KNIGHTHOOD  and See also:

• CHIVALRY (O. Fr. chevalerie, from Late Lat. caballerius)

CHIVALRY . These two words, which are nearly but not quite synonymous, designate a single subject of inquiry, which presents itself under three different although connected and in a measure intermingled aspects . It may be regarded in the first See also:

• PLACE (through Fr. from Lat. platea, street; Gr. IrAar6s, wide)

place as a mode or variety of feudal See also:

• TENURE (Fr. tenure, from Lat. tenere, to hold)

tenure, in the second place as a See also:

• PERSONAL

personal attribute or dignity, and in the third place as a See also:

• SCHEME (Lat. schema, Gr. oxfjya, figure, form, from the root axe, seen in exeiv, to have, hold, to be of such shape, form, &c.)

scheme of See also:

• MANNERS, CHARLES (1857– )

manners or social arrangements . The first of these aspects is discussed under the headings See also:

• FEU

FEu-DALISM and See also:

• KNIGHT, CHARLES (1791-1873)
• KNIGHT, DANIEL RIDGWAY (1845– )
• KNIGHT, JOHN BUXTON (1843–1908)

KNIGHT SERVICE: we are concerned here only with the second and third . For the more important religious as distinguished from the military orders of knighthood or chivalry the reader is referred to the headings ST See also:

• JOHN
• JOHN (1167–1216)
• JOHN (1290-c. 1320)
• JOHN (1296-1346)
• JOHN (1371–1419)
• JOHN (1468-1532)
• JOHN (1801-1873)
• JOHN (Heb. llni')
• JOHN (ZAPOLYA) (1487-1540)
• JOHN, 4TH MARQUESS OF TWEEDDALE (c. 1695-1762)
• JOHN, DON (1545-1578)
• JOHN, DON (1629–1679)
• JOHN, GOSPEL OF ST
• JOHN, or HAYS (1513–1571)
• JOHN, THE APOSTLE
• JOHN, THE EPISTLES OF

JOHN OF See also:

• JERUSALEM (Heb. ^S0-r, Yerushalaim, pronounced as a dual)
• JERUSALEM, SYNOD OF (1672)

JERUSALEM, KNIGHTS OF; See also:

• TEUTONIC
• TEUTONIC (GERMANIC) LANGUAGES

TEUTONIC KNIGHTS; and See also:

• TEMPLARS

TEMPLARS . " The growth of knighthood " (writes See also:

• STUBBS [STUBBES], PHILIP (c. 1555-c. 161o)
• STUBBS [STUnnE], JOHN
• STUBBS, WILLIAM (1825-1901)

Stubbs) " is a subject on which the greatest obscurity prevails ": and, though J . H . See also:

• ROUND (O. Fr. rond, Lat. rotundus, the Fr. is the source also of Du. rond; Ger., Swed., Dan. and Nor. rond)

Round has done much to explain the introduction of the See also:

• SYSTEM

system into See also:

• ENGLAND
• ENGLAND, THE CHURCH OF

England,' its actual origin on the See also:

• CONTINENT (from Lat. continere, "to hold together "; hence " connected," " continuous ")

continent of See also:

• EUROPE

Europe is still obscure in many of its most important details . The words knight and knighthood are merely the See also:

• MODERN

modern forms of the Anglo-Saxon or Old See also:

• ENGLISH

English cniht and cnihthdd . Of these 1 Feudal England, pp . 225 sqq . KNIGHTHOOD 851 the See also:

• PRIMARY

primary signification of the first was a boy or youth, and of the second that See also:

• PERIOD
• PERIOD (Gr. irepioSos, a going or way round, circuit, aepi, round, and &Sis, way, road)

period of See also:

• LIFE

life which intervenes between See also:

• CHILD
• CHILD, FRANCIS JAMES (1825-1896)
• CHILD, L
• CHILD, LYDIA MARIA (1802-1880)
• CHILD, SIR FRANCIS (1642-1713)
• CHILD, SIR JOHN (d. 1690)
• CHILD, SIR JOSIAH (163o - 1699)

child-See also:

• HOOD,
• HOOD, JOHN BELL (1831–1879)
• HOOD, SAMUEL HOOD, VISCOUNT (1724–1816)
• HOOD, SIR SAMUEL (1762-1814)
• HOOD, THOMAS (1799-1845)
• HOOD, TOM (1835–1874)

hood and manhood .

But some See also:

• TIME (0. Eng. Lima, cf. Icel. timi, Swed. timme, hour, Dan. time; from the root also seen in " tide," properly the time of between the flow and ebb of the sea, cf. O. Eng. getidan, to happen, " even-tide," &c.; it is not directly related to Lat. tempus)
• TIME, MEASUREMENT OF
• TIME, STANDARD

time before the See also:

• MIDDLE

middle of the 12th See also:

• CENTURY (from Lat. centuria, a division of a hundred men)

century they had acquired the meaning they still retain of the See also:

• FRENCH
• FRENCH, DANIEL CHESTER (1850– )
• FRENCH, NICHOLAS (1604-1678)

French See also:

• CHEVALIER, ALBERT (1861– )
• CHEVALIER, MICHEL (1806-1879)
• CHEVALIER, ULYSSE (1841– )

chevalier and chevalerie . In a secondary sense cniht meant a servant or attendant answering to the See also:

• GERMAN
• GERMAN, DUTCH AND SCANDINAVIAN

German Knecht, and in the Anglo-Saxon Gospels a See also:

• DISCIPLE

disciple is described as a leorning cniht . In a See also:

• TERTIARY

tertiary sense the word appears to have been occasionally employed as See also:

• EQUIVALENT

equivalent to the Latin See also:

• MILES, NELSON APPLETON (1839— )

miles—usually translated by See also:

• THEGN, or THANE

thegn—which in the earlier middle ages was used as the designation of the domestic as well as of the See also:

• MARTIAL (MARCUS VALERIUS MARTIALIS)

martial See also:

• OFFICERS

officers or retainers of sovereigns and princes or See also:

• GREAT

great See also:

• PERSON, OFFENCES AGAINST THE

person-ages.' See also:

• SHARON

Sharon See also:

• TURNER, CHARLES (1773–1857)
• TURNER, JOSEPH MALLORD WILLIAM (1775–1851)
• TURNER, NAT (1800-1831)
• TURNER, SHARON (1768-1847)
• TURNER, SIR JAMES (1615–1686)
• TURNER, WILLIAM (d. 1568)

Turner suggests that cniht from meaning an attendant simply may have come to mean more especially a military attendant, and that in this sense it may have gradually superseded the word thegn.' But the word thegn itself, that is, when it was used as the description of an attendant of the See also:

• KING
• KING (O. Eng. cyning, abbreviated into cyng, cing; cf. O. H. G. chun- kuning, chun- kunig, M.H.G. kiinic, kiinec, kiinc, Mod. Ger. Konig, O. Norse konungr, kongr, Swed. konung, kung)
• KING [OF OCKHAM], PETER KING, 1ST BARON (1669-1734)
• KING, CHARLES WILLIAM (1818-1888)
• KING, CLARENCE (1842–1901)
• KING, EDWARD (1612–1637)
• KING, EDWARD (1829–1910)
• KING, HENRY (1591-1669)
• KING, RUFUS (1755–1827)
• KING, THOMAS (1730–1805)
• KING, WILLIAM (1650-1729)
• KING, WILLIAM (1663–1712)

king, appears to have meant more especially a military attendant . As Stubbs says " the thegn seems to be primarily the See also:

• WARRIOR

warrior gesith "—the gesithas forming the chosen See also:

• BAND

band of companions (comites) of the German chiefs (principes) noticed by See also:

• TACITUS, CORNELIUS (c. 55-120)
• TACITUS, MARCUS CLAUDIUS

Tacitus—" he is probably the gesith who had a particular military See also:

• DUTY (from " due," that which is owing, O. Fr. deu, dil, past participle of devoir; Lat. debere, debitum; cf. " debt ")

duty in his See also:

• MASTER (Lat. magister, related to tnagis, more, as the corresponding minister is to minus, less; the English form is due partly to the O. Eng. maegister, and partly to O. Fr. maistre, mod. maitre; cf. Du. meester, Ger. Meister, Ital. maestro)

master's service "; and he adds that from the reign of See also:

• ATHELSTAN (c. 894-940)

Athelstan " the gesith is lost sight of except very occasionally, the more important class having become thegns, and the lesser sort sinking into the See also:

• RANK (O.Fr. rant or rent, mod. rang, generally connected with the O.E. and O.H.G. bring, a ring)

rank of See also:

• MERE
• MERE, ADALBERT (1838-1909)

mere servants of the king."' It is See also:

• PRETTY

pretty clear, therefore, that the word cniht could never have superseded the word thegn in the sense of a military attendant, at all events of the king . But besides the king, the ealdormen, bishops and king's thegns themselves had their thegns, and to these it is more than probable that the name of cniht was applied . Around the Anglo-Saxon magnates were collected a See also:

• CROWD, CROUTH, CROWTH

crowd of retainers and dependants of all ranks and conditions; and there is See also:

• EVIDENCE (Lat. evidentia, evideri, to appear clearly)

evidence enough to show that among them were some called cnihtas who were not always the humblest or least considerable of their number.' The testimony of Domesday also establishes the existence in the reign of See also:

• EDWARD

Edward the See also:

• CONFESSOR

Confessor of what Stubbs describes as a " large class " of landholders who had commended themselves to some See also:

• LORD
• LORD (O. Eng. hldford, i.e. hldfweard, the warder or keeper of bread, hlIf, loaf; the word is not represented in any other Teutonic language)
• LORD, JOHN (1810-1894)

lord, and he regards it as doubtful whether their tenure had not already assumed a really feudal See also:

• CHARACTER (Gr. xapareri7p, from xap&crew, to scratch)

character . But in any event it is See also:

• MANIFEST (Lat. manifestus, clear, open to view)

manifest that their See also:

• CONDITION (Lat. condicio, from condicere, to agree upon, arrange; not connected with conditio, from condere, conditum, to put together)

condition was in many respects similar to that of a vast number of unquestionably feudal and military tenants who made their See also:

• APPEARANCE (from Lat. apparere, to appear)

appearance after the See also:

• NORMAN
• NORMAN, SIR HENRY WYLIE (1826-1904)

Norman See also:

• CONQUEST

Conquest . If consequently the former were called cnihtas under the Anglo-Saxon regime, it seems sufficiently probable that the appellation should have been continued to the latter—practically their successors—under the Anglo-Norman regime . And if the designation of knights was first applied to the military tenants of the earls, bishops and barons—who although they held their lands of See also:

• MESNE (an Anglo-French legal form of the O. Fr. meien, mod. moyen, mean, Med. Lat. medianus, in the middle, cf. " mean ")

mesne lords owed their services to the king—the See also:

• EXTENSION (Lat. ex, out ; tendere, to stretch)

extension of that designation to the whole See also:

• BODY

body of military tenants need not have been a very violent or prolonged See also:

• PROCESS

process . Assuming, however, that knight was originally used to describe the military See also:

• TENANT (from Lat. tenere, to hold)

tenant of a See also:

• NOBLE, SIR ANDREW (1832- )

noble person, as cniht had sometimes been used to describe the thegn of a noble person, it would, to begin with, have defined rather his social status than the nature of his services . But those whom the English called knights 'the See also:

• NORMANS

Normans called chevaliers, by which See also:

• TERM

term the nature of their services was defined, while their social status was See also:

• LEFT

left out of See also:

• CONSIDERATION (from Lat. considerare, to look at closely, examine, generally taken to be from con-, and the base seen in sidus, sideris, a star, the word being supposed to be originally an astrological or astronomical term)

consideration . And at first chevalier in its See also:

• GENERAL
• GENERAL (Lat. generalis, of or relating to a genus, kind or class)

general and honorary signification seems to have been rendered not by knight but by rider, as may be inferred from the Anglo-Saxon See also:

• CHRONICLE (from Gr. Xpovos, time)

Chronicle, wherein it is recorded under the See also:

• YEAR

year 1o85 that See also:

• WILLIAM
• WILLIAM (1143-1214)
• WILLIAM (1227-1256)
• WILLIAM (1J33-1584)
• WILLIAM (A.S. Wilhelm, O. Norse Vilhidlmr; O. H. Ger. Willahelm, Willahalm, M. H. Ger. Willehelm, Willehalm, Mod.Ger. Wilhelm; Du. Willem; O. Fr. Villalme, Mod. Fr. Guillaume; from " will," Goth. vilja, and " helm," Goth. hilms, Old Norse hidlmr, meaning
• WILLIAM (c. 1130-C. 1190)
• WILLIAM, 13TH

William the Conqueror "dubbade his sunu Henric to ridere."' But, as E .

A . See also:

• FREEMAN
• FREEMAN, EDWARD AUGUSTUS (1823-1892)

Freeman says, " no such See also:

• TITLE (0. Fr. title, mod. titre, from Lat. titulus)

title is heard of in the earlier days of England . The thegn, the ealdorman, the king himself, fought on See also:

• FOOT

foot; the See also:

• HORSE (a word common to Teutonic languages in such forms as hors, hros, ros; cf. the Ger. ross)

horse might See also:

• BEAR
• BEAR, BLACK
• BEAR, BROWN
• BEAR, GRIZZLY
• BEAR, ISABELLINE
• BEAR, WHITE

bear him to the See also:

• FIELD (a word common to many West German languages, cf. Ger. Feld, Dutch veld, possibly cognate with O.E. f olde, the earth, and ultimately with root of the Gr. irAaror, broad)
• FIELD, CYRUS WEST (1819-1892)
• FIELD, DAVID DUDLEY (18o5-1894)
• FIELD, EUGENE (1850-1895)
• FIELD, FREDERICK (18o1—1885)
• FIELD, HENRY MARTYN (1822-1907)
• FIELD, JOHN (1782—1837)
• FIELD, MARSHALL (183 1906)
• FIELD, NATHAN (1587—1633)
• FIELD, STEPHEN JOHNSON (1816-1899)
• FIELD, WILLIAM VENTRIS FIELD, BARON (1813-1907)

field, but when the fighting ' Du Cange, See also:

• GLOSS, GLOSSARY

Gloss., s.v . " Miles." a See also:

• HISTORY

History of England, iii . 12 . ' Stubbs, Constitutional History, i . 156 . ' Ibid. i . 156, 366; Turner, iii . 125-129 . 6 See also:

• INGRAM, JAMES (1774-1850)
• INGRAM, JOHN KELLS (1823-1907)

Ingram's edition, p . 29o .

itself came he stood on his native See also:

• EARTH
• EARTH (a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Erde, Dutch aarde, Swed. and Dan. jord; outside Teutonic it appears only in the Gr. 'pq'e, on the ground; it has been connected by some etymologists with the Aryan root ar-, to plough, which is seen in
• EARTH, FIGURE OF
• EARTH, FIGURE OF THE

earth to receive the onslaught of her enemies." 1 In this perhaps we may behold one of the most See also:

• ANCIENT
• ANCIENT (also spelt ANTIENT; derived, through the Fr. ancien, old, from the late Lat. antianum, from ante, before)

ancient of See also:

• BRITISH

British insular prejudices, for on the Continent the importance of See also:

• CAVALRY (Fr. cavalerie, Ger. Kavallerie or Reiterei, derived ultimately from late Lat. caballus, horse)

cavalry in warfare was already abundantly understood . It was by means of their horsemen that the Austrasian See also:

• FRANKS
• FRANKS, SIR AUGUSTUS WOLLASTON (1826-1897)

Franks established their superiority over their neighbours, and in time created the Western See also:

• EMPIRE

Empire anew, while from the word caballarius, which occurs in the Capitularies in the reign of See also:

• CHARLEMAGNE [CHARLES THE GREAT] (c. 742-814)
• CHARLEMAGNE, JEAN ARMAND (1753–1838)

Charlemagne, came the words for knight in all the See also:

• ROMANCE

Romance See also:

• LANGUAGES

languages.' In See also:

• GERMANY
• GERMANY (Ger. Deutschland)

Germany the chevalier was called See also:

• RITTER, HEINRICH (1791-1869)
• RITTER, KARL (1779–1859)

Ritter, but neither rider nor chevalier prevailed against knight in England . And it was See also:

• LONG, GEORGE (1800-1879)
• LONG, JOHN DAVIS (1838– )

long after knighthood had acquired its See also:

• PRESENT

present meaning with us that chivalry was incorporated into our See also:

• LANGUAGE (adapted from the Fr. langage, from langue, tongue, Lat. lingua)

language . It may be remarked too in passing that in See also:

• OFFICIAL (Late Lat. QJicialis, for class. Lat. apparitor, from officium, office, duty)

official Latin, not only in England but all over Europe, the word miles held its own against both eques and caballarius . Concerning the origin of knighthood or chivalry as it existed in the middle ages—implying as it did a formal See also:

• ASSUMPTION, FEAST OF

assumption of Origin of and See also:

• INITIATION (Lat. inilium, beginning, entrance, from mire, to go in)

initiation into the profession of arms—nothing See also:

• MEDIEVAL

Medieval beyond more or less probable conjecture is possible . Kaighthood.The medieval knights had nothing to do in the way of derivation with the " See also:

• EQUITES (" horsemen " or " knights," from eques," horse ")

equites " of See also:

• ROME
• ROME (Roma)

Rome, the knights of King See also:

• ARTHUR (Fr. Arius)
• ARTHUR, CHESTER ALAN (1830 – 1886)

Arthur's Round Table, or the Paladins of Charlemagne . But there are grounds for believing that some of the rudiments of chivalry are to be detected in See also:

• EARLY
• EARLY, JUBAL ANDERSON (1816-1894)

early Teutonic customs, and that they may have made some advance among the Franks of See also:

• GAUL
• GAUL, GILBERT WILLIAM (1855— )

Gaul . We know from Tacitus that the German tribes in his See also:

• DAY (O. Eng. dreg, Ger. Tag; according to the New English Dictionary, " in no way related to the Lat. dies")
• DAY, JOHN (1574-1640?)
• DAY, THOMAS (1748-1789)

day were wont to celebrate the See also:

• ADMISSION

admission of their See also:

• YOUNG
• YOUNG, A
• YOUNG, ARTHUR (1741-1820)
• YOUNG, BRIGHAM (1801-1877)
• YOUNG, CHARLES MAYNE (1777–1856)
• YOUNG, EDWARD (1683–1765)
• YOUNG, JAMES (1811-1883)
• YOUNG, THOMAS (1773-1829)

young men into the ranks of their warriors with much circumstance and ceremony . The See also:

• PEOPLE

people of the See also:

• DISTRICT

district to which the See also:

• CANDIDATE

candidate belonged were called together; his qualifications for the privileges about to be conferred upon him were inquired into; and, if he were deemed fitted and worthy to receive them, his See also:

• CHIEF (from Fr. chef, head, Lat. caput)

chief, his See also:

• FATHER

father, or one of his near kinsmen presented him with a See also:

• SHIELD (0. Eng. scild, cf. Du. and Ger. Schild, Dan. Skjold; the origin is doubtful, but may be referred to the root seen in " shell " or " scale "; another suggestion connects it with Icel. skjalla, to clash, rattle; it is not connected with the Indo-Ger
• SHIELD, WILLIAM (1748—1829)

shield and a See also:

• LANCE

lance . Again, among the Franks we find Charlemagne girding his son See also:

• LOUIS
• LOUIS (804–876)
• LOUIS (893–911)
• LOUIS, JOSEPH DOMINIQUE, BARON (1755-1837)
• LOUIS, or LEWIS (from the Frankish Chlodowich, Chlodwig, Latinized as Chlodowius, Lodhuwicus, Lodhuvicus, whence-in the Strassburg oath of 842-0. Fr. Lodhuwigs, then Chlovis, Loys and later Louis, whence Span. Luiz and—through the Angevin kings—Hungarian

Louis the Pious, and Louis the Pious girding his son See also:

• CHARLES
• CHARLES (1270-1325)
• CHARLES (1421-1461)
• CHARLES (1525-1574)
• CHARLES (c. 1319-1364)
• CHARLES (Fr. Charles; Span. Carlos; Ital. Carlo; Ger. Karl; derived from O.H.G. Charal,latinized as Carolus, meaning originally " man ": cf. Mod.Ger., Kerl," fellow," A.S. ceorl, Mod. Eng. " churl ")
• CHARLES (KARL EITEL ZEPHYRIN LUDWIG; in Rum. CAROL)
• CHARLES [KARL ALEXANDER] (1712-1780)
• CHARLES, ELIZABETH (1828-1896)
• CHARLES, JACQUES ALEXANDRE CESAR (1746-1823)
• CHARLES, THOMAS (1755-1814)

Charles the Bald with the See also:

• SWORD (0. Eng. sweord; ultimately from an Indo-European root meaning to wound)

sword, when they arrived at manhood.' It seems certain here that some ceremony was observed which was deemed worthy of See also:

• RECORD (Lat. recordari, to recall to mind, from cor, heart or mind)

record not for its novelty, but as a thing of recognized importance . It does not follow that a similar ceremony extended to personages less exalted than the sons of See also:

• KINGS, FIRST AND SECOND BOOKS OF

kings and emperors . But if it did we must naturally suppose that it applied in the first instance to the mounted warriors who formed the most formidable portion of the warlike See also:

• ARRAY (from the O. Fr. areyer, Med. Lat. arredare, to get ready)

array of the Franks .

It was among the Franks indeed, and possibly through their experiences in See also:

• WAR
• WAR (O. Eng. werre, Fr. guerre, of Teutonic origin; cf. O.H.G. werran, to confound)

war with the See also:

• SARACENS

Saracens, that cavalry first acquired the pre-eminent place which it long maintained in every See also:

• EUROPEAN

European See also:

• COUNTRY (from the Mid. Eng. contre or contrie, and O. Fr. cuntree; Late Lat. contrata, showing the derivation from contra, opposite, over against, thus the tract of land which fronts the sight, cf. Ger. Gegend, neighbourhood)

country . In early society, where the See also:

• ARMY
• ARMY (from Fr. armee, Lat. armata)

army is not a paid force but the armed nation, the cavalry must necessarily consist of the noble and wealthy, and cavalry and chivalry, as Freeman observes,' will be the same . Since then we discover in the Capitularies of Charlemagne actual mention of " caballarii " as a class of warriors, it may reasonably be concluded that formal See also:

• INVESTITURE (Late Lat. investitura)

investiture with arms applied to the "caballarii " if it was a usage extending beyond the See also:

• SOVEREIGN

sovereign and his See also:

• HEIR (Lat. heres, from a root meaning to grasp, seen in heres or erus, master of a house, Gr. xeip, hand, Sans. hat ana, hand)

heir-apparent . " But," as See also:

• HALLAM
• HALLAM, ROBERT (d. 1417)

Hallam says, " he who fought on horseback and had been invested with See also:

• PECULIAR

peculiar arms in a See also:

• SOLEMN (Lat. sollemnis, sollemnis, less correctly solennis, yearly, annual; from sollus = totus, whole, entire, Gr. Mos., and annus, year)

solemn manner wanted nothing more to render him a knight; " and so he concludes, in view of the verbal identity of " chevalier " and " caballarius," that " we may refer chivalry in a general sense to the See also:

• AGE (Fr. age, through late Lat. aetaticum, from aetas)

age of Charlemagne." b Yet, if the " caballarii " of the Capitularies are really the pre-cursors of the later knights, it remains a difficulty that the Latin name for a knight is " miles," although " caballarius " became in various forms the See also:

• VERNACULAR (Lat. verna, dim. vernaculus, a slave horn in his master's house)

vernacular designation . Before it was known that the chronicle ascribed to Ingulf of Croyland is really a fiction of the 13th or 14th century, the knighting of Heward or See also:

• HEREWARD

Hereward by See also:

• BRAND, JOHN (1744-1806)
• BRAND, SIR JOHN HENRY (1823-1888)

Brand, See also:

• ABBOT (from the Hebrew ab, a father, through the Syriac abba, Lat. abbas, gen. abbatis, O.E. abbad, fr. late Lat. form abbad-em changed in 13th century under influence of the Lat. form to abbat, used alternatively till the end of the 17th century; Ger. Ab
• ABBOT, EZRA (1819-1884)
• ABBOT, GEORGE (1603-1648)
• ABBOT, ROBERT (1588?–1662?)
• ABBOT, WILLIAM (1798-1843)

abbot of See also:

• BURGH [BOURKE, BURKE]
• BURGH, HUBERT DE (d. 1243)

Burgh 1 See also:

• COMPARATIVE

Comparative Politics, p . 94 . 2 See also:

• BALUZE, ETIENNE (1630-1718)

Baluze, Capitularia Regum Francorum, ii . 794, 1069 . ' Du Cange, Gloss., s.v . Arma." 4 Freeman, Comparative Politics, p . 73 . ' Hallam, Middle Ages, iii .

392.(now See also:

• PETERBOROUGH

Peterborough), was accepted from See also:

• SELDEN, JOHN (1584–1654)

Selden to Hallam as an See also:

• HISTORICAL

historical fact, and knighthood was supposed, not only to have been known among the Anglo-See also:

• SAXONS

Saxons, but to Knighthood have had a distinctively religious character which in England. was contemned by the Norman invaders . The genuine evidence at our command altogether fails to support this view . When William of See also:

• MALMESBURY
• MALMESBURY, JAMES HARRIS, IST EARL OF (1746-1820)
• MALMESBURY, JAMES HOWARD HARRIS, 3RD EARL OF (1807-1889)

Malmesbury describes the knighting of Athelstan by his grandfather See also:

• ALFRED

Alfred the Great, that is, his investiture " with a See also:

• PURPLE

purple garment set with gems and a Saxon sword with a See also:

• GOLDEN

golden sheath," there is no hint of any religious observance . In spite of the silence of our records, Dr Stubbs thinks that kings so well acquainted with See also:

• FOREIGN

foreign usages as See also:

• ETHELRED

Ethelred, Canute and Edward the Confessor could hardly have failed to introduce into England the institution of chivalry then springing up in every country of Europe; and he is sup-ported in this See also:

• OPINION (Lat. opinio, from opinari, to think)

opinion by the circumstance that it is nowhere mentioned as a Norman innovation . Yet the fact that Harold received knighthood from William of See also:

• NORMANDY

Normandy makes it clear either that Harold was not yet a knight, which in the See also:

• CASE
• CASE, JOHN (d. 1600)

case of so tried a warrior would imply that " dubbing to knighthood " was not yet known in England even under Edward the Confessor, or, as Freeman thinks, that in the middle of the nth century the See also:

• CUSTOM (from O. Fr. costume, costume or coustume; Low Lat. costuma, a shortened form of consuetudo)

custom had grown in Normandy into " something of a more See also:

• SPECIAL

special meaning " than it See also:

• BORE

bore in England . Regarded as a method of military organization, the feudal system of tenures was always far better adapted to the purposes of defensive than of offensive warfare . Against invasion it furnished a permanent See also:

• PROVISION (Lat. provisio)

provision both in men-at-arms and strong-holds; nor was it unsuited for the See also:

• CAMPAIGNS

campaigns of neighbouring See also:

• COUNTS

counts and barons which lasted for only a few See also:

• WEEKS, EDWIN LORD (1849-1903)

weeks, and ex-tended over only a few leagues . But when kings and kingdoms were in conflict, and distant and prolonged expeditions became necessary, it was speedily discovered that the unassisted re-See also:

• SOURCES

sources of See also:

• FEUDALISM
• FEUDALISM (from Late Lat. feodum or feudum, a fee or fiel; see FEE)

feudalism were altogether inadequate . It became therefore the manifest See also:

• INTEREST

interest of both parties that personal services should be commuted into pecuniary payments . Then there See also:

• GREW, NEHEMIAH (1641-1712)

grew up all over Europe a system of fining the knights who failed to See also:

• RESPOND

respond to the sovereign's See also:

• CALL (from Anglo-Saxon ceallian, a common Teutonic word, cf. Dutch kallen, to talk or chatter)

call or to stay their full time in the field; and in England this See also:

• FINE

fine See also:

• DEVELOPED

developed, from the reign of See also:

• HENRY
• HENRY (1129-1195)
• HENRY (c. 1108-1139)
• HENRY (c. 1174–1216)
• HENRY (Fr. Henri; Span. Enrique; Ger. Heinrich; Mid. H. Ger. Heinrich and Heimrich; O.H.G. Haimi- or Heimirih, i.e. " prince, or chief of the house," from O.H.G. heim, the Eng. home, and rih, Goth. reiks; compare Lat. rex " king "—" rich," therefore " mig
• HENRY, EDWARD LAMSON (1841– )
• HENRY, JAMES (1798-1876)
• HENRY, JOSEPH (1797-1878)
• HENRY, MATTHEW (1662-1714)
• HENRY, PATRICK (1736–1799)
• HENRY, PRINCE OF BATTENBERG (1858-1896)
• HENRY, ROBERT (1718-1790)
• HENRY, VICTOR (1850– )
• HENRY, WILLIAM (1795-1836)

Henry II. to that of Edward II., into a See also:

• REGULAR

regular war-tax called escuage or soilage (q.v.) . In this way funds for war were placed at the See also:

• FREE

free disposal of sovereigns, and, although the feudatories and their retainers still formed the most considerable portion of their armies, the conditions under which they served were altogether changed . Their military service was now far more the result of special agreement .

In the reign of Edward I., whose warlike enterprises after he was king were confined within the four seas, this alteration does not seem to have proceeded very far, and See also:

• SCOTLAND
• SCOTLAND, CHURCH OF
• SCOTLAND, EPISCOPAL CHURCH OF

Scotland and See also:

• WALES (Cymru, Gwalia, Cambria)

Wales were subjugated by what was in the See also:

• MAIN (from the Aryan root which appears in " may " and " might," and Lat. magnus, great)
• MAIN (Lat. Moenus)

main, if not exclusively, a feudal See also:

• MILITIA (Fr. milice, Ger. Miliz, from Lat. miles, soldier, militia, military service)

militia raised as of old by See also:

• WRIT (O. Eng. gewrit, writ, from writan, to write)

writ to the earls and barons and the sheriffs.' But the armies of Edward III., Henry V. and Henry VI. during the century of intermittent war-fare between England and See also:

• FRANCE
• FRANCE, ANATOLE (1844– )

France were recruited and sustained to a very great extent on the principle of See also:

• CONTRACT
• CONTRACT (Lat. contract us, from contrahere, to draw together, to bind)

contract .? On the Continent the systematic employment of mercenaries was both an early and a See also:

• COMMON

common practice . Besides consideration for the mutual convenience of sovereigns and their feudatories, there were other causes which materially contributed towards bringing about those changes in The the military system of Europe which were finally See also:

• CRUSADES

Crusades . accomplished in the 13th and 14th centuries . During the Crusades vast armies were set on foot in which feudal rights ' Stubbs, Cons' . Hist. ii . 278; also compare See also:

• GROSSE, JULIUS WALDEMAR (1828—1902)

Grosse, Military Antiquities, i . 65, seq . There has been a general tendency to ignore the extent to which the armies of Edward III. were raised by compulsory levies even after the system of raising troops by free contract had begun . Luce (ch. vi.) points out how much England relied at this time on what would now be called See also:

• CONSCRIPTION (from Lat. con-, together, and scribere, to write)

conscription: and his remarks are entirely See also:

• BORNE, KARL LUDWIG (1786–1837)

borne out by the See also:

• NORWICH
• NORWICH, GEORGE GORING, EARL OF (1583?-1663)

Norwich documents published by Mr W . See also:

• HUDSON
• HUDSON, GEORGE (180o-1871)
• HUDSON, HENRY
• HUDSON, JOHN (1662–1719)

Hudson (Norf. and Norwich Archaeological See also:

• SOC

Soc. xiv . 263 sqq.), by a See also:

• LYNN

Lynn See also:

• CORPORATION (from Lat. corporare, to form into a body, corpus, corporis)

corporation document of 18th Edw .

III . (Hist . See also:

• MSS

MSS . See also:

• COMMISSION (from Lat. commissio, committere)

Commission See also:

• REPORT (O.Fr. report or raport, modern rapport, from O.Fr. reporter, mod. rap porter, Lat. reportare, to bring back, in poetical use only, of bringing back an account, news, &c.)

Report XI . Appendix pt. iii. p . 189), and by See also:

• SMYTH (or SMITH), JOHN (c. 1570-1612)
• SMYTH (or SMITH), WILLIAM (c. 1460-1514)
• SMYTH, CHARLES
• SMYTH, SIR WARINGTON WILKINSON (1817-1890)

Smyth's Lives of the Berkeleys, i . 312, 319, 320 . and obligations had no place, and it was seen that the See also:

• VOLUNTEERS

volunteers who flocked to the See also:

• STANDARDS

standards of the various commanders were not less but even more efficient in the field than the vassals they had hitherto been accustomed to See also:

• LEAD
• LEAD (pronounced iced)

lead . It was thus established that pay, the love of enterprise and the prospect of See also:

• PLUNDER

plunder—if we leave zeal for the sacred cause which they had espoused for the moment out of sight—were quite as useful for the purpose of enlisting troops and keeping them together as the tenure of See also:

• LAND

land and the solemnities of See also:

• HOMAGE (from homo, through the Low Lat. hominaticum, which occurs in a document of 1035)

homage and fealty . Moreover, the crusaders who survived the difficulties and dangers of an expedition to See also:

• PALESTINE

Palestine were seasoned and experienced although frequently impoverished and landless soldiers, ready to hire themselves to the highest See also:

• BIDDER, GEORGE PARKER (1806-1878)

bidder, and well See also:

• WORTH
• WORTH, CHARLES FREDERICK (1825-1895)

worth the See also:

• WAGES (the plural of " wage," from Late Lat. wadium, a pledge, O. Fr. wagier, gagier)

wages they received . Again, it was owing to the crusades that the See also:

• CHURCH
• CHURCH (according to most authorities derived from the Gr. Kvpcaxov [&wµa], " the Lord's [house]," and common to many Teutonic, Slavonic and other languages under various forms—Scottish kirk, Ger. Kirche, Swed. kirka, Dan. kirke, Russ. tserkov, Buig. cerk
• CHURCH, FREDERICK EDWIN (1826-1900)
• CHURCH, GEORGE EARL (1835–1910)
• CHURCH, RICHARD WILLIAM (1815–189o)
• CHURCH, SIR RICHARD (1784–1873)

church took the profession of arms under her peculiar See also:

• PROTECTION

protection, and thenceforward the ceremonies of initiation into it assumed a religious as well as a martial character . To distinguished soldiers of the See also:

• CROSS

cross the honours and benefits of knighthood could hardly be refused on the ground that they Knighthood did not possess a sufficient See also:

• PROPERTY

property qualification—See also:

• INDEPENDENT

Independent of which perhaps they had denuded themselves in of Feudal- See also:

• ORDER
• ORDER (through Fr. ordre, for earlier ordene, from Lat. ordo, ordinis, rank, service, arrangement; the ultimate source is generally taken to be the root seen in Lat. oriri, rise, arise, begin; cf. " origin ")
• ORDER, HOLY

order to their equipment for the See also:

• HOLY

Holy War .

And ISf . thus the conception of knighthood as of something distinct from feudalism both as a social condition and a personal dignity arose and rapidly gained ground . It was then that the See also:

• ANALOGY (Gr. avaXo-yLa, proportion)

analogy was first detected between the order of knighthood and the order of priesthood, and that an actual See also:

• UNION
• UNION (known locally as Union Hill and officially as Town of Union)

union of monachism and chivalry was effected by the See also:

• ESTABLISHMENT (0. Fr. establissement, Fr. etablissement, late Norm. Fr. establishement, from O. Fr. establir, Fr. etablir, Lat. stabilire, to make stable)

establishment of the religious orders of which the Knights Templars and the Knights Hospitallers were the most eminent examples . As comprehensive in their polity as the See also:

• BENEDICTINES, or BLACK MONKS

Benedictines or See also:

• FRANCISCANS (otherwise called Friars Minor, or Minorites; also the Seraphic Order ; and in England Grey Friars, from the colour of the habit, which, however, is now brown rather than grey)

Franciscans, they gathered their members from, and soon scattered their possessions over, every country in Europe . And in their indifference to the distinctions of See also:

• RACE

race and See also:

• NATIONALITY

nationality they merely accommodated themselves to the spirit which had become characteristic of chivalry itself, already recognized, like the church, as a universal institution which knit together the whole warrior See also:

• CASTE (through the Fr. from Span. and Port. casta, lineage, Lat. cast us, pure)

caste of Christendom into one great fraternity irrespective alike of feudal subordination and territorial boundaries . Somewhat later the See also:

• ADOPTION (Lat. adoptio, for adoptalio, from adoptare, to choose for oneself)

adoption of hereditary surnames and armorial See also:

• BEARINGS

bearings marked the existence of a large and noble class who either from the subdivision of fiefs or from the effects of the custom of See also:

• PRIMOGENITURE

primogeniture were very insufficiently provided for . To them only two callings were generally open, that of the churchman and that of the soldier, and the latter as a See also:

• RULE

rule offered greater attractions than the former in antra of much See also:

• LICENCE (through the French from Lat. licentia, licere, to be lawful)

licence and little learning . Hence the favourite expedient for men of See also:

• BIRTH (a word common in various forms to Teutonic languages from the root of the verb " to bear ")

birth, although not of See also:

• FORTUNE, ROBERT (1813-188o)

fortune, was to attach themselves to some See also:

• PRINCE
• PRINCE (Lat. princeps, from primus capio, " I am the first to take "; Ital. principe, Fr. prince)

prince or See also:

• MAGNATE (Late Lat. magnas, a great man)

magnate in whose military service they were sure of an adequate See also:

• MAINTENANCE (Fr. maintenance, from maintenir, to maintain, support, Lat. manu tenere, to hold in the hand)

maintenance and might See also:

• HOPE, ANTHONY
• HOPE, THOMAS (c. 1770-1831)

hope for even a See also:

• RICH, BARNABE (c. 1540-1617)
• RICH, CLAUDIUS JAMES (1787-1821)
• RICH, JOHN (1692-1761)
• RICH, PENELOPE, LADY (c. 1562–1607)
• RICH, RICHARD, 1ST BARON RICH (1490?-1567)

rich See also:

• REWARD

reward in the shape of See also:

• BOOTY (apparently influenced by " boot," O. Eng. bot, ad-vantage or profit, through an adaptation from an earlier form cognate with Ger. Beute and Fr. butin)

booty or of See also:

• RANSOM (from Lat. redemptio, through Fr. rancon)

ransom.' It is probably to this period, and these circumstances that we must look for at all events the rudimentary beginnings of the military as well as the religious orders of chivalry . Of the existence of any regularly constituted companionships of the first See also:

• KIND (O. E. ge-cynde, from the same root as is seen in " kin," supra)

kind there is no trustworthy evidence until between two and three centuries after See also:

• FRATERNITIES, COLLEGE

fraternities of the second kind had been organized . Soon after the greater crusading See also:

• SOCIETIES, LEARNED

societies had been formed similar orders, such as those of St See also:

• JAMES
• JAMES (Gr. 'IlrKw,l3or, the Heb. Ya`akob or Jacob)
• JAMES (JAMES FRANCIS EDWARD STUART) (1688-1766)
• JAMES, 2ND EARL OF DOUGLAS AND MAR(c. 1358–1388)
• JAMES, DAVID (1839-1893)
• JAMES, EPISTLE OF
• JAMES, GEORGE PAYNE RAINSFOP
• JAMES, HENRY (1843— )
• JAMES, JOHN ANGELL (1785-1859)
• JAMES, THOMAS (c. 1573–1629)
• JAMES, WILLIAM (1842–1910)
• JAMES, WILLIAM (d. 1827)

James of Compostella, Calatrava and See also:

• ALCANTARA

Alcantara, were established to fight the See also:

• MOORS (Lat. Mauri; Gr. Mavpot, dark men)
• MOORS, KABYLES, MZABITES

Moors in See also:

• SPAIN
• SPAIN (Espana)

Spain instead of the Saracens in the Holy Land . But the members of these orders were not less monks than knights, their statutes embodied the rules of the See also:

• CLOISTER (Lat. claustrum; Fr. cloitre; Ital. chiostro; Span. claustro; Ger. Kloster)

cloister, and they were See also:

• BOUND, or BOUNDARY (from O. Fr. bonde, Med. Lat. bodena or butina, a frontier line)

bound by the ecclesiastical vows of See also:

• CELIBACY (Lat. caelibatus, from caelebs, unmarried)

celibacy, poverty and obedience . From a very early See also:

• STAGE (Fr. 6/age; from Lat. stare, to stand)

stage in the development of chivalry, however, we meet with the singular institution of brotherhood in arms; and from it the ultimate origin if not of the religious fraternities at any See also:

• RATE

rate of the military See also:

• COMPANION (through the O. Fr. compaignon or compagnon, from the Late Lat. companio,—cum, with, and panis, bread,—one who shares meals with another; the word has been wrongly derived from the Late Lat. compagnus, one of the same pages or district)

companion-See also:

• SHIPS

ships is usually derived ? By this institution a relation was 1 J .

B. de Lacurne de Sainte Palaye, Memoires sur l'Ancienne Chevalerie, i . 363, 364 (ed . 1781) . 2 Du Cange, Dissertation sur See also:

• JOINVILLE
• JOINVILLE, FRANCOIS FERDINAND PHILIPPE LOUIS MARIE, PRINCE DE (1818-1900)
• JOINVILLE, JEAN, SIRE DE (1224-1319)

Joinville, xxi . ; Sainte Palaye, Memoires, i . 272 ; G . F . Beltz, Memorials of the Order of the Garter (1841,) p . )ovii.created between two or more monks by voluntary agreement, which was regarded as of far more intimacy and stringency than any which the mere See also:

• ACCIDENT
• ACCIDENT (from Lat. accidere, to happen)

accident of See also:

• CONSANGUINITY, or KINDRED

consanguinity implied . See also:

• BROTHERS, RICHARD (1757-1824)

Brothers in arms were supposed to be partners in all things See also:

• SAVE, or SAVA (Ger. Sau; Hungarian Szdva; Lat. Savus)

save the affections of their " See also:

• LADY (0. Eng. hlaefdige, Mid. Eng. ldfdi, lavedi; the first part of the word is hldf, loaf, bread, as in the corresponding hldford, lord; the second part is usually taken to be from the root dig-, to knead, seen also in " dough "; the sense development fr

lady-loves." They shared in every danger and in every success, and each was expected to vindicate the See also:

• HONOUR (Lat. honos or lwnor, honoris; in English the word was spelled with or without the u indifferently until the 17th century, but during the 18th century it became fashion-able to spell the word " honor "; Johnson's and Webster's Dictionaries stereoty

honour of another as promptly and zealously as his own . The See also:

• PLOT
• PLOT, ROBERT (164o-1696)

plot of the medieval romance of Amis and Amiles is built entirely on such a brotherhood . Their engagements usually lasted through life, but sometimes only for a specified period or during the continuance of specified circumstances, and they were always ratified by See also:

• OATH (0. Eng. ddh)

oath, occasionally reduced to See also:

• WRITING
• WRITING (the verbal noun of " to write," O. Eng. writan, to inscribe)

writing in the shape of a solemn See also:

• BOND
• BOND, SIR EDWARD AUGUSTUS (1815-1898)

bond and often sanctified by their reception of the See also:

• EUCHARIST (Gr. evXapurria, thanksgiving)

Eucharist together .

Romance and tradition speak of See also:

• STRANGE, SIR ROBERT (1721-1792)

strange See also:

• RITES

rites—the mingling and even the drinking of See also:

• BLOOD

blood—as having in remote and See also:

• RUDE, FRANCOIS (1784–1855)

rude ages marked the inception of these martial and fraternal associations .3 But in later and less barbarous times they were generally evidenced and celebrated by a formal and reciprocal See also:

• EXCHANGE

exchange of weapons and See also:

• ARMOUR, PHILIP DANFORTH (1832-1901)

armour . In warfare it was customary for knights who were thus allied to appear similarly accoutred and bearing the same badges or cognisances, to the end that their enemies might not know with which of them they were in conflict, and that their See also:

• FRIENDS, SOCIETY
• FRIENDS, SOCIETY OF

friends might be unable to See also:

• ACCORD (from Fr. accorder, to agree)

accord more See also:

• APPLAUSE (Lat. applaudere, to strike upon, clap)

applause to one than to the other for his prowess in the field . It seems likely enough therefore that there should grow up bodies of knights banded together by engagements of fidelity, although free from monastic obligations; wearing a See also:

• UNIFORM

uniform or See also:

• LIVERY

livery, and naming themselves after some special See also:

• SYMBOL (Gr. o-uµ(3oXov, a sign)

symbol or some See also:

• PATRON

patron See also:

• SAINT (lat. sanctus, " holy ")

saint of their adoption . And such bodies placed under the command of a sovereign or See also:

• GRAND

grand master, regulated by statutes, and enriched by ecclesiastical endowments would have been precisely what in after times such orders as the Garter in England, the Golden Fleece in See also:

• BURGUNDY

Burgundy, the Annunziata in See also:

• SAVOY, HOUSE
• SAVOY, HOUSE OF

Savoy and the St See also:

• MICHAEL
• MICHAEL (1596-1645)
• MICHAEL (Hebrew Sn,q, " Who is like God? ")

Michael and Holy See also:

• GHOST (a word common to the W. Teutonic languages; O.E. vest, Dutch, 'geest, Ger. Geist)

Ghost in France actually were.4 During the 14th and 15th centuries, as well as somewhat earlier and later, the general arrangements of a European army were always and everywhere pretty much the same.5 Under the sovereign the See also:

• CONSTABLE (0. Fr. connestable, Fr. connetable, Med. Lat. comestabilis, conestabilis, constabularius, from the Lat. comes stabuli, count of the stable)
• CONSTABLE, ARCHIBALD (1774-1827)
• CONSTABLE, HENRY (1562-1613)
• CONSTABLE, JOHN (1776-1837)
• CONSTABLE, SIR MARMADUKE (c. 1455-1518)

constable and the See also:

• MARSHAL (med. Lat. marescalcus, from O.H.Ger. marah, horse, and scalc, servant)

marshal 'irides of Knighthood . or marshals held the chief commands, their authority being partly See also:

• JOINT (through Fr. from Lat. junctum, jungere, to join)

joint and partly several . Attendant on them were the heralds, who were the officers of their military See also:

• COURT
• COURT (from the O. Fr. court, Late Lat. cortis, curtis, a popular form of class. Lat. cohors, gen. cohortis; the mod. Fr. form tour is due to the influence of the Lat. curia, the word used in medieval documents to translate " court " in the feudal sense)
• COURT, ANTOINE (1696-176o)

court, wherein offences committed in the See also:

• CAMP (from Lat. campus, field)

camp and field were tried and adjudged, and among whose duties it was to carry orders and messages, to deliver challenges and call truces, and to identify and number the wounded and the slain . The main divisions of the army were distributed under the royal and other See also:

• PRINCIPAL

principal standards, smaller divisions under the See also:

• BANNERS, FEAST OF (Jap. Nobori-no-Sekku)

banners of some of the greater See also:

• NOBILITY

nobility or of knights See also:

• BANNERET (Fr. banneret, from bannicre, banner, elliptical for seigneur or chevalier banneret, Med. Lat. banncretus)

banneret, and smaller divisions still under the pennons of knights or, as in distinction from knights banneret they came to be called, knights bachelors . All knights whether bachelors or bannerets were escorted by their squires . But the banner of the banneret always implied a more or less extensive command, while every knight was en-titled to bear a pennon and every See also:

• SQUIRE

squire a pencel . All three flags were of such a See also:

• SIZE

size as to be conveniently attached to and carried on a lance, and were emblazoned with the arms or some portion of the bearings of their owners . But while the banner was square the pennon, which resembled it in other respects, was either pointed or forked at its extremity, and the pencel, which was considerably less than the others, always terminated in a single tail or streamer.6 If indeed we look at the See also:

• SCALE
• SCALE (1) A

scale of chivalric subordination from another point of view, it seems to be more properly divisible into four than into three stages, of which two may be called provisional and two final . The See also:

• BACHELOR (from Med. Lat. baccalarius, with its late and rare variant baccalaris—cf. Ital. baccalare—through O. Fr. bacheler)

bachelor and the banneret were both equally knights, only the one was of greater distinction and authority a Du Cange, Dissertation, xxi., and See also:

• LANCELOT (Lancelot du Lac, or Lancelot of the Lake)

Lancelot du See also:

• LAC

Lac, among other romances .

Anstis, See also:

• REGISTER

Register of the Order of the Garter, i . 63 . 5 See also:

• GROSE, FRANCIS (c. 1730–1791)

Grose, Military Antiq. i . 207 seq . ; Stubbs, Const . Hist. ii . 276 seq., and iii . 278 seq . 6 Grose's Military Antiquities, ii . 256 . 15 than the other . In like manner the squire and the See also:

• PAGE
• PAGE, THOMAS NELSON (1853- )
• PAGE, WILLIAM (1811-1885)

page were both in training for knighthood, but the first had advanced further in the process than the second .

It is true that the squire was a combatant while the page was not, and that many squires voluntarily served as squires all their lives owing to the insufficiency of their fortunes to support the See also:

• COSTS

costs and charges of knighthood . But in the See also:

• ORDINARY (med. Lat. ordinarius, Fr. ordinaire)

ordinary course of a chivalrous See also:

• EDUCATION

education the successive conditions of page and squire were passed through in boyhood and youth, and the condition of knighthood was reached in early manhood . Every feudal court and See also:

• CASTLE
• CASTLE (Lat. castellum, a fort, diminutive of castra, a camp; Fr. chateau and chdtel)

castle was in fact a school of chivalry, and although princes and great personages were rarely actually pages or squires, the moral and See also:

• PHYSICAL

physical discipline through which they passed was not in any important particular different from that to which less exalted candidates for knighthood were subjected.' The page, or, as he was more anciently and more correctly called, the " See also:

• VALET (Fr. valet; O. Fr. vaslet)

valet " or " damoiseau," commenced his service and instruction when he was between seven and eight years old, and the initial phase continued for seven or eight years longer . He acted as the See also:

• CONSTANT, BENJAMIN (1845-1902)

constant personal attendant of both his master and See also:

• MISTRESS

mistress . He waited on them in their See also:

• HALL
• HALL (generally known as SCHWABISCH-HALL, tc distinguish it from the small town of Hall in Tirol and Bad-Hall, a health resort in Upper Austria)
• HALL (O.E. heall, a common Teutonic word, cf. Ger. Halle)
• HALL, BASIL (1788-1844)
• HALL, CARL CHRISTIA