixed the
W
.
Rise memorable era of 'the ` Hegira
.
The.full floret of the
°fmaoi n- militant-religion founded-by the Arab See also:prophet was not
See also:felt till after his death 03+4
.
The emperor Heraclius,
the vigour of his manhood passed,ivas"unable to meet this new
peril; the See also:Arabs, strong in their h dy simplicity and new-See also:born {
religious fanaticism, and aided bythe-.See also:treason and cowardice of
the decadent Roman governing classes, overran Asia See also:Minor,
eon4tfered See also:Egypt and the Ss Tole of See also:northern Africa, overwhaii d
the Gothis,.kingdgm'in Spain, and even penetrated beyond the
Pyre>}iees to the See also:conquest of the See also:province of Narboskise
.
Oe of the See also:Chief effects of these Arab conquests was that
~hr~atiar
i:ivilfzation "became gradually See also:con ded to Europe,, the twas
that, they See also:trade routes 4o the East, were cled tat t,We 'West nations, The conquest of See also:Narbonne marked the ff tf" o€.;the advance of See also:Islam in western to p'lile, fei 1 73 the rahre'Were Overthrown by See also: The. battle of Tours emphasized and increased• the power and reputation of Charles Martel; As a See also:mayor of the palce to the rli® See also:Caen-_decadent Merovingian successors &faClaxis, he was Iingians. virtually ruler of the Franks, and, after his death, the last of the rois faineants of the See also:house of Merovech was deposed, and See also:Pippin, Charles's son, was elected king of the Franks . The See also:prestige of the Carolingian house,(to give it the name it was later known by). was increased when, at the urgent entreaty of Pope See also:Stephen 'III., Pippin marched into Italy and saved Rome from the Lombards, who were endeavouring to extend their power southwards . Pippin's son Charles (See also:Charlemagne) finally conquered the Lombards in 774 and thus added part of northern Italy to his dominions . In 707 an even of the highest importance to the European world took place . The emperor See also:Constantine VI. was deposed The coro6- by his See also:mother See also:Irene, who seized the See also:throne . Thereupon anon of Pope See also:Leo and the Roman See also:people definitely threw Charles the off the authority of the emperors of See also:Constantinople, Great as on the ground that a woman could not hold the position emperor, son.' of See also:Caesar . In 8mo Leo' crowned Charlemagne emperor at Rome, and henceforth 6111 453, when Constantinople was conquered by the See also:Turks, there was an Eastern and a Western Charlemagne's Empire at its greatest extent . empire.. r Till his death in 814 Charlemagne was king of the ritnks+as a5 erttperor . His kingdom embraced not only all Germany •and nadern See also:France, but -included -a large part of Italy and Spain. as f•ar-as;the• See also:Ebro . Under his rule western, Europe was See also:united in a powerful empire, in the organization of which the principles of Roman and Teutonic See also:administration were blended`; and after his death, he See also:left.. to his successors,, the Frankish and German kings, the tradition of a centralized See also:government which survived the See also:chaos of the See also:period that followed,` and the prescriptive right to the See also:title and prestige of Roman emperors—a.;tradition and a :claim that were to exercise a ndt*ble effect.., on the development of European See also:history for centuries try come . (See FRANCE: .H2rtory and CHARLEMAGNE) ? The period from the death of Charlemagne (814) to the 12thCentury is cha acterized in western Europe by the general we.kenitrgiof tiles idea of central government and by eprope the ri~~se~sOf feudalism: .
During the `same period the after the F.as't Kor r r Byzantine empire escaped disruption death of
atd, presdlC ins the traditions of Roman See also:civil `and Charlemagne. militB,''r administration, formed an effective barrier
fef Europe and Christendom against the advancing See also:tide of Islam.r At the See also:saint time, however, the growing divergence between See also:ute; a'See also:fern atid Western Churches, which had been accentuated`' ;l$y ,the iconoclastic controversy (see See also:ICONOCLASTS), and was! destined in 1053 to culminate in a definite See also:schism, was gradually, wideging the See also:breach between the two .types .of European civilization, which came into violent conflict at the beginning of. the' 1',3 th:century, when crusaders from western Europe captured Constantinople and set up a Latin empire in the East (see ROMAN
...
EMPIRE,.-:LATER, Cnuacn HISTORY;
.
See also:CRUSADES)
.
In western Europe, meanwhile, the unity of the empire did not See also:long survive Charlemagne
.
Its definite break-up See also:dates from the treaty of See also:Verdun (843), by which Charles the Bald received See also:Neustria, See also:Aquitaine and western See also:Burgundy, See also:
:EUROPE
struggles had led to the growth of independent or semi»indepiend
ent See also:powers within the states themselves
.
The See also:Frank landownefs
had successfully asserted their independence of the See also:jurisdiction
of the king (or emperor) and his officials; the imperial See also:official's
themselves, See also:dukes or See also:counts, had received grants of lands with
similar immunities (beneficia), and these had become hereditary
.
Thus sprang up a class of great territorial nobles to whom, amid
the growing anarchy, men looked for See also:protection rather than ,to
the weak and remote central power; and so, out of the chaos
that followed the break-up of the empire of Charlemagne, teas
born the feudal system of the middle ages (see FEUDALISM)
.
This organization was admirable for See also:defence; and with its aid,
before the See also:close of the first See also:decade of the loth century% the
frontiers of France and Germany had been made safe against
the northern barbarians, who had either been driven off and
barriers erected against their teturn—e.g. the marks established
by See also: Its association with the undefined claims involved in the title of Roman emperor; traditionally attached to it, and notably those to authority in Italy, necessitated con-cession after concession to the feudal nobles, in See also:order to See also:purchase their support for their assertion . The kingship, moreover, became elective; the imperial title was obtainable only at Rome at the hands of the pope; and the Gelman kings thus became entangled in contests, not only with their own vassals, but with the tremendous spiritual force of the medieval papacy by which, for its own ends, the spirit of feudal insubordination Was from time to time fomented . Thus in Germany the feudal nobles gradually acquired a See also:sovereign status which; in some cases, has survived the territorial rearrangements of the r9th cerftury and left its See also:mark on the federal 'constitution of See also:modern Germany; while the kingship and the imperial title grew more arid more shadowy till in 1806 it vanished altogether . (See ENGLISH HISTORY; FRANCE: History; GERMANY: History.) In France the process by which a strong hereditary monarchy was established was a slow one . During the' greater 'part of the loth century the See also:Carolingians, stripped' of the vast These of domains which had been the basis of the power of the house et See also:caper . Pippin, owed their continued existence to the for- bearance of See also:Hugh the Great, cbunt of See also:Paris . In 987, however, the last Carolingian king died, and thighCapet, son of Hugh the Great,1'he most ,powerful of the territorial magnates, was choseniki'ng ;af, France„', With his See also:election sages, thq, eaa beginning of the, French monarchy, and under him and his successors Paris became,;the-capital of >France . Ifugh's ,ele'c'See also:tic~n, however, was the ' See also:work,of the great feudatories, and ii ce remained divided among a number of great fiefs, of which the chief were See also:Brittany, See also:Anjou, See also:Flanders, See also:Vermandois, See also:Champagne, Burgundy, Aquitaine, ,Poitous See also:Gascony, See also:Toulouse and Normany . While the central power in France advanced slowly but steadily', the development of the royal authority in . Germany was in:. the loth, and : 1 rth centuries more rapid . In or' 'the . German magnates had elected See also:Conrad the, The royal Franconian to reign over them, and in 910 Henry Cfermsay. permany t` the Fowler" of Saxony, '' whose reign forms one of the great turning-points in' the history of the German nation." He defeated the' Hungarians, the Slays and the Danes, and by encouraging the growth and development of towns he, contributed greatly to the formation of the German kingdom .
His immediate successors; -See also:Otto the `'Great and Otto II., continued his work; which was only. interrupted for, a See also:short time during the reign of the idealist 'Otto III., ' whose " See also:cosmopolitan imperialism " brought: him into' collision with the German See also: The emperor Alexius Coninenus found himself on his accession in : The 1081 threatened by the Seljuks (the victors in the de- eastern ' cisivebattle of Manzikertin 1071) and by the Sicilian Empire Normans who in io8i besieged Durazzo . In 1083 he crasades. defeated the Normans in the battle of Durazzo, and with the' death of See also:Robert Guiscard in Io85 all danger from a fresh See also:Norman invasion passed away . But the first ,crusade broutlit new an'fieties to Alexius, for he feared that the crusaders might attack Constantinople . That fear removed, he took'advaritage of the increased connexion between eastern and western Europe by bestowing commercial privileges upon the See also:Italian trading republics; who "thus gained See also:access to the ports of the Empire on easy terms . With the era of the Crusaded, which Iasted till the middle of the 13th 'century, Europe entered upon a period of See also:change; the importance' of which is realised by contrasting the See also:condition of western Christendom' in the r nth with its `condition in the f3th century . Betweentbe opening and close of the crusading movement Europe underwent a complete revolution . Wb^le the Crusades tended to enhance the prestige and authority of the papacy and the power of European monarchs, they also led to ' increased knowledge of the East, to the rapid de-The veldppment of See also:commerce, to the introduction of new sades and the Hilde- See also:industries, to the rapid decline of the influence of the See also:brand,ne feudal See also:nobility, and to the rapid development of See also:town retorma- life (see See also:COMMUNE) . At the same time the Hilde- t,on . brandine See also:reformation was having an immense influence upon the intellectual condition of Europe . The 12th century saw the See also:establishment of many new monastic orders (see See also:MoNASTICIsM), and at the same time a remarkable speculative and See also:literary revival (see See also:SCHOLASTICISM) . This movement owed not a little of its success to the influence of the Crusades, which stirred up intellectual as well as commercial activity . This intellectual activity, as well as the fruits of commercial expansion, were—since learning was still a See also:monopoly of the clerical order—weapons in the hands of the papacy, which in the 12th century attained the height of its power, if not of its pretensions . It is, indeed, impossible to exaggerate the influence of the Roman Church upon the development of Europe at this period . The popes, in fact, represented Europe in a sense that could not be predicated of the emperors; the terror of their spiritual power, their vast See also:wealth derived from the See also:tribute of all the West, their unique experience of See also:international affairs, and—in 'the case of the great popes of this See also:epoch—the superiority of their minds and characters, made them not only the spiritual rulers of Europe, but the effective centres of whatever political unity it possessed . As a Byzantine observer was to observe of See also:Innocent III., they had become the successors of the Caesars rather than of See also:Peter (see PAPACY) . Nowhere were the beneficial effects of the Crusades seen more clearly than in France . The smaller fiefs were steadily absorbed Growth of by the greater lordships, which in their turn See also:fell the royal victims to the royal power . It might almost be said power in that " modern France is a creation of the Crusades." France . The effects of the crusading movement were felt in France as early as the reign of Louis VI . (1108–1137) . Aided by his able See also:minister See also:Suger, Louis managed before his death to add to the possessions of his house the Ile de France and a prospective claim to See also:Poitou and Aquitaine . Under his successor Louis VII . (1137–118o) the consolidation movement was checked owing to the See also:marriage of Eleanor of Aquitaine (after her See also:divorce from Louis VII.) to Henry II. of England . By the addition of his wife's lands (Gascony and See also:Guienne) to those which he had already inherited from his See also:father and mother (Normandy, Anjou, See also:Touraine and See also:Maine) Henry was enabled to form the powerful though short-lived Angevin empire .
But the lost ground was rapidly recovered by Philip Augustus (1180-1223), who took See also:advantage of the weakness and folly of See also: The Crusades thus not only postponed the conquest of Constantinople by the Turks for some two See also:hundred years, but led, as had already been said, to a vast expansion of commerce, as seen in the rapid growth and development of the Italian cities, and to a striking development of town life . The Crusades had enormously strengthened the power and prestige of the papacy, and indirectly contributed to its victory over the Empire in the person of Frederick II . From the reign of the emperor Henry IV. to the death of t„gg.1e Frederick II. in 1250 the str |