See also:

• KOREA
• KOREA, or COREA (CH'AO HSIEN, DAI HAN)

KOREA, or COREA (CH'AO HSIEN, DAI HAN)  . Its mainland portion consists of a See also:

• PENINSULA
• PENINSULA (Lat. paeninsula, from paene, almost, and insula, an island)

peninsula stretching southwards from See also:

• MANCHURIA

Manchuria, with an estimated length of about 600 m., an extreme breadth of 135 m., and a See also:

• COAST (from Lat. costa, a rib, side)

coast-See also:

• LINE

line of 1740 M . It extends from 340 18' to 430 N., and from 124° 36' to 13o° 47' E . Its See also:

• NORTHERN

northern boundary is marked by the Tumen and Yal ers; the eastern boundary by the See also:

• SEA (in O. Eng. sae, a common Teutonic word; cf. Ger. See, Dutch Zee, &c.; the ultimate source is uncertain)
• SEA, COMMAND OF THE

Sea of Japany 1 e thern boundary by See also:

• KOREA
• KOREA, or COREA (CH'AO HSIEN, DAI HAN)

Korea Strait; and the western-boundary by the Yalu and the Yellow Sea . For 11 m. along the Tumen See also:

• RIVER

river the See also:

• NORTH
• NORTH, BARONS
• NORTH, MARIANNE (1830—1890)
• NORTH, ROGER (1653-1734)
• NORTH, SIR THOMAS (1535?-16o1?)

north frontier is conterminous with See also:

• RUSSIA
• RUSSIA (Rossiya)

Russia (See also:

• SIBERIA

Siberia); otherwise Korea has See also:

• CHINA

China (Manchuria) on its See also:

• LAND

land frontier . Nearly the whole See also:

• SURFACE

surface of the See also:

• COUNTRY (from the Mid. Eng. contre or contrie, and O. Fr. cuntree; Late Lat. contrata, showing the derivation from contra, opposite, over against, thus the tract of land which fronts the sight, cf. Ger. Gegend, neighbourhood)

country is mountainous . (For See also:

• MAP
• MAP (or MAPES), WALTER (d. c. 1208/9)

map, see See also:

• JAPAN

JAPAN.) The See also:

• SOUTH
• SOUTH, ROBERT (1634–1716)

south and See also:

• WEST
• WEST, BENJAMIN (1738-1820)
• WEST, NICHOLAS (1461-1533)

west coasts are fringed by about 200 islands (exclusive of islets), two-thirds of which are inhabited; too of them are from too to 2000 ft. in height, and many consist of bold See also:

• BARE

bare masses of volcanic See also:

• ROCK
• ROCK (O.Fr. rake, Sp. rota, Ital. rocca; possibly from a Lat. form rupica, from rupes, rock)
• ROCK, DANIEL (1799–187t)

rock . The most important are See also:

• QUELPART (CHAT-Ju)

Quelpart and the Nan Hau See also:

• GROUP

group . The latter, 36 in. from the easternend of Quelpart, possesses the deep, well-sheltered and ioomy See also:

• HARBOUR (from M.E. hereberge, here, an army; cf. Ger. Heer and -beorg, protection or shelter. Other early forms in English were herberwe and haiborow, as seen in various place names, such as Market Harborough.. The French auberge, an inn, derived through

harbour of See also:

• PORT

Port See also:

• HAMILTON
• HAMILTON (GRAND or ASHUANIPI)
• HAMILTON, ALEXANDER (1757-1804)
• HAMILTON, ANTHONY, or ANTOINE (1646-1720)
• HAMILTON, ELIZABETH (1758–1816)
• HAMILTON, EMMA, LADY (c. 1765-1815)
• HAMILTON, JAMES (1769-1831)
• HAMILTON, JAMES HAMILTON, 1ST DUKE OF (1606-1649)
• HAMILTON, JOHN (c. 1511–1571)
• HAMILTON, MARQUESSES AND DUKES OF
• HAMILTON, PATRICK (1504-1528)
• HAMILTON, ROBERT (1743-1829)
• HAMILTON, SIR WILLIAM
• HAMILTON, SIR WILLIAM (1730-1803)
• HAMILTON, SIR WILLIAM ROWAN (1805-1865)
• HAMILTON, THOMAS (1789-1842)
• HAMILTON, WILLIAM (1704-1754)
• HAMILTON, WILLIAM GERARD (1729-1796)

Hamilton, which lies between the north points of the large and well-cultivated islands of See also:

• SUN
• SUN (0. Eng. sonne, Ger. sonne. Fr. soleil, Lat. sol, Gr. ijXior, from which comes helio- in various English compounds)

Sun-ho-See also:

• DAN

dan and Sodan, which have a See also:

• POPULATION (Lat. populus, people; populare, to populate)

population of 2000 . Aitan, between their south-See also:

• EAST
• EAST, ALFRED (1849- )

east points, completes this See also:

• NOBLE, SIR ANDREW (1832- )

noble harbour . The east coast of Korea is steep and rock-See also:

• BOUND, or BOUNDARY (from O. Fr. bonde, Med. Lat. bodena or butina, a frontier line)

bound, with deep See also:

• WATER

water and a tidal rise and fall of I to 2 ft . The west coast is often See also:

• LOW, SETH (1850- )
• LOW, WILL HICOK (1853- )

low and shelving, and abounds in mud-See also:

• BANKS, GEORGE LINNAEUS (1821-1881)
• BANKS, NATHANIEL PRENTISS (1816–1894)
• BANKS, SIR JOSEPH
• BANKS, THOMAS (1735-1805)

banks, and the tidal rise and fall is from 20 to 36 ft .

Korean harbours, except two or three which are closed by See also:

• DRIFT (from "drive ")

drift See also:

• ICE (a word common to Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Eis)

ice for some See also:

• WEEKS, EDWIN LORD (1849-1903)

weeks in See also:

• WINTER, JOHN STRANGE
• WINTER, PETER (c. 1755-1825)

winter, are ice-See also:

• FREE

free . Among them are Port Shestakov, Port Lazarev, and Won-See also:

• SAN

san (Gensan), in See also:

• BROUGHTON, HUGH (1549-1612)
• BROUGHTON, JOHN CAM HOBHOUSE, BARON (1786-1869)

Broughton See also:

• BAY

Bay;' Fusan, Ma-san-po, at the mouth of the Nak-tong, on the south coast; Mok-po, See also:

• CHIN

Chin-nampo, near the mouth of the Tai-dong; and Chemulpo, near the mouth of the Han, the port of the See also:

• CAPITAL (i.e. capital stock or fund)
• CAPITAL (Lat. caput, head)

capital and the sea See also:

• TERMINUS

terminus of the first Korean railway on the west coast . Korea is distinctly mountainous, and has no plains deserving the name . In the north there are See also:

• MOUNTAIN (0. Fr. montaigne; popular Lat. montanea, an adjectival form from the classical mons, montis, whence Eng. " mount," a form usually used along with the name of an individual mountain, e.g. Mt Everest)
• MOUNTAIN, THE (La Montagne)

mountain See also:

• GROUPS
• GROUPS, THEORY

groups with definite centres, the most notable being Paik-tu San or Pei-shan ($700 ft.) which contains the See also:

• SOURCES

sources of the Yalu and Tumen . From these groups a lofty range runs southwards, dividing the See also:

• EMPIRE

empire into two unequal parts . On its east, between it and the coast, which it follows at a moderate distance, is a fertile See also:

• STRIP

strip difficult of See also:

• ACCESS (Lat. accessus)

access, and on the west it throws off so many lateral ranges and spurs as to break up the country into a See also:

• CHAOS

chaos of corrugated and precipitous hills and steep-sided valleys, each with a rapid perennial stream . Farther south this axial range, which includes the See also:

• DIAMOND

Diamond Mountain group, falls away towards the sea in treeless spurs and small and often infertile levels . The northern groups and the Diamond Mountain are heavily timbered, but the hills are covered mainly with coarse, sour grass and See also:

• OAK (O. Eng., (lc)

oak and See also:

• CHESTNUT (nux Castanea)

chestnut scrub . The See also:

• RIVERS
• RIVERS, ANTHONY WOODVILLE, or WYDEVILLE, 2ND EARL (c. 1442—1483)
• RIVERS, EARL
• RIVERS, RICHARD SAVAGE, 4TH EARL (c. 1660—1712)

rivers are shallow and rocky, and are usually only navigable for a few See also:

• MILES, NELSON APPLETON (1839— )

miles from the sea . Among the exceptions are the Yalu (Amnok), Tumen, Tai-dong, Naktong, Mok-po, and Han . The last, rising in Kang-won-do, 30 M. from the east coast, cuts Korea nearly in See also:

• HALF

half, reaching the sea on the west coast near Chemulpo; and, in spite of many serious rapids, is a valuable See also:

• HIGHWAY

highway for See also:

• COMMERCE
• COMMERCE (Lat. commercium, from, cum, together, and rnerx, merchandise)

commerce for over 150 miles . See also:

• GEOLOGY (from Gr. yp7, the earth, and Abyor, science)

Geology.—The geology of Korea is very imperfectly known .

Crystalline See also:

• SCHISTS (Gr. vxq'ecv, to split)

schists occupy a large See also:

• PART

part of the country, forming all the higher mountain ranges . They are always strongly folded and it is in them that the See also:

• MINERAL

mineral See also:

• WEALTH

wealth of Korea is situated . Towards the Manchurian frontier they are covered unconformably by some 1600 ft. of sandstones, See also:

• CLAY (from O. Eng. claeg, a word common in various forms to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Klei)
• CLAY, CASSIUS MARCELLUS (1810-1903)
• CLAY, CHARLES (1801–1893)
• CLAY, FREDERIC (1838–1889)
• CLAY, HENRY (1777–1852)

clay-slates and limestones, which contain See also:

• CAMBRIAN

Cambrian fossils and are the equivalents of a part of the Sinian See also:

• SYSTEM

system of China . Carboniferous beds, consisting chiefly of slates, sandstones and conglomerates, are found in the south-eastern provinces . They contain a few seams of See also:

• COAL

coal, but the most important coal-bearing deposits of the country belong to the See also:

• TERTIARY

Tertiary See also:

• PERIOD
• PERIOD (Gr. irepioSos, a going or way round, circuit, aepi, round, and &Sis, way, road)

period . See also:

• RECENT

Recent eruptive and volcanic rocks are met with in the interior of Korea and also in the See also:

• ISLAND (O.E. ieg =isle, +land')

island of Quelpart . The See also:

• PRINCIPAL

principal mountain in the latter, See also:

• HAL

Hal-la-san (or See also:

• MOUNT, WILLIAM SIDNEY (1807-1868)

Mount See also:

• AUCKLAND
• AUCKLAND, GEORGE EDEN, EARL OF (1784-1849)
• AUCKLAND, WILLIAM EDEN, 1ST BARON (1745-1814)

Auckland), according to See also:

• CHINESE, JAPANESE AND

Chinese stories, was in eruption in the See also:

• YEAR

year 1007 . With this possible exception there are no active volcanoes in Korea, and the region has also been remarkably free from earthquakes throughout historic times . See also:

• CLIMATE

Climate.—The climate is superb for nine months of the year, and the three months of See also:

• RAIN (O.E. regn; the word is common to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Regen, Swed. and Dan. regn; it has been connected with Lat. rigare, to wet, Gr. 13pixeav)

rain, See also:

• HEAT (0. E. haktu, which like " hot," Old Eng. hat, is from the Teutonic type haita, hit, to be hot; cf. Ger. hitze, heiss; Dutch, hitte, heet, &c.)

heat and See also:

• DAMP

damp are not injurious to See also:

• HEALTH

health . Koreans suffer from See also:

• MALARIA

malaria, but Europeans and their See also:

• CHILDREN, LAW RELATING TO

children are fairly free from See also:

• CLIMATIC

climatic maladies, and enjoy robust health . The summer mean temperature of See also:

• SEOUL (Han-yang)

Seoul is about 75° F., that of winter about 33°; the See also:

• AVERAGE

average rainfall, 36.3 in. in the year, and of the See also:

• RAINY, ROBERT (1826-1906)

rainy See also:

• SEASON (0. Fr. seson, seison, mod. saison, Lat. satio, sowing time, the spring, from serere, to sow; in Late Lat. the word is found with its present meaning, the spring being considered as particularly the season of the year)

season 21.86 in . The rains come in See also:

• JULY

July and See also:

• AUGUST (originally Sextilis)

August on the west and north-east coasts, and from See also:

• APRIL

April to July on the south coast, the approximate mean See also:

• ANNUAL

annual rainfall of these localities being 3o, 35 and 42 in. respectively .

These averages are based on the observations of seven years only . See also:

• FLORA

Flora.—The See also:

• PLANTS

plants and animals await study and See also:

• CLASSIFICATION (Lat. classis, a class, probably from the root cal-, cla-, as in Gr. icaMce, clamor)

classification . Among the indigenous trees are the Abies excelsa, Abies microsperma, Pinus sinensis, Pinus pinea, three See also:

• SPECIES

species of oak, five of See also:

• MAPLE, SIR JOHN BLUNDELL, BART

maple, See also:

• LIME
• LIME (O. Eng. lim, Lat. limes, mud, from linere, to smear)

lime, See also:

• BIRCH
• BIRCH (Betula)
• BIRCH, SAMUEL (1813–1885)
• BIRCH, THOMAS (1705-1766)

birch, See also:

• JUNIPER

juniper, mountain ash, See also:

• WALNUT (Juglans)

walnut, See also:

• SPANISH

Spanish chestnut, See also:

• HAZEL (0. Eng. hresell; cf. Ger. Hasel, Swed. and Dan. Kassel, &c.,; Fr. noiselier, coudrier)

hazel, See also:

• WILLOW (Salix)

willow, See also:

• HORNBEAM (Carpinus betulus)

hornbeam, See also:

• HAWTHORN
• HAWTHORN (O. Eng. Naga-, hog-, or hege-thorn, i.e. " hedge-thorn ")

hawthorn, See also:

• PLUM

plum, See also:

• PEAR (Pyrus communis)

pear, See also:

• PEACH
• PEACH, CHARLES WILLIAM (1800-1886)

peach, Rhus vernicifera, (?) Rhus semipinnata, Acanthopanax ricinifolia, Zelkawa, Thuja orientalis, Elaeagnus, Sophora Japonica, &c . Azaleas and rhododendrons are widely distributed,' as well as other flowering shrubs and creepers, See also:

• AMPELOPSIS (from Gr. aµtreXor , vine, and &lies, appearance, as it resembles the grape-vine in habit)

Ampelopsis Veitchii being universal . Liliaceous plants ' Named after See also:

• WILLIAM
• WILLIAM (1143-1214)
• WILLIAM (1227-1256)
• WILLIAM (1J33-1584)
• WILLIAM (A.S. Wilhelm, O. Norse Vilhidlmr; O. H. Ger. Willahelm, Willahalm, M. H. Ger. Willehelm, Willehalm, Mod.Ger. Wilhelm; Du. Willem; O. Fr. Villalme, Mod. Fr. Guillaume; from " will," Goth. vilja, and " helm," Goth. hilms, Old Norse hidlmr, meaning
• WILLIAM (c. 1130-C. 1190)
• WILLIAM, 13TH

William See also:

• ROBERT
• ROBERT (1275—1343)
• ROBERT, HUBERT (1753-1808)
• ROBERT, LOUIS LEOPOLD (1794-1835)

Robert Broughton (1762-1821), an See also:

• ENGLISH

English navigator who explored these seas in 1795-1798 . See also:

• ANA

ana See also:

• CRUCIFERAE

cruciferae are numerous . The native fruits, except walnuts and chestnuts, are worthless . The See also:

• PERSIMMON

persimmon attains perfection, and experiment has proved the suitability of the climate to many See also:

• FOREIGN

foreign fruits . The indigenous economic plants are few, and are of no commercial value, excepting See also:

• WILD, JONATHAN (c. 1682-1725)

wild See also:

• GINSENG

ginseng, See also:

• BAMBOO

bamboo, which is applied to countless uses, and " tak-pul " (Hibiscus Manihot), used in the manufacture of See also:

• PAPER
• PAPER (Fr. papier, from Lat. papyrus)

paper . See also:

• FAUNA

Fauna.—The See also:

• TIGER
• TIGER (Felis tigris)

tiger takes the first See also:

• PLACE (through Fr. from Lat. platea, street; Gr. IrAar6s, wide)

place among wild animals . He is of See also:

• GREAT

great See also:

• SIZE

size, his skin is magnificent, and he is so widely distributed as to be a peril to See also:

• MAN
• MAN, ISLE OF (anc. Mona)

man and beast . Tiger-See also:

• HUNTING (the verbal substantive from " hunt "; O. Eng. huntian, hunta; apparently connected with O. Eng. hentan, Gothic hinpan, to capture, O.H.G. hunda,booty)

hunting is a profession with See also:

• SPECIAL

special privileges .

Leopards -are numerous, and have even been shot within the walls of Seoul . There are See also:

• DEER (O. E. rigor, dfor, a common Teutonic word, meaning a wild animal, cf. Ger. Tier, Du. dier, &c., probably from a root dhus-, to breathe)
• DEER, CHINESE

deer (at least five species), boars, bears, antelopes. beavers, otters, badgers, tiger-See also:

• CATS, JACOB (1577-1660)

cats, See also:

• MARTEN
• MARTEN, AMERICAN
• MARTEN, HENRY (1602-1680)
• MARTEN, JAPANESE
• MARTEN, STONE

marten, an inferior See also:

• SABLE
• SABLE, AMERICAN
• SABLE, CHINESE
• SABLE, MADELEINE DE SOUVRE, MARQUISE DE (1599—1678)
• SABLE, RUSSIAN

sable, striped squirrels, &c . Among birds there are See also:

• BLACK
• BLACK, ADAM (1784-1874)
• BLACK, JEREMIAH SULLIVAN (1810–1883)
• BLACK, WILLIAM (1841-1898)

black eagles, peregrines (largely used in hawking), and, specially protected by See also:

• LAW
• LAW (0. Eng. lagu, M. Eng. lawe; from an old Teutonic root lag, " lie," what lies fixed or evenly; cf. Lat. lex, Fr. loi)
• LAW, JOHN (1671—1729)
• LAW, WILLIAM (1686-1761)

law, See also:

• TURKEY

turkey bustards, three varieties of pheasants, swans, geese, See also:

• COMMON

common and spectacled See also:

• TEAL (O.E. tele)

teal, mallards, See also:

• MANDARIN

mandarin ducks See also:

• WHITE
• WHITE, ANDREW DICKSON (1832– )
• WHITE, GILBERT (1720–1793)
• WHITE, HENRY KIRKE (1785-1806)
• WHITE, HUGH LAWSON (1773-1840)
• WHITE, JOSEPH BLANCO (1775-1841)
• WHITE, RICHARD GRANT (1822-1885)
• WHITE, ROBERT (1645-1704)
• WHITE, SIR GEORGE STUART (1835– )
• WHITE, SIR THOMAS (1492-1567)
• WHITE, SIR WILLIAM ARTHUR (1824--1891)
• WHITE, SIR WILLIAM HENRY (1845– )
• WHITE, THOMAS (1628-1698)
• WHITE, THOMAS (c. 1550-1624)

white and See also:

• PINK

pink See also:

• IBIS

ibis, See also:

• CRANES (so called from the resemblance to the long neck of the bird, cf. Gr. 'y pavor, Fr. grue)

cranes, storks, egrets, herons, curlews, pigeons, doves, nightjars, common and See also:

• BLUE (common in different forms to most European languages)

blue magpies, rooks, crows, orioles, halcyon and blue kingfishers, jays, See also:

• NUT
• NUT (0. Eng. knutu, cf. Dutch noot, Ger. Nuss; allied with Gael. cno; it is not of the same form as Lat. nux)

nut-hatches, redstarts, See also:

• SNIPE (0. Eng. Spite, Icel. Snipe, Dutch Snip, Ger. Schnepfe)

snipe, See also:

• GREY, CHARLES GREY, 2ND EARL (1764-1845)
• GREY, HENRY GREY, 3RD EARL (1802-1894)
• GREY, LADY JANE (1537-1554)
• GREY, SIR EDWARD
• GREY, SIR GEORGE (1812–1898)

grey shrikes, See also:

• HAWKS, FRANCIS LISTER (1798-1866)

hawks, kites, &c . But, pending further observations, it is not possible to say which of the smaller birds actually breed in Korea and which only make it a halting-place in their annual migrations . See also:

• AREA

Area and Population.—The estimated area is 82,000 sq. m.—somewhat under that of Great See also:

• BRITAIN (Gr. Hperavuml vi7vot, Bperravia; Lat. Britannia, rarely Britannia)

Britain . The first See also:

• COMPLETE

complete See also:

• CENSUS (from Lat. censere, to estimate or assess; connected by some with centum, i.e. a count by hundreds)

census was taken in 1891, and returned the population in See also:

• ROUND (O. Fr. rond, Lat. rotundus, the Fr. is the source also of Du. rond; Ger., Swed., Dan. and Nor. rond)

round See also:

• NUMBERS, BOOK OF
• NUMBERS, PARTITION OF

numbers at 17,000,000, See also:

• FEMALES

females being in the See also:

• MAJORITY (Fr. majorite; Med. Lat. majoritas; Lat. major, greater)

majority . It was subsequently, however, estimated at a maximum of 12,000,000 . There is a foreign population of about 65,000, of whom 6o,000 are See also:

• JAPANESE

Japanese . It is estimated that little more than half the arable land is under cultivation, and that the See also:

• SOIL

soil could support an additional 7,000,000 . The native population is absolutely homogeneous . Northern Korea, with its severe climate, is thinly peopled, while the See also:

• RICH, BARNABE (c. 1540-1617)
• RICH, CLAUDIUS JAMES (1787-1821)
• RICH, JOHN (1692-1761)
• RICH, PENELOPE, LADY (c. 1562–1607)
• RICH, RICHARD, 1ST BARON RICH (1490?-1567)

rich and warm provinces of the south and west are populous . A large majority of the See also:

• PEOPLE

people are engaged in See also:

• AGRICULTURE
• AGRICULTURE (from Lat. ages, field, and colere, to cultivate)
• AGRICULTURE, BOARD OF

agriculture .

There is little See also:

• EMIGRATION (from Lat. emigrare; e, ex, out of, and migrare, to depart)

emigration, except into See also:

• RUSSIAN

Russian and Chinese territory, but some Koreans have emigrated to See also:

• HAWAII (HAWAIIAN or SANDWICH ISLANDS)

Hawaii and See also:

• MEXICO
• MEXICO (Span. Mejico, or Mexico,)
• MEXICO, FEDERAL DISTRICT OF
• MEXICO, GULF OF

Mexico . The capital is the inland See also:

• CITY (through Fr. cite, from Lat. civitas)

city of Seoul, with a population of nearly 200,000 . Among other towns, Songdo (Kaisong), the capital from about 910 to 1392, is a walled city of the first See also:

• RANK (O.Fr. rant or rent, mod. rang, generally connected with the O.E. and O.H.G. bring, a ring)

rank, 25 M . N.W. of Seoul, with a population of 6o,000 . It possesses the stately remains of the See also:

• PALACE (Lat. Palatium, the name given by Augustus to his residence on the Palatine Hill)

palace of the Korean See also:

• KINGS, FIRST AND SECOND BOOKS OF

kings of the Wang See also:

• DYNASTY (Gr. &vvaareta, sovereignty, the position of a hevnori7r, lord, ruler, from SuvaaBay to be able, Suvaµas, power)

dynasty, is a great centre of the See also:

• GRAIN (derived through the French from Lat. granum, seed, from an Aryan root meaning " to wear down," which also appears in the common Teutonic word " corn ")

grain See also:

• TRADE (O. Eng. trod, footstep, from tredan, to tread; in M. Eng. the forms teed, trod and trade appear, the last in the sense of a beaten track)
• TRADE, BOARD OF

trade and the See also:

• SOLE (Solea)

sole centre of the ginseng manufacture, makes wooden shoes, coarse pottery and See also:

• FINE

fine See also:

• MATTING

matting, and manufactures with sesamum oil the stout oiled paper for which Korea is famous . Phyong-yang, a city on the Tai-dong, had a population of 6o,000 before the See also:

• WAR
• WAR (O. Eng. werre, Fr. guerre, of Teutonic origin; cf. O.H.G. werran, to confound)

war of 1894, in which it was nearly destroyed; but it fast regained its population . It lies on rocky heights above a region of stoneless See also:

• ALLUVIUM

alluvium on the east, and with the largest and richest See also:

• PLAIN (O. Fr. plain, from Lat. plenum)

plain in Korea on the west . It has five coal-mines within ten miles, and the See also:

• DISTRICT

district is rich in See also:

• IRON [symbol Fe, atomic weight 55.85 (0=16)]

iron, See also:

• SILK

silk, See also:

• COTTON
• COTTON (Fr. coton; from Arab. qutun)
• COTTON, CHARLES (163o–1687)
• COTTON, GEORGE EDWARD LYNCH (1813–1866)
• COTTON, JOHN (1585–1652)
• COTTON, SIR ROBERT BRUCE

cotton, and grain .. It has easy communication with the sea (its port being Chin-nampo), and is important historically and commercially . Auriferous See also:

• QUARTZ

quartz is worked by a foreign See also:

• COMPANY

company in its neighbourhood . Near the city is the illustrated See also:

• STANDARD
• STANDARD, BATTLE OF THE

standard of land measurement cut by Ki-tze in 1124 B.C . With the exceptions of Kang-hwa, Chong-ju, Tung-nai, Fusan, and Won-san, it is very doubtful if any other Korean towns reach a population of 15,000 .

The provincial capitals and many other cities are walled . Most of the larger towns are in the warm and fertile See also:

• SOUTHERN

southern provinces . One is very much like another, and nearly all their streets are replicas of the better alleys of Seoul . The actual antiquities of Korea are dolmens, sepulchral pottery, and Korean and Japanese fortifications . See also:

• RACE

Race.—The origin of the Korean people is unknown . They are of the Mongol See also:

• FAMILY

family; their See also:

• LANGUAGE (adapted from the Fr. langage, from langue, tongue, Lat. lingua)

language belongs to the so-called Turanian group, is polysyllabic, possesses an See also:

• ALPHABET (see also WRITING)

alphabet of r 1 vowels and 14 consonants, and a script named En-See also:

• MUN, ADRIEN ALBERT MARIE DE, COUNT (1841— )
• MUN, THOMAS (1571–1641)

mun . Literature of the higher class and See also:

• OFFICIAL (Late Lat. QJicialis, for class. Lat. apparitor, from officium, office, duty)

official and upper class See also:

• CORRESPONDENCE
• CORRESPONDENCE (from med. scholastic Lat. correspondentia, corrcspondere, compounded of Lat. cum, with, and respond ere, to answer; cf. Fr. correspondance)

correspondence are exclusively in Chinese characters, but since 1895 official documents have contained an admixture of En-mun . The Koreans are distinct from both Chinese and Japanese in See also:

• PHYSIOGNOMY

physiognomy, though dark straight See also:

• HAIR (a word common to Teutonic languages)

hair, dark oblique eyes, and ;. tinge of See also:

• BRONZE

bronze in the skin are always See also:

• PRESENT

present . Thecheek-bones are high; the See also:

• NOSE (O.Eng. nosu, cf. Dutch neus, Swed. nos, snout; the Aix in Provence. Both at Aix and at Lyons he acquired great connexion with O.Eng. nasu is obscure, cf. Ger. Nase, Lat. pares, distinction by his labours during outbreaks of the plague. In nostrils,

nose inclined to flatness; the mouth thin-lipped and refined among See also:

• PATRICIANS (Lat. patricius, an adjectival form from pater, father; not, as some say, from pater and ciere, to call)

patricians, and wide and full-lipped among plebeians; the ears are small, and the brow fairly well See also:

• DEVELOPED

developed . The expression indicates See also:

• QUICK

quick intelligence rather than force and See also:

• MENTAL

mental calibre . The male height averages 5 ft . 41 in .

The hands and feet are small and well-formed . The physique is See also:

• GOOD, JOHN MASON (1764-1827)

good, and porters carry on journeys from 100 to 200 lb . Men marry at from 18 to 20 years, girls at 16, and have large families, in which a strumous taint is nearly universal . See also:

• WOMEN

Women are secluded and occupy a very inferior position . The Koreans are rigid monogamists, but See also:

• CONCUBINAGE
• CONCUBINAGE (Lat. concubina, a concubine; from con-, with, and cubare, to lie)

concubinage has a recognized status . See also:

• PRODUCTION (Lat. productionem, from producere, to pro-duce)

Production and See also:

• INDUSTRIES

Industries. i . Minerals.—Extensive coal-See also:

• FIELDS, JAMES THOMAS (1817-1881)

fields, producing coal of See also:

• FAIR

fair quality, as yet undeveloped, occur in Hwang-See also:

• HAI (939-1038)

hai Do and elsewhere . Iron is abundant, especially in Phyong-an Do, and rich See also:

• COPPER (symbol Cu, atomic weight 63.1, H=1, or 63.6, O = 16)

copper ore, See also:

• SILVER

silver and See also:

• GALENA

galena are found . Crystal is a noted product of Korea, and See also:

• TALC

talc of good quality is also present . In 1885 the rudest See also:

• PROCESS

process of " placer " washing produced an export of See also:

• GOLD
• GOLD [symbol Au, atomic weight 195.7(H = 1),197.2(0 =16)]

gold dust amounting to £120,000; quartz-See also:

• MINING

mining methods were subsequently introduced, and the annual declared value of gold produced See also:

• ROSE
• ROSE (Rosa)
• ROSE, GEORGE (1744-1818)
• ROSE, HUGH JAMES (1795—1838)
• ROSE, WILLIAM STEWART (1775-1843)

rose to about £450,000; but much is believed to have been sent out of the country clandestinely . The reefs were See also:

• LEFT

left untouched till 1897, when an See also:

• AMERICAN

American company, which had obtained a concession in Phyong-an Do in 1895, introduced the latest mining appliances, and raised the declared export of 1898 to £240,047, believed to represent -a yield for that year of £600,000 . Russian, See also:

• GERMAN
• GERMAN, DUTCH AND SCANDINAVIAN

German, English, See also:

• FRENCH
• FRENCH, DANIEL CHESTER (1850– )
• FRENCH, NICHOLAS (1604-1678)

French and Japanese applicants subsequently obtained concessions .

The concessionnaires regard Korean labour as docile and intelligent . The See also:

• PRIVILEGE

privilege of owning mines in Korea was extended to aliens under the Mining Regulations of 1906 . ii . Agriculture.—Korean soil consists largely of See also:

• LIGHT

light sandy See also:

• LOAM (O.E. lam; the word appears in Dut. leem and Ger. Lehm; the ultimate origin is the root lai-, meaning " to be sticky," which is seen in the cognate " lime," Lat. limus, mud, clay)

loam, disintegrated See also:

• LAVA

lava, and rich, stoneless alluvium, from 3 to ro ft. deep . The rainfall is abundant during the necessitous months of the year, facilities for the See also:

• IRRIGATION (Lat. in, and rigare, to water or wet)

irrigation of the See also:

• RICE (Greek 6p6 a, Latin oryza, French riz, Italian riso, Spanish arroz, derived from the Arabic)
• RICE, EDMUND IGNATIUS (1762-1844)
• RICE, JAMES (1843-1882)

rice See also:

• CROP (a word common. in various forms, such as Germ. Kropf, to many Teutonic languages for a swelling, excrescence, round head or top of anything; it appears also in Romanic languages derived from Teutonic, in Fr. as troupe, whence the English " crupper "

crop are ample, and drought and floods are seldom known . Land is held from the proprietors on the terms of receiving See also:

• SEED (from the root seen in Lat. serere, to sow)

seed from them and returning half the produce, the landlord paying the taxes . Any Korean can become a landowner by reclaiming and cultivating unoccupied See also:

• CROWN

crown land for three years free of See also:

• TAXATION
• TAXATION (from " tax," derived, through the French, from Lat. taxare, to appraise, which again is connected with the same root as tangere, to touch)

taxation, after which he pays taxes annually . Good land produces two crops a year . The implements used are two makes of iron-shod wooden ploughs; a large See also:

• SHOVEL (O.E. scoff, from root of scufan, to shove, push, cf. Ger. Schaufel, also Schiippe, scoop)
• SHOVEL, SIR CLOUDESLEY [or CLOWDISLEY SHOVELL as he seems to have spelt the name himself] (c. 1650-1707)

shovel, worked by three or five men, one working the handle, the others jerking the blade by See also:

• ROPES, JOHN CODMAN (1836–1899)

ropes attached to it; a See also:

• SHORT, FRANCIS JOB (1857– )

short See also:

• SHARP, GRANVILLE (1735-1813)
• SHARP, JAMES (1618-1679)
• SHARP, JOHN (1645-1714)
• SHARP, RICHARD (1759-1835)
• SHARP, WILLIAM (1749-1824)
• SHARP, WILLIAM (1856-1905)

sharp-pointed See also:

• HOE (through Fr. houe from O.H.G. houwd, mod. Ger. Haue; the root is seen in " hew," to cut, cleave; the word must be distinguished from " hoe," promontory, tongue of land, seen in place names, e.g. Morthoe, Luton Hoo, the Hoe at Plymouth, &c. ; this is t
• HOE, RICHARD MARCH (1812-1886)

hoe, a bamboo See also:

• RAKE (O.E. rata, cognate with Du. raak, Ger. Rechen, from a root meaning to scrape together, heap up)

rake, and a wooden See also:

• BARROW
• BARROW (from A.S. beorh, a mount or hillock)
• BARROW, ISAAC (1630-1677)
• BARROW, SIR JOHN (1764-1848)

barrow, all of See also:

• RUDE, FRANCOIS (1784–1855)

rude construction . Rice is threshed by beating the ears on a See also:

• LOG (a word of uncertain etymological origin,possibly onomatopoeic; the New English Dictionary rejects the derivation from Norwegian lag, a fallen tree)

log; other grains, with flails on mud threshing-floors . Winnowing is performed by throwing up the grain on windy days . Rice is hulled and grain coarsely ground in See also:

• STONE
• STONE (0. Eng. shin; the word is common to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Stein, Du. steen, Dan. and Swed. sten; the root is also seen in Gr. aria, pebble)
• STONE, CHARLES POMEROY (1824-1887)
• STONE, EDWARD JAMES (1831-1897)
• STONE, FRANK (1800-1859)
• STONE, GEORGE (1708—1764)
• STONE, LUCY [BLACKWELL] (1818-1893)
• STONE, MARCUS (184o— )
• STONE, NICHOLAS (1586-1647)

stone querns or by water pestles .

There are provincial See also:

• HORSE (a word common to Teutonic languages in such forms as hors, hros, ros; cf. the Ger. ross)

horse-breeding stations, where See also:

• PONY
• PONY (from the Lowland Scots powney, probably from 0. Fr. pouleriet, diminutive of poulain, a colt or foal; Late Lat. pullanus, Lat. pullus, a young animal)

pony stallions, from ro to 12 hands high, are bred for carrying burdens . Magnificent red bulls are bred by the farmers for ploughing and other farming operations, and for the transport of goods . See also:

• SHEEP
• SHEEP (from the Anglo-Saxon sceap, a word common in various forms to Teutonic languages; e.g. the German Schaf)

Sheep and goats are bred on the imperial farms, but only for See also:

• SACRIFICE (from Lat. sacrificium; sacer, holy, and facere, to make)

sacrifice . Small, hairy, black pigs, and fowls, are universal . The cultivation does not compare in neatness and thoroughness, with that of China and Japan . There are no trustworthy estimates of the yield of any given measurement of land . The farmers put the average yield of rice at See also:

• THIRTY

thirty-See also:

• FOLD

fold, and of other grain at twenty-fold . Korea produces all cereals and See also:

• ROOT (late O.E. rot, adopted from Scand., cf. Norw. and Swed. rot, Dan. rod; the true O.E. word was wyrt, plant, represented in Ger. Wurz or Wurzel; the ultimate root is the same in both words, and is seen in Lat. radix)
• ROOT, ELIHU (1845– )

root crops except the tropical, along with cotton, See also:

• TOBACCO

tobacco, a species of the See also:

• RHEA

Rhea plant used for making grass-See also:

• CLOTH

cloth, and the Brousonettia papyrifera . The articles chiefly cultivated are rice, See also:

• MILLET (Fr. millet; Ital. miglietto, diminutive of miglio= Lat. mille, a thousand, in allusion to its fertility)
• MILLET (or MILE), JEAN FRANCOIS (c. 1642–1679)
• MILLET, FRANCIS DAVIS (1846- )
• MILLET, JEAN FRANCOIS (1814–1875)

millet, beans, ginseng (at Songdo), cotton, See also:

• HEMP (in O. Eng. henep, cf. Dutch hennep, Ger. Hanf , cognate with Gr. Kavval3er, Lat. cannabis)

hemp, oil-seeds, bearded See also:

• WHEAT
• WHEAT (Triticum)

wheat, oats, See also:

• BARLEY (Hordeum sativum)

barley, See also:

• SORGHUM

sorghum, and sweet and Irish potatoes . Korean agriculture suffers from infamous roads, the want of the See also:

• EXCHANGE

exchange of seed, and the insecurity of the gains of labour, It occupies about three-fourths of the population . iii . Other Industries.—The industries of Korea, apart from supplying the actual necessaries of a poor population, are few and rarely collective .

They consist chiefly in the manufacture of sea-See also:

• SALT (a common Teutonic word, cf. Dutch zout, Ger. Salz, Scand. salt; cognate with Gr. &Xs, Lat. sal)
• SALT, SIR TITUS, BART

salt, of varied and admirable paper, thin and poor silk, horse-hair See also:

• CRINOLINE (a Fr. word formed of the Lat. crinis, hair, and linum, thread)

crinoline for hats, fine split bamboo blinds, hats and mats, coarse pottery, hemp cloth for mourners, See also:

• BRASS
• BRASS (O. Eng. braes)

brass See also:

• BOWLS

bowls and grass-cloth . Won-san and Fusan are large fishing centres, and salt See also:

• FISH (O. Eng. fist, a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Dutch visch, Ger. Fisch, Goth. fisks, cognate with the Lat. piscis)
• FISH, HAMILTON (1808-1893)

fish and fish manure are important exports; but the prolific fishing-grounds are worked chiefly by Japanese labour and capital . Paper and ginseng are the only manufactured articles on the See also:

• LIST (O.E. lisle, a Teutonic word, cf. Dut. lust, Ger. Leiste, adapted in Ital. lista and Fr. lisle)
• LIST, FRIEDRICH (1789-1846)

list of Korean exports . The arts are nil . Commerce.—A commercial treaty was concluded with Japan in 1876, and See also:

• TREATIES

treaties with the See also:

• EUROPEAN

European countries and the See also:

• UNITED

United States of See also:

• AMERICA

America were concluded subsequently . An imperial See also:

• EDICT (Lat. edictum, from e, out, and dicere, to say, speak)

edict of the loth of May 1904 annulled all Korean treaties with Russia . After the opening of certain Korean ports to foreign trade, the customs were placed under the management of European commissioners nominated by See also:

• SIR

Sir Robert See also:

• HART, ALBERT BUSHNELL (1854– )
• HART, CHARLES (d. 1683)
• HART, ERNEST ABRAHAM (1835–1898)
• HART, SIR ROBERT
• HART, WILLIAM (1823–1894)

Hart from See also:

• PEKING, or PEKIN

Peking . The ports and other towns open are Seoul, Chemulpo, Fusan, Won-san, Chin-nampo, Mok-po, Kun-san, Ma-san-po, See also:

• SONG

Song-chin, Wiju, Yong-ampo, and Phyong-yang . The value of foreign trade of the open ports has fluctuated considerably, but has shown a tendency to increase on the whole . For example, in 1884 imports were valued at £170,113 and exports at £95,377 . By 1890 imports had risen to £790,261, and there-after fluctuated greatly, See also:

• STANDING

standing at only £473,598 in 1893, but at £1,017,238 in 1897, and £1,382,352 in 1901, but under abnormal conditions in 1904 this last amount was nearly doubled . Exports in 1890 were valued at £J92,746; they also fluctuated greatly, falling to £316, 072 in 1893, but standing at £863,828 in 1901, and having a further increase in some subsequent years .

These figures exclude the value of gold dust . The principal imports are cotton goods, railway materials, mining supplies and metals, tobacco, kerosene, See also:

• TIMBER

timber, and clothing . Japanese cotton yarns are imported to be See also:

• WOVEN

woven into a strong cloth on Korean See also:

• HAND
• HAND (a word common to Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Hand, Goth. handus)
• HAND, FERDINAND GOTTHELF (1786-185r)

hand-looms . Beans and peas, rice, cowhides, and ginseng are the See also:

• CHIEF (from Fr. chef, head, Lat. caput)

chief exports, apart from gold . Communications.—Under Japanese auspices a railway from Chemulpo to Seoul was completed in 1900 . This became a See also:

• BRANCH (from the Fr. branche, late Lat. branca, an animal's paw)

branch of the longer line from Fusan to Seoul (286 m.), the concession for which was granted in 1898 . This line was pushed forward rapidly on the outbreak of the Russo-Japanese War, and the whole was opened See also:

• EARLY
• EARLY, JUBAL ANDERSON (1816-1894)

early in 1905 . A railway from Seoul to Wiju was planned under French See also:

• ENGINEERS, MILITARY

engineers, but the See also:

• WORK

work was started by the Korean See also:

• GOVERNMENT
• GOVERNMENT (0. Fr. governement, mod. gouvernement, O. Fr. governer, mod. gouverner, from Lat. gubernare, to steer a ship, guide, rule; cf. Gr. xv(3epvav)

government . This line also, however, was taken over by the Japanese military authorities, and the first trains ran through early in 1905, in which year Japan obtained See also:

• CONTROL (Fr. contrdle, older form contre rolle, from Med. Lat. contra-rotulus, a counter roll or copy of a document used to check the original; there is no instance in English of the use of " control " in this, its literal, meaning)

control of the whole of the Korean See also:

• INTERNAL

internal communications, The See also:

• MAIN (from the Aryan root which appears in " may " and " might," and Lat. magnus, great)
• MAIN (Lat. Moenus)

main roads centring in Seoul are seldom See also:

• FIT

fit even for the passage of ox-carts, and the secondary roads are See also:

• BAD, BCD

bad bridle-tracks, frequently degenerating into " rock ladders." Some improvements, however, have been effected under Japanese direction . The inland transit of goods is almost entirely on the backs of bulls carrying from 450 to 600 lb, on ponies carrying 200 lb, and on men carrying from 10o to 15o lb, bringing the average cost up to a fraction over 8d. per mile per ton . The corvee exists, with its usual hardships . See also:

• BRIDGES
• BRIDGES, ROBERT (1844– )

Bridges are made of posts, carrying a framework either covered with timber or with See also:

• PINE (Lat. Pinus, Gr. srlrur)

pine branches and See also:

• EARTH
• EARTH (a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Erde, Dutch aarde, Swed. and Dan. jord; outside Teutonic it appears only in the Gr. 'pq'e, on the ground; it has been connected by some etymologists with the Aryan root ar-, to plough, which is seen in
• EARTH, FIGURE OF
• EARTH, FIGURE OF THE

earth .

They are removed at the beginning of the rainy season, and are not replaced for three months . The larger rivers are unbridged, but there are numerous government ferries . The infamous roads and the risks during the bridgeless season greatly hamper trade . Japanese steamers ply on the Han between Chemulpo and Seoul . A postal system, established in 1894-1895, has been gradually extended . There are See also:

• POSTAGE

postage stamps of four values . The Japanese, under the agreement of 1905, took over the postal, telegraphic and See also:

• TELEPHONE (Gr. rjXs, far, and dxwvr7, voice)

telephone services . Korea is connected with the Chinese and Japanese See also:

• TELEGRAPH (Gr. Tike, far, and rypaq5eiv, to write)

telegraph systems by a Japanese line from Chemulpo via Seoul to Fusan, and by a line acquired by the empire between Seoul and \\'iju . The See also:

• STATE
• STATE, GREAT OFFICERS OF

state has also lines from Seoul to the open ports, &c . Korea has See also:

• REGULAR

regular See also:

• STEAM
• STEAM (0. Eng. steam, vapour, smoke, cf. Du. steam; the origin is unknown)

steam communication with ports in Japan, the Gulf of Pechili, See also:

• SHANGHAI

Shanghai, &c . Her own See also:

• MERCANTILE (or COMMERCIAL) AGENCIES

mercantile marine is considerable . Government.—From 1895, when China renounced her claims to See also:

• SUZERAINTY

suzerainty, to 1910 the See also:

• KING
• KING (O. Eng. cyning, abbreviated into cyng, cing; cf. O. H. G. chun- kuning, chun- kunig, M.H.G. kiinic, kiinec, kiinc, Mod. Ger. Konig, O. Norse konungr, kongr, Swed. konung, kung)
• KING [OF OCKHAM], PETER KING, 1ST BARON (1669-1734)
• KING, CHARLES WILLIAM (1818-1888)
• KING, CLARENCE (1842–1901)
• KING, EDWARD (1612–1637)
• KING, EDWARD (1829–1910)
• KING, HENRY (1591-1669)
• KING, RUFUS (1755–1827)
• KING, THOMAS (1730–1805)
• KING, WILLIAM (1650-1729)
• KING, WILLIAM (1663–1712)

king (since 1897 See also:

• EMPEROR (Fr. empereur, from the Lat. imperator)

emperor) was in theory an See also:

• INDEPENDENT

independent See also:

• SOVEREIGN

sovereign, Japan in 1904 guaranteeing the welfare and dignity of the imperial See also:

• HOUSE
• HOUSE (O. Eng. hiss, a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Dut. huis, Ger. Haus; in Gothic it is only found in gudhiss, a temple; it may be ultimately connected with the root of " hide," conceal)

house .

Under a treaty signed at Seoul on the 17th of See also:

• NOVEMBER (Lat. novem, nine)

November 1905, Japan directed the See also:

• EXTERNAL

external relations of Korea, and Japanese See also:

• DIPLOMATIC

diplomatic and consular representatives took See also:

• CHARGE
• CHARGE (through the Fr. from the Late Lat. carricare, to load in a carrus or wagon; cf. " cargo ")

charge of Korean subjects and i, terests in foreign countries . Japan undertook the See also:

• MAINTENANCE (Fr. maintenance, from maintenir, to maintain, support, Lat. manu tenere, to hold in the hand)

maintenance of existing treaties between Korea and foreign See also:

• POWERS, HIRAM (1805-1873)

powers; and Korea agreed that her future foreign treaties should be concluded through the See also:

• MEDIUM

medium of Japan . A See also:

• RESIDENT

resident-See also:

• GENERAL
• GENERAL (Lat. generalis, of or relating to a genus, kind or class)

general See also:

• REP, REPP, or REPS

rep-resented Japan at Seoul, to See also:

• DIRECT

direct diplomatic affairs, the first being the See also:

• MARQUIS

Marquis See also:

• ITO, HIROBUMI, PRINCE (1841-1909)

Ito . Under a further See also:

• CONVENTION (Lat. conventio, an assembly or agreement, from convenire, to come together)
• CONVENTION, THE NATIONAL

convention of July 1907, the resident-general's powers were enormously increased . In administrative reforms the Korean government followed his guidance; See also:

• LAWS

laws could not be enacted nor administrative See also:

• MEASURES

measures undertaken without his consent; the See also:

• APPOINTMENT, POWER OF

appointment and dismissal of high officials, and the engagement of foreigners in government employ, were subject to his See also:

• PLEASURE (through Fr. plaisir from Lat. placere, to please; Gr. rlbovii)

pleasure . Each See also:

• DEPARTMENT (Fr. departement, from departir, to separate into parts)

department of state has a Japanese See also:

• VICE

vice-See also:

• MINISTER (Lat. minister, servant)

minister, and a large proportion of Japanese officials were introduced into these departments as well as Japanese chiefs of the bureaus of See also:

• POLICE (Fr. police, government, civil administration, a police force, Gr. sroXumeia, constitution, condition of a state, roars, city, state)

police and customs . By a treaty dated August 22nd 191o, which came into effect seven days later the emperor of Korea made " complete and permanent cession to the emperor of Japan of all rights of See also:

• SOVEREIGNTY

sovereignty over the whole of Korea." The entire direction of the See also:

• ADMINISTRATION (Lat. administrare, to serve)

administration was then taken over by the Japanese resident-general, who was given the See also:

• TITLE (0. Fr. title, mod. titre, from Lat. titulus)

title of See also:

• GOVERNOR (from the Fr. gouverneur, from gouverner, O. Fr. governer, Lat. gubernare, to steer a ship, to direct, guide)

governor-general . The See also:

• JURISDICTION
• JURISDICTION, CRIMINAL LAW, DIVORCE

jurisdiction of the consular courts was abolished but japan guaranteed the continuance of the existing Korean See also:

• TARIFF (adapted in English from the French; the word comes through the Spanish tarifa, a list or schedule of prices, from the Arabic, ta'rifa, information, an inventory, 'arf, know-ledge)

tariff for ten years . See also:

• LOCAL

Local Administration.—Korea for administrative purposes is divided into provinces and prefectures or magistracies . Japanese reforms in this department have been complete . Each provincial government has a Japanese secretary, police inspector and clerks . The secretary may represent the governor in his See also:

• ABSENCE (Lat. absentia)

absence .

Law.—A criminal See also:

• CODE (Lat. codex)

code, scarcely equalled for barbarity, though twice mitigated by royal edict since 1785, remained in force in its main provisions till 1895 . Subsequently, a mixed See also:

• COMMISSION (from Lat. commissio, committere)

commission of revision carried out some good work . Elaborate legal machinery was devised, though its provisions were constantly violated by the imperial will and the See also:

• GROSS

gross corruption of officials . Five classes of law courts were established, and See also:

• PROVISION (Lat. provisio)

provision was made for appeals in both See also:

• CIVIL

civil and criminal cases . Abuses in legal administration and in tax-See also:

• COLLECTING

collecting were the chief grievances which led to local insurrections . Oppression by the See also:

• THRONE

throne and the official and noble classes prevailed extensively; but the weak protected themselves by the use of the Kyei, or principle of association, which developed among Koreans into powerful trading See also:

• GILDS, or GUILDS

gilds, trades-unions, mutual benefit associations, See also:

• MONEY

money-lending gilds, &c . Nearly all traders, porters and artisans were members of gilds, powerfully bound together and strong by combined See also:

• ACTION

action and mutual helpfulness in See also:

• TIME (0. Eng. Lima, cf. Icel. timi, Swed. timme, hour, Dan. time; from the root also seen in " tide," properly the time of between the flow and ebb of the sea, cf. O. Eng. getidan, to happen, " even-tide," &c.; it is not directly related to Lat. tempus)
• TIME, MEASUREMENT OF
• TIME, STANDARD

time of need . Under the Japanese regime the judiciary and the executive were rigidly separated . The law courts, including the See also:

• COURT
• COURT (from the O. Fr. court, Late Lat. cortis, curtis, a popular form of class. Lat. cohors, gen. cohortis; the mod. Fr. form tour is due to the influence of the Lat. curia, the word used in medieval documents to translate " court " in the feudal sense)
• COURT, ANTOINE (1696-176o)

court of cassation, three courts of See also:

• APPEAL

appeal, eight local courts, and 115 district courts, were put under Japanese See also:

• JUDGES, THE BOOK OF

judges, and the codification of the laws was undertaken . The See also:

• PRISON (derived through the Fr. from the Lat. prehensio, seizure)

prison system was also reformed . See also:

• FINANCE

Finance and Money.—Until 1904 the finances of Korea were completely disorganized; the currency was chaotic, and the See also:

• BUDGET (originally from a Gallic word meaning sack, latinized as bulga, leather wallet or bag, thence in O. Fr. bougette, from which the Eng. form is derived)

budget was an official formality making little or no See also:

• ATTEMPT (Lat. adtemptare, attentare, to try)

attempt at accuracy . By agreement of the 22nd of August 1904, Korea accepted a Japanese See also:

• FINANCIAL

financial adviser, and valuable reforms were quickly entered upon under the direction of the first Japanese official, Mr T .

Megata . He had to contend against corrupt officialdom, indiscriminate See also:

• EXPENDITURE

expenditure, and absence of organization in the collection of See also:

• REVENUE
• REVENUE (0. Fr. revenu, from revenir, to return)

revenue, apart from the confusion with regard to the currency . This last was nominally on a silver standard . The coins chiefly in use were (i) copper See also:

• CASH

cash, which were strung in hundreds on strings of See also:

• STRAW

straw, and, as about 9lb See also:

• WEIGHT

weight was equal to one See also:

• SHILLING

shilling, were excessively cumbrous, but were nevertheless valued at their See also:

• FACE (from Lat. fades, derived either from facere, to make, or from a root fa-, meaning " appear "; cf. Gr. cbatvstv)

face value; (ii) See also:

• NICKEL
• NICKEL (symbol Ni, atomic weight 58.68 (0=16))

nickel coins, which, being profitable to See also:

• MINT
• MINT (Lat. moneta; Mid. Eng. mynt)

mint, were issued in enormous quantities, quickly depreciated, and were moreover extensively forged . The Dai Ichi Ginko (First See also:

• BANK

Bank of Japan), which has a branch in Seoul and agencies in other towns, was made the government central See also:

• TREASURY

treasury, and its notes were recognized as legal See also:

• TENDER

tender in Korea . The currency of Korea being thus fixed, the first step was to reorganize the nickel coinage . From the 1st of August 1905 the old nickels paid into the treasury were remitted and the issue carefully regulated; so also with the cash, which was retained as a subsidiary coinage, while a supplementary coinage was issued of silver 10-sen pieces and bronze 1-sen and half-sen pieces . To aid the free circulation of money and facilitate trade, the government grants subsidies for the See also:

• ESTABLISHMENT (0. Fr. establissement, Fr. etablissement, late Norm. Fr. establishement, from O. Fr. establir, Fr. etablir, Lat. stabilire, to make stable)

establishment of co-operative warehouse companies with bonded warehouses . Regulations have also been promulgated with respect to promissory notes, which have See also:

• LONG, GEORGE (1800-1879)
• LONG, JOHN DAVIS (1838– )

long existed in Korea . They took the See also:

• FORM (Lat. forma)

form of a piece of paper about an See also:

• INCH (O. Eng. ynce from Lat. uncia, a twelfthpart; cf. " ounce," and see As)

inch broad and five to eight inches long, on which was written the sum, the date of See also:

• PAYMENT (Fr. paiement, from payer, to pay; Lat. pacare, to appease, pax, peace)

payment and the name of the payer and payee, with their See also:

• SEALS

seals; the paper was then torn down its length, and one half given to each party . The debtor was obliged to pay the amount of the See also:

• DEBT (Lat. debitum, a thing owed)

debt to any See also:

• PERSON, OFFENCES AGAINST THE

person who presented the missing half of the See also:

• BILL

bill . The readiness with which they were accepted led to Aver-issue, and, consequently, financial crises .

The new regulations require the pacified and policed its See also:

• BORDERS, THE

borders, and introduced laws and Chinese See also:

• ETIQUETTE

etiquette and polity . Korean See also:

• ANCIENT
• ANCIENT (also spelt ANTIENT; derived, through the Fr. ancien, old, from the late Lat. antianum, from ante, before)

ancient See also:

• HISTORY

history is far from satisfying the rigid demands of See also:

• MODERN

modern See also:

• CRITICISM
• CRITICISM (from the Gr. KpiTrlS, a judge, Kpivew, to decide, to give an authoritative opinion)

criticism, but it appears that Ki-tze's dynasty ruled the peninsula until the 4th See also:

• CENTURY (from Lat. centuria, a division of a hundred men)

century B.C., from which period until the loth century A.D. civil See also:

• WARS

wars and foreign aggressions are prominent . Nevertheless, Hiaksai, which with Korai and Shinra then constituted Korea, was a cenfre of See also:

• LITERARY

literary culture in the 4th century, through which the Chinese See also:

• CLASSICS

classics and the See also:

• ART

art of See also:

• WRITING
• WRITING (the verbal noun of " to write," O. Eng. writan, to inscribe)

writing reached the other two kingdoms . Buddism, a forceful civilizing See also:

• ELEMENT (Lat. elementum)

element, reached Hiaksai in A.D . 384, and from it the sutras and images of northern See also:

• BUDDHISM

Buddhism were carried to Japan, as well as Chinese letters and See also:

• ETHICS
• ETHICS, SHAFTESBURY, HOBBES

ethics . Internecine wars were terminated about 913 by Wang the Founder, who unified the peninsula under the name Korai, made Song-do its capital, and endowed Buddhism as the state See also:

• RELIGION
• RELIGION, FOLKLORE, CUSTOM

religion . In the 11th century Korea was stripped of her territory west of the Yalu by a warlike See also:

• HORDE

horde of Tungus stock, since which time her frontiers have been stationary . The Wang dynasty perished in 1392, an important See also:

• EPOCH (Gr. E7roxij, holding in suspense, a pause, from E1rxav, to hold up, to stop)

epoch in the peninsula, when Ni Taijo, or Litan, the founder of the present dynasty, ascended the throne, after his country had suffered severely from Jenghiz and Khublai See also:

• KHAN (from the Turki, hence Persian and Arabic Khan)

Khan . He tendered his See also:

• HOMAGE (from homo, through the Low Lat. hominaticum, which occurs in a document of 1035)

homage to the first Ming emperor of China, received from him his See also:

• INVESTITURE (Late Lat. investitura)

investiture as sovereign, and accepted from him the Chinese See also:

• CALENDAR

calendar and See also:

• CHRONOLOGY (Gr. xpovo?oyfa, computation of time, xp6vos)

chronology, in itself a See also:

• DECLARATION (from Lat. declarare, to make fully clear, clams)

declaration of fealty . He revived the name Ch'ao-Hsien, changed the capital from Song-do to Seoul, organized an administrative system, which with some modifications continued till 1895, and exists partially still, carried out vigorous reforms, disestablished Buddhism, made merit in Chinese literary See also:

• EXAMINATIONS

examinations the basis of appointment to See also:

• OFFICE (from Lat. officium, " duty," " service," a shortened form of opifacium, from facere, " to do," and either the stem of opes, " wealth," " aid," or opus, " work ")

office, made Confucian-ism the state religion, abolished human sacrifices and the burying of old men alive, and introduced that Confucian system of See also:

• EDUCATION

education, polity, and social See also:

• ORDER
• ORDER (through Fr. ordre, for earlier ordene, from Lat. ordo, ordinis, rank, service, arrangement; the ultimate source is generally taken to be the root seen in Lat. oriri, rise, arise, begin; cf. " origin ")
• ORDER, HOLY

order which has dominated Korea for five centuries . Either this king or an immediate successor introduced the present See also:

• NATIONAL

national See also:

• COSTUME
• COSTUME (through the Fr. costume, from Ital. costume, Late Lat. costuma, a contracted form of Lat. consuetudinem, ace. of consuetudo, custom, habit, manner, &c.)

costume, the See also:

• DRESS (from the Fr. dresser, to set out, arrange, formed from Lat. directus, arranged, dirigere, to direct, arrange)

dress worn by the Chinese before the Manchu See also:

• CONQUEST

conquest . The early heirs of this vigorous and capable monarch used their See also:

• POWER [WILLIAM GRATTAN] TYRONE (1797-1841)

power, like him, for the good of the people; but later decay set in, and Japanese See also:

• BUCCANEERS

buccaneers ravaged the coasts, though for two centuries under Chinese See also:

• PROTECTION

protection Korea was free from actual foreign invasion .

In 1592 occurred the epoch-making invasion of Korea by a Japanese See also:

• ARMY
• ARMY (from Fr. armee, Lat. armata)

army of 300,000 men, by order of the great See also:

• REGENT (from Lat. regere, to rule)

regent Hideyoshi . China came to the See also:

• RESCUE (in Middle Eng. rescous, from O. Fr. recousse, Low Lat. rescussa, from reexcussa,reexcutere, to shake off again, re, again, ex, off, quatere, to shake)

rescue with 6o,000 men, and six years of a gigantic and bloody war followed, in which Japan used firearms for the first time against a foreign foe . Seoul and several of the See also:

• OLDEST

oldest cities were captured, and in some instances destroyed, the country was desolated, and the art treasures and the artists were carried to Japan . The Japanese troops were recalled in 1598 at Hideyoshi's See also:

• DEATH

death . The port and fishing privileges of Fusan remained in Japanese See also:

• POSSESSION
• POSSESSION (Lat. possessio, possidere, to possess)

possession, a heavy See also:

• TRIBUTE (Lat. tributurn, a stated payment, contribution)

tribute was exacted, and until 1790 the Korean king stood in humiliating relations towards Japan . Korea never recovered from the effects of this invasion, which bequeathed to all Koreans an intense hatred of the Japanese . In 1866, 1867, and 1871 French and American punitive expeditions attacked parts of Korea in which French missionaries and American adventurers had been put to death, and inflicted much loss of See also:

• LIFE

life, but retired without securing any diplomatic successes, and Korea continued to preserve her complete See also:

• ISOLATION

isolation . The first indirect step towards breaking it down had been taken in 1860, when Russia obtained from China the cession of the Usuri See also:

• PROVINCE
• PROVINCE (Lat. provincia; perhaps a contraction of providentia)

province, thus bringing a European power down to the Tumen . A large emigration of See also:

• FAMINE (Lat. fames, hunger)

famine-stricken Koreans and persecuted Christians into Russian territory followed . The emigrants were very kindly received, and many of them became thrifty and prosperous farmers . In 1876 Japan, with the consent of China, wrung a treaty from Korea by which Fusan was fully opened to Japanese See also:

• SETTLEMENT
• SETTLEMENT, ACT OF

settlement and trade, and Won-san (Gensan) and Inchiun (Chemulpo) were opened to her in 1880 . In 1882 China promulgated her " Trade and Frontier Regulations," and America negotiated a commercial treaty, followed by See also:

• GERMANY
• GERMANY (Ger. Deutschland)

Germany and Great Britain in 1883, See also:

• ITALY
• ITALY (Italia)

Italy and Russia in 1884, amount of the notes to be expressed in yen, not to be payable in old nickel coins or cash .

The notes can only be issued by members of a See also:

• NOTE
• NOTE (Lat. nota, mark, sign, from noscere, to know)

note association, a See also:

• BODY

body constituted under government regulations, whose members must uphold the See also:

• CREDIT (Lat. credere, to believe)

credit and validity of their notes . The notes must also be made payable to a definite person and require endorsement, safeguards which were previously lacking . Administrative reform was also taken in hand; the large number of superfluous and badly paid officials was considerably reduced, and the status and See also:

• SALARY

salary of all existing government officials considerably improved . An endeavour was made to publish an annual budget, in which the revenue and expenditure should accurately represent the sums actually received and expended . Regulations were framed for the purpose of establishing adequate supervision over the revenue and expenditure for the abolition of irregular taxation and extortions, as well as the practice of farming out the collection of the revenue to individuals, and, generally, to adapt the whole collection and expenditure of the national revenue to modern ideas of public finance . Down to 1910 the sum expended by Japan on Korean reforms was estimated to approach fifteen millions See also:

• STERLING
• STERLING, ANTOINETTE (d. 1904)
• STERLING, JOHN (1806-1844)

sterling . Among reforms not specifically referred to may be mentioned the improvement of coastwise See also:

• NAVIGATION (from Lat. navis, ship, and agere, to move)

navigation, the provision of posts, roads, See also:

• RAILWAYS

railways, public buildings, hospitals and sanitary See also:

• WORKS

works, and the official See also:

• ADVANCEMENT

advancement of industries . Religion.—Buddhism, which swayed Korea from the loth to the 14th century, has been discredited for three centuries, and its priests are ignorant, immoral and despised . Confucianism is the official cult, and all officials offer sacrifices and homage at stated seasons in the Confucian temples . Confucian ethics are the basis of morality and social order . Ancestor-See also:

• WORSHIP (i.e. " worth-ship," O. Eng. weor8scipe)

worship is universal . The popular cult is, however, the propitiation of demons, a modification of the See also:

• SHAMANISM

Shamanism of northern See also:

• ASIA

Asia .

The belief in demons, mostly See also:

• MALIGNANT (Lat. malignus, evil-disposed, from maligenus)

malignant, keeps the Koreans in See also:

• CONSTANT, BENJAMIN (1845-1902)

constant terror, and much of their substance is spent on propitiations . Sorceresses and See also:

• BLIND, MATHILDE (1841—1896)

blind sorcerers are the intermediaries . At the See also:

• CLOSE
• CLOSE (from Lat. clausum, shut)
• CLOSE, MAXWELL HENRY (1822-1903)

close of the 19th century the fees annually paid to these persons were estimated at £150,000; there were in Seoul woo sorceresses, and very large sums are paid to the male sorcerers and geomancers . Putting aside the temporary See also:

• CHRISTIAN
• CHRISTIAN, WILLIAM (1608-1663)

Christian work of a Jesuit See also:

• CHAPLAIN

chaplain to the Japanese Christian General Konishe, in 1594 during the Japanese invasion, as well as that on a larger See also:

• SCALE
• SCALE (1) A

scale by students who received the evangel in the See also:

• ROMAN

Roman form from Peking in 1792, and had made 4000 converts by the end of 1793, the first serious attempt at the See also:

• CONVERSION (Lat. conversio, from convertere, to turn or ,change)

conversion of Korea was made by the French Societe See also:

• DES

des See also:

• MISSIONS (Lat. missio, a sending)

Missions Etrangeres in 1835 . In spite of frequent persecutions, there were 16,500 converts in 1857 and 20,000 in 1866, in which year the French bishops and priests were martyred by order of the emperor's See also:

• FATHER

father, and several thousand native Christians were beheaded, banished or imprisoned . This See also:

• MISSION

mission in 1900 had about 30 missionaries and 40,000 converts . In 1884 and 1885, to ration being established, See also:

• PROTESTANT

Protestant missionaries of the American Presbyterian and Methodist Episcopal Churches entered Korea, and were followed by a large number of agents of other denominations . An English See also:

• BISHOP (A.S. bisceop, from Lat. episcopus, Gr. irio-Korros, " overlooker " or " overseer ")
• BISHOP, ISABELLA (1832-1904)
• BISHOP, SIR HENRY ROWLEY (1786-1855)

bishop, See also:

• CLERGY (M.E. clergie, O. Fr. clergie, from Low Lat. form clericia [Skean, by assimilation with O. Fr. clergie, Fr. clerge,from Low Lat. clericatus)
• CLERGY, BENEFIT OF

clergy, doctors and See also:

• NURSING

nursing sisters arrived in 1890 . Hospitals, orphanages, See also:

• SCHOOLS

schools and an admirable See also:

• COLLEGE (Collegium)

college in Seoul have been founded, along with tri-lingual (Chinese, Korean and English) See also:

• PRINTING (from Lat. imprimere, O. Fr. empreindre)

printing-presses; religious, See also:

• HISTORICAL

historical and scientific works and much of the See also:

• BIBLE
• BIBLE, ENGLISH

Bible have been translated into En-mun, and See also:

• PERIODICALS

periodicals of an enlightened nature in the Korean script are also circulated . The progress of Protestant missions was very slow for some years, but from 1895 converts multiplied . Education.—The " Royal Examinations " in Chinese literature held in Seoul up to 1894, which were the entrance to official position, being abolished, the See also:

• DESIRE

desire for a purely Chinese education diminished . In Seoul there were established an imperial English school with two foreign teachers, a reorganized Confucian college, a normal college under a very efficient foreign principal, Japanese, Chinese, Russian and French schools, chiefly linguistic, several Korean See also:

• PRIMARY

primary schools, mission boarding-schools, and thePai C.hasCollege connected with the American Methodist Episcopal See also:

• CHURCH
• CHURCH (according to most authorities derived from the Gr. Kvpcaxov [&wµa], " the Lord's [house]," and common to many Teutonic, Slavonic and other languages under various forms—Scottish kirk, Ger. Kirche, Swed. kirka, Dan. kirke, Russ. tserkov, Buig. cerk
• CHURCH, FREDERICK EDWIN (1826-1900)
• CHURCH, GEORGE EARL (1835–1910)
• CHURCH, RICHARD WILLIAM (1815–189o)
• CHURCH, SIR RICHARD (1784–1873)

Church, under imperial patronage, and subsidized by government, in which a liberal education of a high class was given and En-mun receives much See also:

• ATTENTION (from Lat. ad-tendo, await, expect; the condition of being " stretched " or " tense ")

attention .

The Koreans are See also:

• EXPERT (Lat. expertus, from experiri, to try)

expert linguists, and the government made liberal grants to the linguistic schools . In the primary schools boys learn See also:

• ARITHMETIC (Gr. apeOµ7run7, sc. TEXVn, the art of counting, from (ipLBµos, number)

arithmetic, and See also:

• GEOGRAPHY (Gr. yil, earth, and ypiickty, to write)

geography and Korean history are taught, with the outlines of the governmental systems of other civilized countries . The education department has been entirely reorganized under the Japanese regime, Japanese See also:

• MODELS

models being followed . History.—By both Korean and Chinese tradition Ki-tze—a councillor of the last sovereign of the 3rd Chinese dynasty, a See also:

• SAGE, RUSSELL (1816-1906)

sage, and the reputed author of parts of the famous Chinese classic, the Shu-King--is represented as entering Korea in 1122 B.c. with several thousand Chinese emigrants, who made him their king . The peninsula was then peopled by savages living in caves and subterranean holes . By both learned and popular belief in Korea Ki-tze is recognized as the founder of Korean social order, and is greatly reverenced . He called the new See also:

• KINGDOM

kingdom Ch'ao-Hsien, See also:

• FRANCE
• FRANCE, ANATOLE (1844– )

France in 1886, and See also:

• AUSTRIA
• AUSTRIA, LOWER (Ger. Niederosterreich or Osterreich unter der Enns, " Austria below the river Enns ")
• AUSTRIA, UPPER (Ger. Oberosterreich or Osterreich ob der Enns, " Austria above the river Enns ")

Austria in 1892 . A " Trade Convention " was also concluded with Russia . Seoul was opened in 1884 to foreign See also:

• RESIDENCE (Latin residere, to remain behind, to dwell, reside)

residence, and the provinces to foreign travel, and the diplomatic agents of the contracting powers obtained a recognized status at the capital . These treaties terminated the See also:

• ABSOLUTE (Lat. absolvere, to loose, set free)

absolute isolation which Korea had effectually preserved . During the negotiations, although under Chinese suzerainty, she was treated with as an independent state . Between 1897 and 1899, under diplomatic pressure, a number of ports were opened to foreign trade and residence .

From 1882 to 1894 the chief event in the newly opened kingdom was a See also:

• PLOT
• PLOT, ROBERT (164o-1696)

plot by the Tai-won-Kun, the father of the emperor, to seize on power, which led to an attack on the Japanese See also:

• LEGATION (Lat. legalio, a sending or mission)

legation, the members of which were compelled to fight their way, and that not bloodlessly, to the sea . Japan secured ample See also:

• COMPENSATION (from Lat. compensare, to weigh one thing against another)

compensation; and the Chinese resident, aided by Chinese troops, deported the Tai-won-Kun to See also:

• TIENTSIN

Tientsin . In 1884 at an official banquet the leaders of the progressive party assassinated six leading Korean statesmen, and the intrigues in Korea of the banished or escaped conspirators created difficulties which were very slow to sub-See also:

• SIDE
• SIDE (mod. Eski Adalia)

side . In spite of a constant struggle for ascendancy between the See also:

• QUEEN
• QUEEN (O.E. cwen, wife, related to "quean," O.E. cwene, a hussy; cf. Gr. yvvi7: from root gan-, to produce; cf. genus, " kin," &c.)

queen and the returned Tai-won-Kun, the next See also:

• DECADE (from Gr. Oka, ten)

decade was one of quiet . China, always esteemed in Korea, consolidated her See also:

• INFLUENCE (Late Lat. influentia, from influere, to flow in)

influence under the new conditions through a powerful resident; prosperity advanced, and certain reforms were projected by foreign " advisers." In May 1894 a more important insurrectionary rising than usual led the king to ask armed aid from China . She landed 2000 troops on the loth of See also:

• JUNE

June, having previously, in accordance with treaty provisions, notified Japan of her intention . Soon after this Japan had 12,000 troops in Korea, and occupied the capital and the treaty ports . Then Japan made three sensible proposals for Korean reform, to be undertaken jointly by herself and China . China replied that Korea must be left to reform herself, and that the withdrawal of the Japanese troops must precede negotiations . Japan rejected this See also:

• SUGGESTION

suggestion, and on the 23rd of July attacked and occupied the royal palace . After some further negotiations and fights by land and sea between Japan and China war was declared formally by Japan, and Korea was for some time the See also:

• BATTLE

battle-ground of the belligerents . The Japanese victories resulted for Korea in the See also:

• SOLEMN (Lat. sollemnis, sollemnis, less correctly solennis, yearly, annual; from sollus = totus, whole, entire, Gr. Mos., and annus, year)

solemn renunciation of Chinese suzerainty by the Korean king, the substitution of Japanese for Chinese influence, the introduction of many important reforms under Japanese advisers, and of checks on the See also:

• ABSOLUTISM

absolutism of the throne .

Everything promised well . The finances flourished under the capable control of Mr (afterwards Sir) M'Leavy See also:

• BROWN
• BROWN, CHARLES BROCKDEN (1771-181o)
• BROWN, FORD MADOX (1821-1893)
• BROWN, FRANCIS (1849- )
• BROWN, GEORGE (1818-188o)
• BROWN, HENRY KIRKE (1814-1886)
• BROWN, JACOB (1775–1828)
• BROWN, JOHN (1715–1766)
• BROWN, JOHN (1722-1787)
• BROWN, JOHN (1735–1788)
• BROWN, JOHN (1784–1858)
• BROWN, JOHN (1800-1859)
• BROWN, JOHN (1810—1882)
• BROWN, JOHN GEORGE (1831— )
• BROWN, ROBERT (1773-1858)
• BROWN, SAMUEL MORISON (1817—1856)
• BROWN, SIR GEORGE (1790-1865)
• BROWN, SIR JOHN (1816-1896)
• BROWN, SIR WILLIAM, BART
• BROWN, THOMAS (1663-1704)
• BROWN, THOMAS (1778-1820)
• BROWN, THOMAS EDWARD (1830-1897)
• BROWN, WILLIAM LAURENCE (1755–1830)

Brown, C.M.G . Large and judicious retrenchments were carried out in most of the government departments . A measure of judicial and prison reform was granted . Taxation was placed on an equable basis . The pressure of the trade gilds was relaxed . Postal and educational systems were introduced . An approach to a constitution was made . The distinction between patrician and plebeian, domestic See also:

• SLAVERY

slavery, and beating and slicing to death were abolished . The See also:

• AGE (Fr. age, through late Lat. aetaticum, from aetas)

age for See also:

• MARRIAGE

marriage of both sexes was raised . Chinese literary examinations ceased to be a See also:

• PASSPORT

passport to office . Classes previously degraded were enfranchised, and the See also:

• ALLIANCE

alliance between two essentially corrupt systems of government was severed .

For about eighteen months all the departments were practically under Japanese control . On the 8th of See also:

• OCTOBER

October 1895 the Tai-won-Kun, with Korean troops, aided by Japanese troops under the orders of See also:

• VISCOUNT (through O. Fr. viscomte, mod. vicomte, from Low Lat. vice-comes, cf. Portug. visconde, Ital. visconte)

Viscount Miura, the Japanese minister, captured the palace, assassinated the queen, and made a prisoner of the king, who, however, four months later, escaped to the Russian legation, where he remained till the See also:

• SPRING (from " to spring," " to leap or jump up," " burst out," O. Eng., springau, a common Teut. word, cf. Ger. springer, possibly allied to Gr. QnrFpxecOac, to move rapidly)

spring of 1897 . Japanese influence waned . The engagements of the advisers were not renewed . A strong See also:

• RETROGRADE (from the Lat. retro, backwards, gradiri, to go)

retrograde See also:

• MOVEMENT

movement set in . Reforms were dropped . The king, with the checks upon his absolutism removed, reverted to the worst traditions of his dynasty, and the control and arrangements of finance were upset by Russia . At the close of 1897 the king assumed the title of emperor, and changed the official designation of the empire to Dai Han Great Han . By 1898 the imperial will, working under partially new conditions, produced continual chaos, and by 1900 succeeded in practically overriding all constitutional restraints . Meanwhile Russian intrigue was constantly active . At last Japan resorted to arms, and her success against Russia in the war of 1904–5 enabled her to resume her influence over Korea . On the 23rd of See also:

• FEBRUARY

February 1904 an agreement was determined whereby Japan resumed her position as administrative adviser to Korea, guaranteed the integrity of the country, and bound herself to maintain the imperial house in its position .

Her interests were recognized by Russia in the treaty of See also:

• PEACE
• PEACE, BREACH OF THE

peace (See also:

• SEPTEMBER (Lat. septem, seven)

September 5, 1905), and by Great Britain in the Anglo-Japanese agreement of the 12th of August 1905 . The Koreans did not accept the restoration of Japanese influence without demur . In August 1905 disturbances arose owing to an attempt by some merchants to obtain special assistance from the treasury on the pretext of embarrassment caused by Japanese financial reforms; these disturbances spread to some of the provinces, and the Japanese were compelled to make a show of force . Prolonged negotiations were necessary to the completion of the treaty of the 17th of November 1905, whereby Japan obtained the control of Korea's foreign affairs and relations, and the See also:

• CONFIRMATION (Lat. confirmatio, from confirmare, to establish, make firm)

confirmation of previous agreements, the far-reaching results of which have been indicated . Nor was opposition to Japanese reforms confined to popular demonstration . In 1907 a Korean delegacy, headed by See also:

• PRINCE
• PRINCE (Lat. princeps, from primus capio, " I am the first to take "; Ital. principe, Fr. prince)

Prince Yong, a member of the imperial family, was sent out to See also:

• LAY

lay before the See also:

• HAGUE, THE (in Dutch, 's Gravenhage, or, abbreviated, den Haag; in Fr. La Haye; and in Late Lat. Haga Comitis)

Hague See also:

• CONFERENCE

conference of that year, and before all the principal governments, a protest against the treatment of Korea by Japan . While this was of course fruitless from the Korean point of view, it indicated that the Japanese must take strong measures to suppress the intrigues of the Korean court . At the instigation of the Korean See also:

• MINISTRY

ministry the emperor abdicated on the 19th of July 1907, handing over the crown to his son . Somewhat serious emeutes followed in Seoul and else-where, and the Japanese proposals for a new convention, increasing the powers of the resident general, had to be presented to the See also:

• CABINET

cabinet under a strong guard . The convention was signed on the 25th of July . One of the reforms immediately undertaken was the disbanding of the Korean standing army, which led to an insurrection and an intermittent See also:

• GUERRILLA (erroneously written " guerilla," being the diminutive of the Span. guerra, war)

guerrilla warfare which, owing to the nature of the country, was not easy to subdue . Under the direction of Prince Ito (q.v.) the work of reform was vigorously prosecuted .

In July 1909, General Teranchi, Japanese minister of war, became resident-general, with the mission to bring about See also:

• ANNEXATION (Lat. ad, to, and nexus, joining)

annexation . This was effected peacefully in August 1910, the emperor of Korea by formal treaty surrendering his country and crown . (See JAPAN.) awakening of Korea: See also:

• BRITISH

British Foreign Office Reports on Korean Trade, Annual See also:

• SERIES (a Latin word from serere, to join)

Series (See also:

• LONDON

London) ; Bibliographie koreanne (3 vols., See also:

• PARIS
• PARIS (also called ALEXANDROS)
• PARIS, ALEXIS PAULIN (1800-x881)
• PARIS, BRUNO PAULIN GASTON (1839-1903)
• PARIS, FRANCOIS DE (169o-1727)
• PARIS, LOUIS PHILIPPE ALBERT
• PARIS, TREATIES OF (1814-1815)

Paris, 1897) ; Mrs . I . L . Bishop, Korea and her Neighbours (2 vols., London, 1897) ; M. von Brandt, Ostasiatische Fragen (See also:

• LEIPZIG

Leipzig, 1897); A . E . J . See also:

• CAVENDISH
• CAVENDISH, GEORGE (1500-1562?)
• CAVENDISH, HENRY (1731-1810)
• CAVENDISH, SIR WILLIAM (c. 1505-1557)

Cavendish and H . E . Goold See also:

• ADAMS
• ADAMS, ANDREW LEITH (1827-1882)
• ADAMS, CHARLES FRANCIS (1807-1886)
• ADAMS, HENRY (1838— )
• ADAMS, HENRY CARTER (1852— )
• ADAMS, HERBERT (i858— )
• ADAMS, HERBERT BAXTER (1850—1901)
• ADAMS, JOHN (1735–1826)
• ADAMS, JOHN QUINCY (1767-1848)
• ADAMS, SAMUEL (1722-1803)
• ADAMS, THOMAS (d. c. 1655)
• ADAMS, WILLIAM (d. 162o)

Adams, Korea, and the Sacred White Mountain (London, 1894) ; See also:

• STEWART, ALEXANDER TURNEY (1803-1876)
• STEWART, BALFOUR (1828-1887)
• STEWART, CHARLES (1778–1869)
• STEWART, DUGALD (1753-1828)
• STEWART, J
• STEWART, JOHN (1749—1822)
• STEWART, JULIUS L
• STEWART, SIR DONALD MARTIN (1824–19o0)
• STEWART, SIR HERBERT (1843—1885)
• STEWART, SIR WILLIAM (c. 1540—c. 1605)
• STEWART, STUART
• STEWART, WILLIAM (c. 1480-c. 1550)

Stewart Culin, Korean See also:

• GAMES, CLASSICAL

Games (See also:

• PHILADELPHIA

Philadelphia, 1895) ; Curzon, Problems of the Far East (London, 1896) ; Dallet, Histoire de l'eglise de Koree (2 vols., Paris, 1874); J . S .

See also:

• GALE
• GALE, THEOPHILUS (1628-1678)
• GALE, THOMAS (?1636-17o2)

Gale, Korean Sketches (See also:

• EDINBURGH

Edinburgh, 1898) ; W . E . Griffis, The See also:

• HERMIT

Hermit Nation (8th and revised edition, New See also:

• YORK
• YORK (HOUSE OF)
• YORK, EDMUND OF LANGLEY, DUKE OF (1341-1402)
• YORK, EDWARD
• YORK, FREDERICK AUGUSTUS, DUKE OF (1763-1827)
• YORK, RICHARD, DUKE

York, 1907) ; H . Hamel, Relation du naufrage d'un vaisseau Halindois, S°c., traduite du Flamond See also:

• PAR (Lat. par, equal)

par M . Minutoli (Paris, 167o) ; Okoji Hidemoto, Der Feldzug der Japanir gegen Korea See also:

• IM(K2+a2+h2—2 ah cos 0)

im Jahre 1597; translated from Japanese by See also:

• PROFESSOR (the Latin noun formed from the verb profiteri, to declare publicly, to acknowledge, profess)

Professor von Pfizmaier (2 vols., See also:

• VIENNA (Ger. Wien; Lat. Vindobona)
• VIENNA, CONGRESS OF (1814-1815)

Vienna, 1875) ; M . Jametel, "La Koree: ses ressources, son avenir commercial," L'E°conomiste francaise (Paris, July 1881) ; See also:

• PERCIVAL, JAMES GATES

Percival See also:

• LOWELL
• LOWELL, ABBOTT LAWRENCE (1856— )
• LOWELL, CHARLES RUSSELL (1835-1864)
• LOWELL, JAMES RUSSELL (1819-1891)
• LOWELL, JOHN (1743-1802)

Lowell, See also:

• CHOPIN, FREDERIC FRANCOIS (1810-1849)

Chopin: The Land of the See also:

• MORNING

Morning See also:

• CALM

Calm (London, See also:

• BOSTON
• BOSTON, THOMAS (1676-1732)

Boston, 1886) ; L . J . Miln, See also:

• QUAINT (O. Fr. cointe, from Lat. cognitus, known, probably influenced by association with Lat. corn plus, neat)

Quaint Korea (Harper, New York, 1895) ; V. de Laguerie, La Koree sndependante, russe ou japonaise ? (Paris, 1898); J . See also:

• ROSS
• ROSS, ALEXANDER (1699-1784)
• ROSS, GEORGE WILLIAM (1841- )
• ROSS, JOHN, or KOOESKOOWE (179o-1866)
• ROSS, ROBERT (1766-1814)
• ROSS, SIR HEW DALRYMPLE (1779-1868)
• ROSS, SIR JAMES CLARK (1800-1862)
• ROSS, SIR JOHN (1777-1856)

Ross, Korea: Its History, See also:

• MANNERS, CHARLES (1857– )

Manners and Customs (See also:

• PAISLEY
• PAISLEY, CLAUD HAMILTON, LORD (c. 1543-1622)

Paisley, 188o) ; W . H . See also:

• WILKINSON, JAMES (1757–1825)
• WILKINSON, JAMES JOHN GARTH (1812-1899)
• WILKINSON, JOHN (1728-1808)
• WILKINSON, SIR JOHN GARDNER (1797—1875)
• WILKINSON, TATE (1739—1803)

Wilkinson, The Korean Government: Constitutional Changes in Korea during the period 23rd July 1894-30th June 1896 (Shanghai, 1896) ; A .

Hamilton, Korea (London, 1903) ; C . J . D . See also:

• TAYLOR
• TAYLOR, ANN (1782-1866)
• TAYLOR, BAYARD (1825–1878)
• TAYLOR, BROOK (1685–1731)
• TAYLOR, ISAAC (1787-1865)
• TAYLOR, ISAAC (1829-1901)
• TAYLOR, JEREMY (1613-1667)
• TAYLOR, JOHN (158o-1653)
• TAYLOR, JOHN (1704-1766)
• TAYLOR, JOSEPH (c. 1586-c. 1653)
• TAYLOR, MICHAEL ANGELO (1757–1834)
• TAYLOR, NATHANIEL WILLIAM (1786-1858)
• TAYLOR, PHILIP MEADOWS (1808–1876)
• TAYLOR, ROWLAND (d. 1555)
• TAYLOR, SIR HENRY (1800-1886)
• TAYLOR, THOMAS (1758-1835)
• TAYLOR, TOM (1817-1880)
• TAYLOR, WILLIAM (1765-1836)
• TAYLOR, ZACHARY (1784-1850)

Taylor, Koreans at See also:

• HOME
• HOME, DANIEL DUNGLAS (1833-1886)
• HOME, EARLS OF

Home (Lon-See also:

• DON
• DON (anc. Tanais)

don, r9o4) ; E . Boudaret, En Coree (Paris, 1904) ; See also:

• LAURENT, FRANCOIS (1810–1887)

Laurent-Cremazy, Le Code penal de la Coree (Paris, 1904); G . T . See also:

• LADD, GEORGE TRUMBULL (1842– )

Ladd, In Korea with Marquis Ito (London, 1908) ; Dictionaries and vocabularies by W . F . See also:

• MYERS, FREDERIC WILLIAM HENRY (1843-1901)

Myers (English secretary of Legation at Peking), the French missionaries, and others, were superseded in 1898 by a large and learned See also:

• VOLUME

volume by the Rev J . S . Gale, a Presbyterian missionary, who devoted some years to the work . On geology, see C .

Gottsche, " Geologische Skizze von Korea," Sitz. preuss . Akad . Wiss . (See also:

• BERLIN
• BERLIN, CONGRESS AND TREATY OF
• BERLIN, ISAIAH (1725–1799)

Berlin, Jahrg . 1886, pp . 857-873, Pl. viii.) . A See also:

• SUMMARY

summary of this paper, with a See also:

• REPRODUCTION

reproduction of the map, is given by L . Pervinquiere in Rev. sci . Paris, 5th series, vol. i . (1904), pp . 545-552 . (I .

L . B.; O . J . R .