See also:

• LANGUAGE (adapted from the Fr. langage, from langue, tongue, Lat. lingua)

LANGUAGE AND  LITERATURE I . See also:

• PERSIAN
• PERSIAN, SYRIAN, EGYPTIAN AND TURKISH

Persian (Iranian) See also:

• LANGUAGES

Languages.—Under the name of Persian is included the whole of that See also:

• GREAT

great See also:

• FAMILY

family of languages occupying a See also:

• FIELD (a word common to many West German languages, cf. Ger. Feld, Dutch veld, possibly cognate with O.E. f olde, the earth, and ultimately with root of the Gr. irAaror, broad)
• FIELD, CYRUS WEST (1819-1892)
• FIELD, DAVID DUDLEY (18o5-1894)
• FIELD, EUGENE (1850-1895)
• FIELD, FREDERICK (18o1—1885)
• FIELD, HENRY MARTYN (1822-1907)
• FIELD, JOHN (1782—1837)
• FIELD, MARSHALL (183 1906)
• FIELD, NATHAN (1587—1633)
• FIELD, STEPHEN JOHNSON (1816-1899)
• FIELD, WILLIAM VENTRIS FIELD, BARON (1813-1907)

field nearly coincident with the See also:

• MODERN

modern See also:

• IRAN

Iran, of which true Persian is simply the western See also:

• DIVISION (from Lat. dividere, to break up into parts, separate)

division . It is therefore See also:

• COMMON

common and more correct to speak of the Iranian family . The See also:

• ORIGINAL

original native name of the See also:

• RACE

race which spoke these See also:

• TONGUES, GIFT OF, or GLOSSOLALIA (yXwova, tongue, aXeiv, speak)

tongues was See also:

• ARYAN

Aryan . See also:

• KING
• KING (O. Eng. cyning, abbreviated into cyng, cing; cf. O. H. G. chun- kuning, chun- kunig, M.H.G. kiinic, kiinec, kiinc, Mod. Ger. Konig, O. Norse konungr, kongr, Swed. konung, kung)
• KING [OF OCKHAM], PETER KING, 1ST BARON (1669-1734)
• KING, CHARLES WILLIAM (1818-1888)
• KING, CLARENCE (1842–1901)
• KING, EDWARD (1612–1637)
• KING, EDWARD (1829–1910)
• KING, HENRY (1591-1669)
• KING, RUFUS (1755–1827)
• KING, THOMAS (1730–1805)
• KING, WILLIAM (1650-1729)
• KING, WILLIAM (1663–1712)

King See also:

• DARIUS (Pers. Darayavaush; Old Test. Daryavesh)

Darius is called on an inscription " a Persian, son of a Persian, an Aryan of Aryan race "; and the followers of the Zoroastrian See also:

• RELIGION
• RELIGION, FOLKLORE, CUSTOM

religion in their earliest records never give themselves any other See also:

• TITLE (0. Fr. title, mod. titre, from Lat. titulus)

title but Airyavo danghavo, that is to say, " Aryan races." The See also:

• PROVINCE
• PROVINCE (Lat. provincia; perhaps a contraction of providentia)

province of the Iranian See also:

• LANGUAGE (adapted from the Fr. langage, from langue, tongue, Lat. lingua)

language is bounded on the See also:

• WEST
• WEST, BENJAMIN (1738-1820)
• WEST, NICHOLAS (1461-1533)

west by the Semitic, on the See also:

• NORTH
• NORTH, BARONS
• NORTH, MARIANNE (1830—1890)
• NORTH, ROGER (1653-1734)
• NORTH, SIR THOMAS (1535?-16o1?)

north and north-See also:

• EAST
• EAST, ALFRED (1849- )

east by the Ural-altaic or Turanian, and on the See also:

• SOUTH
• SOUTH, ROBERT (1634–1716)

south-east by the kindred language of See also:

• INDIA
• INDIA, FRENCH

India . The Iranian languages See also:

• FORM (Lat. forma)

form one of the great branches of the Indo-See also:

• EUROPEAN

European See also:

• STEM (O. Eng. staefn, stemn, cf. Du. stain, Ger. Stamm, &c., probably related to " staff ")

stem, first recognized as such by See also:

• SIR

Sir See also:

• WILLIAM
• WILLIAM (1143-1214)
• WILLIAM (1227-1256)
• WILLIAM (1J33-1584)
• WILLIAM (A.S. Wilhelm, O. Norse Vilhidlmr; O. H. Ger. Willahelm, Willahalm, M. H. Ger. Willehelm, Willehalm, Mod.Ger. Wilhelm; Du. Willem; O. Fr. Villalme, Mod. Fr. Guillaume; from " will," Goth. vilja, and " helm," Goth. hilms, Old Norse hidlmr, meaning
• WILLIAM (c. 1130-C. 1190)
• WILLIAM, 13TH

William See also:

• JONES
• JONES, ALFRED GILPIN (1824-1906)
• JONES, EBENEZER (182o-186o)
• JONES, ERNEST CHARLES (1819-1869)
• JONES, HENRY (1831-1899)
• JONES, HENRY ARTHUR (1851- )
• JONES, INIGO (1573-1651)
• JONES, JOHN (c. 1800-1882)
• JONES, MICHAEL (d. 1649)
• JONES, OWEN (1741-1814)
• JONES, OWEN (1809-1874)
• JONES, RICHARD (179o-1855)
• JONES, SIR ALFRED LEWIS (1845-1909)
• JONES, SIR WILLIAM (1746-1794)
• JONES, THOMAS RUPERT (1819– )
• JONES, WILLIAM (1726-1800)

Jones and See also:

• FRIEDRICH, JOHANN (1836— )

Friedrich See also:

• SCHLEGEL, AUGUST WILHELM VON (1767-1845)
• SCHLEGEL, JOHANN ELIAS (1719-1749)
• SCHLEGEL, KARL WILHELM FRIEDRICH VON (1772-1829)

Schlegel . The Indo-European Iranian Languor or Indo-Germanic languages are divided by Brug- See also:

• MANN, HORACE (1796-1859)

mann Languages. into (1) Aryan, with sub-branches (a) See also:

• INDIAN

Indian, (b) Iranian; (2) Armenian; (3) See also:

• GREEK
• GREEK, ETRUSCAN AND

Greek; (4) Albanian; (5) See also:

• ITALIC

Italic; (6) See also:

• CELTIC

Celtic; (7) Germanic, with sub-branches (a) See also:

• GOTHIC

Gothic, (b) Scandinavian, (c) West Germanic; and (8) Balto-See also:

• SLAVONIC, OLD

Slavonic . (See INDO-EUROPEAN.) The Aryan family (called by See also:

• PROFESSOR (the Latin noun formed from the verb profiteri, to declare publicly, to acknowledge, profess)

Professor Sievers the " See also:

• ASIATIC

Asiatic See also:

• BASE

base-language ") is subdivided into (I) Iranian (Eranian, or Erano-Aryan) languages, (2) Pisacha, or non-Sanskritic Indo-Aryan languages, (3) Indo-Aryan, or Sanskritic Indo-Aryan languages (for the last two see INDO-ARYAN); Iranian being also grouped into Persian and non-Persian . The common characteristics of all Iranian languages, which distinguish them especially from See also:

• SANSKRIT

Sanskrit, are as follows: I . Changes of the original s into the spirant h . Thus Sanskrit . Zend .

Old Persian . New Persian . sindhu (See also:

• INDUS

Indus) See also:

• HINDU

hindu hindu See also:

• HIND

hind larva (all) haurva haruva See also:

• BAR
• BAR (0. Fr. barre, Late Lat. barra, origin unknown)
• BAR, CONFEDERATION OF
• BAR, FRANCOIS DE (1538-1606)
• BAR, THE

bar sama (whole) hama hama See also:

• HAM

ham santi (sunt) henti hantiy hend . 2 . See also:

• CHANGE (derived through the Fr. from the Late Lat. cambium, cambiare, to barter; the ultimate derivation is probably from the root which appears in the Gr. «a urmu', to bend)

Change of the original aspirates gh, dh, bh (= x, 9, d.) into the corresponding medials Sanskrit . Zend . Old Persian . New Persian . bhiimi (See also:

• EARTH
• EARTH (a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Erde, Dutch aarde, Swed. and Dan. jord; outside Teutonic it appears only in the Gr. 'pq'e, on the ground; it has been connected by some etymologists with the Aryan root ar-, to plough, which is seen in
• EARTH, FIGURE OF
• EARTH, FIGURE OF THE

earth) bumi bumi hum dhita (Beres) data data dad gharma (See also:

• HEAT (0. E. haktu, which like " hot," Old Eng. hat, is from the Teutonic type haita, hit, to be hot; cf. Ger. hitze, heiss; Dutch, hitte, heet, &c.)

heat) garema garma garm . 3. k, t, p before a consonant are changed into the spirants kh, th, f Sanskrit . Zend . Old Persian .

New Persian . prathama (first) fratema fratema fradum (Parsi) kratu (insight) khratu . . . . khirad.[LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE 4 . The development of soft sibilants Sanskrit . Zend . Old Persian . New Persian . Asuro Medhasl Ahura . Mazdao Auramazda Ormuzd bahu (See also:

• ARM (a common Teutonic word; the Indo-European root is ar, to join or fit; cf. the Lat. armus, shoulder, and the plural word arma, weapons, Gr. apphs, joint, and the reduplicated apapilKSV, to join)

arm) bazu . . . bazu hima (hiems) zima . . .

. zim . Our knowledge of the Iranian languages in older periods is too fragmentary to allow of our giving a See also:

• COMPLETE

complete See also:

• ACCOUNT
• ACCOUNT (through O. Fr. acont, Late Lat. comptum, cornputare, to calculate)

account of this family and of its See also:

• SPECIAL

special See also:

• HISTORICAL

historical development . It will be sufficient here to distinguish the See also:

• MAIN (from the Aryan root which appears in " may " and " might," and Lat. magnus, great)
• MAIN (Lat. Moenus)

main types of the older and the more See also:

• RECENT

recent periods . From antiquity we have sufficient knowledge of two dialects, the first belonging to eastern Iran, the second to western . 1 . Zend or Old Bactrian.—Neither of these two titles is well chosen . The name Old Bactrian suggests that the language was limited to the small See also:

• DISTRICT

district of See also:

• BACTRIA (Bactriana)

Bactria, or at least that it was spoken there—which is, at the most, only an Zend. See also:

• HYPOTHESIS (from Gr. inrorcOivat, to put under; cf. Lat. suppositio, from sub-ponere)

hypothesis . Zend, again (originally azaintish), is not the name of a language, as See also:

• ANQUETIL
• ANQUETIL, LOUIS PIERRE (1723-18o8)

Anquetil See also:

• DUPERRON, JACQUES DAVY (1556–1618)

Duperron supposed, but means " See also:

• INTERPRETATION (from Lat. interpretari, to expound, explain, inter pres, an agent, go-between, interpreter; inter, between, and the root pret-, possibly connected with that seen either in Greek 4 p4'ew, to speak, or irpa-rrecv, to do)

interpretation " or " explanation," and is specially applied to the See also:

• MEDIEVAL

medieval See also:

• PAHLAVI, or PEHLEVI

Pahlavi See also:

• TRANSLATION

translation of the Avesta . Our " Zend-Avesta " does not mean the Avesta in the Zend language, but is an incorrect transcription of the original expression " Avistak va zand," i.e . " the See also:

• HOLY

holy See also:

• TEXT (Lat. textum, woven fabric, from texere, to weave)

text (Avesta) together with the translation." But, since we still lack sure data to See also:

• FIX, THEODORE (180o-1846)

fix the See also:

• HOME
• HOME, DANIEL DUNGLAS (1833-1886)
• HOME, EARLS OF

home of this language with any certainty, the convenient name of Zend has become generally established in See also:

• EUROPE

Europe, and may be provisionally retained . But the home of the Zend language was certainly in eastern Iran; all attempts to seek it farther west—e.g. in See also:

• MEDIA

Media 2—must be regarded as failures . Zend is the language of the so-called Avesta,' the holy See also:

• BOOK

book of the Persians, containing the See also:

• OLDEST

oldest documents of the religion of Zoroaster .

Besides this important See also:

• MONUMENT (Lat. monumentum or monumentum; from monere, to advise, bring to mind, remind; the German equivalent is Denkmal)

monument, which is about twice as large as the Iliad and Odyssey put together, we only possess very scanty See also:

• RELICS (Lat, reliquiae, the equivalent of the English " remains " in the sense of a dead body)

relics of the Zend language in medieval glosses and scattered quotations in Pahlavi books . These remains, however, suffice to give a complete insight into the structure of the language . Not only amongst Iranian languages, but amongst all the languages of the Indo-European See also:

• GROUP

group, Zend takes one of the very highest places in importance for the See also:

• COMPARATIVE

comparative philologist . In See also:

• AGE (Fr. age, through late Lat. aetaticum, from aetas)

age it almost rivals Sanskrit; in primitiveness it surpasses that language in many points; it is inferior only in respect of its less extensive literature, and because it has not been made the subject of systematic grammatical treatment . The age of Zend must be examined in connexion with the age of the Avesta . In its See also:

• PRESENT

present form the Avesta is not the See also:

• WORK

work of a single author or of any one age, but embraces collections produced during a See also:

• LONG, GEORGE (1800-1879)
• LONG, JOHN DAVIS (1838– )

long See also:

• PERIOD
• PERIOD (Gr. irepioSos, a going or way round, circuit, aepi, round, and &Sis, way, road)

period . The view wbich became current through Anquetil Duperron, that the Avesta is throughout the work of Zoroaster (in Zend, Zarathushtra), the founder of the religion, has long been abandoned as untenable . But the opposite view, that not a single word in the book can See also:

• LAY

lay claim to the authorship of Zoroaster, also appears on closer study too sweeping . In the Avesta two stages of the language are plainly distinguishable . The older is represented in but a small See also:

• PART

part of the whole work, the so-called Gathas or songs . These songs form the true See also:

• KERNEL (O.E. cyrnel, a diminutive of " corn," seed, grain)

kernel of the book Yasna; 4 they must have been in existence long before all the other parts of the Avesta, throughout the whole of which allusions to them occur . These gathas are what they claim to be, and what they are honoured in the whole Avesta as being—the actual productions of the See also:

• PROPHET (Irpo4i ri7s)

prophet himself or of his See also:

• TIME (0. Eng. Lima, cf. Icel. timi, Swed. timme, hour, Dan. time; from the root also seen in " tide," properly the time of between the flow and ebb of the sea, cf. O. Eng. getidan, to happen, " even-tide," &c.; it is not directly related to Lat. tempus)
• TIME, MEASUREMENT OF
• TIME, STANDARD

time .

They See also:

• BEAR
• BEAR, BLACK
• BEAR, BROWN
• BEAR, GRIZZLY
• BEAR, ISABELLINE
• BEAR, WHITE

bear in themselves irrefutable proofs of their authenticity, bringing us See also:

• FACE (from Lat. fades, derived either from facere, to make, or from a root fa-, meaning " appear "; cf. Gr. cbatvstv)

face to face not with the Zoroaster of the legends but with a real See also:

• PERSON, OFFENCES AGAINST THE

person, announcing a new See also:

• DOCTRINE

doctrine and way of salvation, no supernatural Being assured of victory, but a See also:

• MERE
• MERE, ADALBERT (1838-1909)

mere See also:

• MAN
• MAN, ISLE OF (anc. Mona)

man, struggling with human conflicts of every sort, in the midst of a society of See also:

• FELLOW

fellow-believers yet in its earliest See also:

• INFANCY

infancy . It is almost impossible that a much later period could have produced such unpretentious and almost depreciatory representations of the deeds and See also:

• PERSONALITY (from Lat. persona, originally an actor's mask, from personare,1 to sound through)

personality of the prophet . If, then, the gathas reach back to the time of Zoroaster, and he himself, according to the most probable estimate, lived as See also:

• EARLY
• EARLY, JUBAL ANDERSON (1816-1894)

early as the 14th See also:

• CENTURY (from Lat. centuria, a division of a hundred men)

century B.C., the oldest component parts of the Avesta are hardly inferior in age to the oldest Vedic See also:

• HYMNS

hymns . The gathas are still extremely rough in See also:

• STYLE
• STYLE (from Gr. a-6'1ms, a column; a different word from that used in literature, see below)

style and expression; the language is richer in forms than the more recent Zend; and the vocabulary shows important See also:

• DIFFERENCES, CALCULUS OF (Theory of Finite Differences)

differences . The pre-dominance of the long vowels is a marked characteristic, the See also:

• CONSTANT, BENJAMIN (1845-1902)

constant See also:

• APPEARANCE (from Lat. apparere, to appear)

appearance of a long final vowel contrasting with the preference for a final See also:

• SHORT, FRANCIS JOB (1857– )

short in the later speech . i Name of the supreme, See also:

• GOD

god of the Persians . 2 Cf . I . See also:

• DARMESTETER, JAMES (1849-1894)

Darmesteter, Etudes iraniennes, i. to (See also:

• PARIS
• PARIS (also called ALEXANDROS)
• PARIS, ALEXIS PAULIN (1800-x881)
• PARIS, BRUNO PAULIN GASTON (1839-1903)
• PARIS, FRANCOIS DE (169o-1727)
• PARIS, LOUIS PHILIPPE ALBERT
• PARIS, TREATIES OF (1814-1815)

Paris, 1883) . 3 This, and not Zend-Avesta, is the correct title for the original text of the Persian See also:

• BIBLE
• BIBLE, ENGLISH

Bible . The origin of the word is doubtful, and we cannot point to it before the time of the Sassanians . Perhaps it means " announcement," " See also:

• REVELATION, BOOK OF

revelation." ' The Avesta is divided into three parts: (I) Yasna, with an appendix, Visparad, a collection of prayers and forms for divine service; (2) Vendidad, containing directions for See also:

• PURIFICATION

purification and the penal See also:

• CODE (Lat. codex)

code of the See also:

• ANCIENT
• ANCIENT (also spelt ANTIENT; derived, through the Fr. ancien, old, from the late Lat. antianum, from ante, before)

ancient Persians; (3) Khordah-Avesta, or the Small Avesta, containing the Yasht, the contents of which are for the most part mythological, with shorter prayers for private devotion .

since then made rapid strides, especially since the Vedas have opened to us a knowledge of the oldest Sanskrit . 2 . Old Persian.—This is the language of the ancient Persians properly so-called,' in all See also:

• PROBABILITY (Lat. probabilis, probable or credible)

probability the See also:

• MOTHER

mother-See also:

• TONGUE (O. Eng. lunge)

tongue of See also:

• MIDDLE

Middle Persian of the Pahlavi texts, and of New Persian . We Oldperslan. know Old Persian from the See also:

• ROCK
• ROCK (O.Fr. rake, Sp. rota, Ital. rocca; possibly from a Lat. form rupica, from rupes, rock)
• ROCK, DANIEL (1799–187t)

rock-See also:

• INSCRIPTIONS (from Lat. inscribere, to write upon)

inscriptions of the Achaemenians, now fully deciphered . Most of them, and these the longest, date from the time of Darius, but we have specimens as See also:

• LATE

late as See also:

• ARTAXERXES

Artaxerxes Ochus . In the latest inscriptions the language is already much degraded; but on the whole it is almost as See also:

• ANTIQUE (Lat. antiquus, old)

antique as Zend, with which it has many points in common . For instance, if we take a See also:

• SENTENCE (Lat. sententia, a way of thinking, opinion, judgment; vote, sentire, to feel, think)

sentence from an inscription of Darius as " Auramazda hya See also:

• IMAM

imam bumim ada hya avam asmanam ada hya martiyam ada hya siyatim ada martiyahya hya Darayavaum khshayathiyam akunaush aivam paruvnam khshayathiyam," it would be in Zend " Ahuro mazdao yo imam bumim ad-at yo aom asmanem adat yo mashim adat yo shaitim adat mashyahe yo darayatvohum khshaetem akerenaot oyum pourunam khshaetem."4 The phonetic See also:

• SYSTEM

system in Old Persian is much simpler than in Zend; we reckon twenty-four letters in all . The short vowels e, o are wanting; in their See also:

• PLACE (through Fr. from Lat. platea, street; Gr. IrAar6s, wide)

place the old " a " See also:

• SOUND
• SOUND, THE (Danish Oresund)

sound still appears as in Sanskrit, e.g . Zend bagem, Old Persian bagam, Sanskrit bhagam; Old Persian hamarana, Zend hamerena, Sanskrit samarana . As regards consonants, it is noticeable that the older z (soft s) still preserved in Zend passes into d—a See also:

• RULE

rule that still holds in New Persian ; compare Sanskrit . Zend . Old Persian .

New Persian . hasta (See also:

• HAND
• HAND (a word common to Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Hand, Goth. handus)
• HAND, FERDINAND GOTTHELF (1786-185r)

hand) zasta dasta dast jrayas (See also:

• SEA (in O. Eng. sae, a common Teutonic word; cf. Ger. See, Dutch Zee, &c.; the ultimate source is uncertain)
• SEA, COMMAND OF THE

sea) zrayo daraya darya aham (I) azem See also:

• ADAM
• ADAM (or ADAN) DE LE HALE (died c. 1288)
• ADAM, ALEXANDER (1741–1809)
• ADAM, JULIETTE (1836– )
• ADAM, LAMBERT SIGISBERT (1700-1759)
• ADAM, MELCHIOR (d. 1622)
• ADAM, PAUL (1862– )
• ADAM, ROBERT (1728—1792)
• ADAM, SIR FREDERICK (1781-1853)
• ADAM, WILLIAM (1751-1839)

adam .. . Also Old Persian has no special 1 . Final consonants are almost entirely wanting . In this respect Old Persian goes much farther than the kindred idioms, e.g . Old Persian abara, Sanskrit abharat, Zend abarat, Iepe: nominative baga, See also:

• ROOT (late O.E. rot, adopted from Scand., cf. Norw. and Swed. rot, Dan. rod; the true O.E. word was wyrt, plant, represented in Ger. Wurz or Wurzel; the ultimate root is the same in both words, and is seen in Lat. radix)
• ROOT, ELIHU (1845– )

root-form baga-s, Sanskrit bhagas . The differences in declension between Old Persian and Zend are unimportant . Old Persian inscriptions are written in the See also:

• CUNEIFORM (from Lat. cuneus, a wedge)

cuneiform See also:

• CHARACTER (Gr. xapareri7p, from xap&crew, to scratch)

character of the simplest form, known as the " first class." Most of the inscriptions have besides two See also:

• TRANSLATIONS

translations into the more complicated kinds of cuneiform character of two other languages of the Persian See also:

• EMPIRE

Empire . One of these is the See also:

• ASSYRIAN

Assyrian ; the real nature of the second is still a See also:

• MYSTERY (Gr. µw(Trilpcov, from tcuvrm, an initiate, µfew, to shut the mouth)

mystery . The interpretation of the Persian cuneiform, the character and See also:

• DIALECT (from Gr. Sia stcror, conversation, manner of speaking, &aXeyec6at, to converse)

dialect of which were equally unknown, was begun by G . F . See also:

• GROTEFEND, GEORG FRIEDRICH (1775-1853)

Grotefend, who was followed by E .

See also:

• BURNOUF, EUGENE (1801—1852)

Burnouf, Sir See also:

• HENRY
• HENRY (1129-1195)
• HENRY (c. 1108-1139)
• HENRY (c. 1174–1216)
• HENRY (Fr. Henri; Span. Enrique; Ger. Heinrich; Mid. H. Ger. Heinrich and Heimrich; O.H.G. Haimi- or Heimirih, i.e. " prince, or chief of the house," from O.H.G. heim, the Eng. home, and rih, Goth. reiks; compare Lat. rex " king "—" rich," therefore " mig
• HENRY, EDWARD LAMSON (1841– )
• HENRY, JAMES (1798-1876)
• HENRY, JOSEPH (1797-1878)
• HENRY, MATTHEW (1662-1714)
• HENRY, PATRICK (1736–1799)
• HENRY, PRINCE OF BATTENBERG (1858-1896)
• HENRY, ROBERT (1718-1790)
• HENRY, VICTOR (1850– )
• HENRY, WILLIAM (1795-1836)

Henry See also:

• RAWLINSON, GEORGE (1812-1902)
• RAWLINSON, RICHARD (169o-1755)
• RAWLINSON, SIR HENRY CRESWICKE (1810—1895)
• RAWLINSON, SIR ROBERT (1810—1898)

Rawlinson and J . See also:

• OPPERT, JULIUS (1825-19o5)

Oppert . The ancient Persian inscriptions have been collected in a Latin translation with See also:

• GRAMMAR (from Lat. grammatica, sc. ars; Gr. ypaµ)

grammar and glossaries by F . Spiegel (See also:

• LEIPZIG

Leipzig, 1862 ; new and enlarged ed., 1881) . The other ancient tongues and dialects of this family are known only by name; we read of See also:

• PECULIAR

peculiar idioms in See also:

• SOGDIANA (Sugdiane, O. Pers. Sughuda)

Sogdiana, Zabulistan, See also:

• HERAT

Herat, &c . It is doubtful whether the languages of the Scythians, the Lycians and the Lydians, of which hardly anything remains, were Iranian or not . After the fall of the Achaemenians there is a period of five centuries, from which no document of the Persian language has come down to us . Under the Arsacids Persian See also:

• NATIONALITY

nationality rapidly declined; all that remains to us from that period—namely, the inscriptions on coins —is in the Greek tongue . Only towards the end of the See also:

• PARTHIAN

Parthian See also:

• DYNASTY (Gr. &vvaareta, sovereignty, the position of a hevnori7r, lord, ruler, from SuvaaBay to be able, Suvaµas, power)

dynasty and after the rise of the Sassanians, under whom the See also:

• NATIONAL

national traditions were again cultivated in See also:

• PERSIA

Persia, do we recover the lost traces of the Persian language in the Pahlavi inscriptions and literature . 3 . Middle Persian.—The singular phenomena presented by Pahlavi See also:

• WRITING
• WRITING (the verbal noun of " to write," O. Eng. writan, to inscribe)

writing have been discussed in a See also:

• SEPARATE

separate See also:

• ARTICLE (from Lat. articulus, a joint)

article (see PAHLAVI) . The languages which it disguises rather middle than expresses—Middle Persian, as we may See also:

• CALL (from Anglo-Saxon ceallian, a common Teutonic word, cf. Dutch kallen, to talk or chatter)

call it— Persian. presents many changes as compared with the Old Persian of the Achaemenians .

The abundant grammatical forms of the ancient language are much reduced in number; the See also:

• CASE
• CASE, JOHN (d. 1600)

case-ending is lost; the noun has only two inflexions, the singular and the plural; the cases are expressed by prepositions—e.g. ruban (the soul), nom. and See also:

• ACE (derived through the Lat. as, from the Tarentine form of the Gr. etc)

ace. sing., plur. rubanan; dat. val or avo ruban, abl. See also:

• MIN

min or az ruban . Even distinctive forms for gender are entirely abandoned, e.g. the pronoun' avo signifies " he," " she," " it." In the verb See also:

• COMPOUND
• COMPOUND (from Lat. componere, to combine or put together)

compound forms predominate . In this respect Middle Persian is almost exactly similar to New Persian . Sanskrit . Gat ha . Later Zend . abhi (near) aibi aiwi ilia (work) izha izha . The clearest See also:

• EVIDENCE (Lat. evidentia, evideri, to appear clearly)

evidence of the extreme age of the language of the gathas is its striking resemblance to the oldest Sanskrit, the language of the Vedic poems . The gatha language (much more than the later Zend) and the language of the Vedas have a See also:

• CLOSE
• CLOSE (from Lat. clausum, shut)
• CLOSE, MAXWELL HENRY (1822-1903)

close resemblance, exceeding that of any two Romanic languages; they seem hardly more than two dialects of one tongue . Whole strophes of the gathas can be turned into See also:

• GOOD, JOHN MASON (1764-1827)

good old Sanskrit by the application of certain phonetic See also:

• LAWS

laws; for example " See also:

• MAT (O. Eng. meatt, from late Lat. mattes, whence Ital. mallet, Ger. and Dan. matte, Du. mat, &c.)

mat lido padaish ya frasruta izhayao pairijasai mazda ustanazasto at vao ashy aredrahyaca nemangha at vat) vangehush mananghO hunaretata," becomes in Sanskrit " mana vah padaih ya pragruta ihayah parigachai medha uttanahastah at va rtena radhrasyaca namasa at vo vasor manasah sunrtaya." The language of the other parts of the Avesta is more modern, but not all of one date, so that we can follow the See also:

• GRADUAL (Med. Lat. gradualis, of or belonging to steps or degrees; gradus, step)

gradual decline of Zend in the Avesta itself . The later the date of a text, the simpler is the grammar, the more lax the use of the cases . We have no See also:

• CHRONOLOGICAL

chronological points by which to fix the date when Zend ceased to be a living language; no part of the Avesta can well be put later thah the 5th or 4th century E.C .

Before See also:

• ALEXANDER
• ALEXANDER (1461-1506)
• ALEXANDER (ALEXANDER OF BATTENBERG) (1857-1893)
• ALEXANDER (ALEXANDER OsxENOVici) (1876-1903)
• ALEXANDER, ARCHIBALD (1772—1851)
• ALEXANDER, FRANCIS (1800—1881)
• ALEXANDER, GEORGE (1858— )
• ALEXANDER, JOHN WHITE (1856- )
• ALEXANDER, JOSEPH ADDISON (18o9—186o)
• ALEXANDER, SIR JAMES EDWARD (1803—1885)
• ALEXANDER, WILLIAM (1824— )
• ALEXANDER, WILLIAM LINDSAY (1808—1884)

Alexander's time it is said to have been already written out on dressed cowhides and preserved in the See also:

• STATE
• STATE, GREAT OFFICERS OF

state archives at See also:

• PERSEPOLIS

Persepolis . The followers of Zoroaster soon ceased to understand Zend . For this See also:

• REASON (Lat. ratio, through French raison)

reason all that time had spared of the Avesta was translated into Middle Persian or PAHLAVI (q.v.) under the Sassanians . This translation, though still regarded as canonical by the See also:

• PARSEES, or PARSIS

Parsees, shows. a very imperfect knowledge of the original language . Its value for modern See also:

• PHILOLOGY

philology has been the subject of much needless controversy amongst European scholars . It is only a secondary means towards the comprehension of the ancient text, and must be used with discrimination . A logical system of comparative exegesis, aided by constant reference to Sanskrit, its nearest ally, and to the other Iranian dialects, is the best means of recovering the lost sense of the Zend texts . The phonetic system of Zend consists of See also:

• SIMPLE

simple signs which See also:

• EXPRESS (through the French from the past participle of the Lat. exprimere, to press out, by transference used of representing objects in painting or sculpture, or of thoughts, &c. in words)

express the different shades of sound in the language with great precision . In the vowel-system a notable feature is the presence of the short vowels e and o, which are not found in Sanskrit and Old Persian ; thus the Sanskrit santi, Old Persian hantiy, becomes henli in Zend . The use of the vowels is complicated by a tendency to combinations of vowels and to epenthesis, i.e. the transposition of weak vowels into the next syllable; e.g . Sanskrit bharati, Zend baraiti (he carries) ; Old Persian margu, Zend mourva (See also:

• MERV, MERU

Merv) ; Sanskrit rinakli, Zend irinakhti . Triphthongs are not uncommon, e.g .

Sanskrit arvebhyas (See also:

• DATIVE (Lat. dativus, giving or given, from dare, to give)

dative plural of acva, a See also:

• HORSE (a word common to Teutonic languages in such forms as hors, hros, ros; cf. the Ger. ross)

horse) is in Zend aspaeibyo ; Sanskrit krnoti (he does), Zend kerenaoitti . Zend has also a great tendency to insert irrational vowels, especially near liquids; owing to this the words seem rather inflated; e.g. savya (on the See also:

• LEFT

left) becomes in Zend havaya ; bhrajati (it glitters), Zend barazaiti; gna (-omit), Zend gena . In the .consonantal system we are struck by the abundance of sibilants (s and sh, in three forms of modification, z and zh) and nasals (five in number), and by the complete See also:

• ABSENCE (Lat. absentia)

absence of 1 . A characteristic phonetic change is that of rt into sh; e.g . Zend asha for Sanskrit rta, Old Persian See also:

• ARTA (Narda, i.e. iv "Ap&a, or Zarta, i,e. eis "Apra)
• ARTA, GULF OF (anc. Sinus Ambracius)

arta (in Artaxerxes) ; fravashi for Pahlavi fravardin, New, Persian ferver (the See also:

• SPIRITS

spirits of the dead) . The verb displays a like abundance of See also:

• PRIMARY

primary forms with Sanskrit, but the conjugation by periphrasis is only slightly See also:

• DEVELOPED

developed . The noun has the same eight cases as in Sanskrit . In the gathas there is a special See also:

• ABLATIVE (Lat. ablativus, sc. cases, from ablatum, taken away)

ablative, limited, as in Sanskrit, to the " a " stems, whilst in later Zend the ablative is extended to all the stems indifferently . We do not know in what character Zend was written before the time of Alexander . From the See also:

• SASSANIAN

Sassanian period we find an alphabetic and very legible character in use, derived from Sassanian Pahlavi, and closely resembling the younger Pahlavi found in books . The oldest known See also:

• MANUSCRIPTS

manuscripts are of the 14th century A.D.' Although the existence of the Zend language was known to the See also:

• OXFORD
• OXFORD, EARLS OF
• OXFORD, EDWARD DE VERE, 17TH EARL
• OXFORD, JOHN DE VERE, 13TH EARL OF (1443-1513)
• OXFORD, PROVISIONS OF
• OXFORD, ROBERT DE VERE, 9TH EARL OF (1362-1392)
• OXFORD, ROBERT HARLEY, 1ST

Oxford See also:

• SCHOLAR, SCHOLARSHIP

scholar See also:

• THOMAS
• THOMAS (c. 1654-1720)
• THOMAS (d. 110o)
• THOMAS, ARTHUR GORING (1850-1892)
• THOMAS, CHARLES LOUIS AMBROISE (1811-1896)
• THOMAS, GEORGE (c. 1756-1802)
• THOMAS, GEORGE HENRY (1816-187o)
• THOMAS, ISAIAH (1749-1831)
• THOMAS, PIERRE (1634-1698)
• THOMAS, SIDNEY GILCHRIST (1850-1885)
• THOMAS, ST
• THOMAS, THEODORE (1835-1905)
• THOMAS, WILLIAM (d. 1554)

Thomas See also:

• HYDE
• HYDE, THOMAS (1636-1703)

Hyde, the Frenchman Anquetil Duperron, who went to the East Indies in 1755 to visit the Parsee priests, was the first to draw the See also:

• ATTENTION (from Lat. ad-tendo, await, expect; the condition of being " stretched " or " tense ")

attention of the learned See also:

• WORLD

world to the subject . Scientific study of Zend texts began with E .

Burnouf, and has " With verses of my making, which are now heard, and with prayerful hands, I come before thee, Mazda, and with the sincere humility of the upright man and with the believer's See also:

• SONG

song of praise." 2 Grammars by F . Spiegel (Leipzig, 1867) and A . V . W . See also:

• JACKSON
• JACKSON, ANDREW (1767-1845)
• JACKSON, CYRIL (1746-1819)
• JACKSON, FREDERICK GEORGE (186o– )
• JACKSON, HELEN MARIA (1831–1885)
• JACKSON, MASON (c. 1820-1903)
• JACKSON, THOMAS (1579-1640)
• JACKSON, THOMAS JONATHAN (1824-1863)
• JACKSON, WILLIAM (1730-1803)

Jackson (See also:

• STUTTGART

Stuttgart, 1892); See also:

• DICTIONARY

Dictionary by F . Justi (Leipzig, 1864); See also:

• EDITIONS

editions of the Avesta by N . L . Westergaard (See also:

• COPENHAGEN (Danish Kjobenhavn)

Copenhagen, 1852) and C . F . Geldner (Stuttgart, 1886–1895; also in See also:

• ENGLISH

English) ; translation into See also:

• GERMAN
• GERMAN, DUTCH AND SCANDINAVIAN

German by Spiegel (Leipzig, 1852), and into English by Darmesteter (Oxford, 188o) in Max Mailer's Sacred Books of the East . 3 And perhaps of the Medes . Although we have no See also:

• RECORD (Lat. recordari, to recall to mind, from cor, heart or mind)

record of the Median language we cannot regard it as differing to any great extent from the Persian .

The Medes and Persians were two closely-connected races . There is nothing to justify us in looking for the true Median language either in the cuneiform writings of the second class or in Zend . 4 " Ormuzd, who created this earth and that See also:

• HEAVEN (0. Eng. hefen, heofon, heofone; this word appears in O.S. hevan; the High. Ger. word appears in Ger. Himmel, Dutch hemel; there does not seem to be any connexion between the two words, and the ultimate derivation of the word is unknown; the sugges

heaven, who created man and man's dwelling-place, who made Darius king, the one and t only king of many." 248 4 . New Persian.—The last step in the development of the See also:

• METRE ((terpuc?, sc. rFxvf, from Gr. Or poi', measure)

metre and See also:

• RHYME

rhyme; others mention as author of the first Persian language is New Persian, represented in its oldest form by Firdousi. poem a certain Abulhaf of So hd near See also:

• SAMARKAND

Samarkand . In point In grammatical forms it is still poorer than Middle g New Persian; except English, no Indo European language of fact, there is no doubt that the later Sassanian rulers fostered Persian. has so few inflexions, but this is made up for by the the See also:

• LITERARY

literary spirit of their nation (see PAHLAVI) . Pahlavi books, subtle development of the syntax . The structure of New Persian however, fall outside of the present subject, which is the literature has hardly altered at all since the Shahnama; but the original of the See also:

• IDIOM (Gr. t&%wµa, something peculiar and personal; lbws, one's own, personal)

idiom which shaped itself out of the older Persian speech purism rom f ree ofSFiemrditic ousamii,dwhoxturemadecould everynot loneffogrtbettomakeeintp thaineed.Alangurabiagec by slight modifications and a steadily increasing mixture of f, literature and speech exercised so powerful an See also:

• INFLUENCE (Late Lat. influentia, from influere, to flow in)

influence on New Arabic words and phrases in the 9th and loth centuries of our Persian, especially on the written language, that it could not era, and which in all essential respects has remained the same withstand the See also:

• ADMISSION

admission of an immense number of Semitic words. for the last thousand years . The See also:

• DEATH

death of See also:

• HARUN

Harun al-Rashid in There is no Arabic word which would be refused See also:

• ACCEPTANCE (Lat. acceptare, frequentative form of accipere, to receive)

acceptance in the beginning of the 9th century, which marks the commence-good Persian . But, nevertheless, New Persian has remained a language of genuine Iranian stock. ment of the decline of the See also:

• CALIPHATE

caliphate, was at the same time the Among the changes of the sound system in New Persian, as starting-point of movements for national See also:

• INDEPENDENCE
• INDEPENDENCE, DECLARATION OF
• INDEPENDENCE, WAR OF

independence and a contrasted with earlier periods, especially with Old Persian, the national literature in the Iranian dominion, and the common first that claims mention is the change of the tenues k, t, p, c, into See also:

• CRADLE (of uncertain etymology, possibly connected with " crate " and " creel," i.e. basket; the derivation from a Celtic word, with a sense of rocking, is scouted by the New English Dictionary)

cradle of the two was in the province of See also:

• KHORASAN, or KHORASSAN (i.e. " land of the sun ")

Khorasan, between the g, d, b, z . Thus we have Old Persian or Zend . Pahlavi . New Persian .

See also:

• OXUS

Oxus and the Jaxartes . In Merv, a Khorasanian See also:

• TOWN

town, a certain mahrka (death) See also:

• MARK
• MARK, CARL (1858– )
• MARK, GOSPEL OF ST
• MARK, ST

mark marg `Abbas composed in 809 A.D . (193 A.11 ), according to the oldest Thraetaona Fritun Feridun See also:

• BIOGRAPHICAL

biographical writer of Persia, Mahommed 'Aufi, the Earliest ap (See also:

• WATER

water) ap ab first real poem in modern Persian, in See also:

• HONOUR (Lat. honos or lwnor, honoris; in English the word was spelled with or without the u indifferently until the 17th century, but during the 18th century it became fashion-able to spell the word " honor "; Johnson's and Webster's Dictionaries stereoty

honour of the Modern hvato (self) khot khod Abbasid See also:

• PRINCE
• PRINCE (Lat. princeps, from primus capio, " I am the first to take "; Ital. principe, Fr. prince)

prince See also:

• MAMUN (c. 786-833)

Mamun, Harun al-Rashid's son, who Persian raucah (See also:

• DAY (O. Eng. dreg, Ger. Tag; according to the New English Dictionary, " in no way related to the Lat. dies")
• DAY, JOHN (1574-1640?)
• DAY, THOMAS (1748-1789)

day) roj ruz had himself a strong predilection for Persia, his Poet . haca aj az . A See also:

• SERIES (a Latin word from serere, to join)

series of consonants often disappear in the spirant; thus— mother's native See also:

• COUNTRY (from the Mid. Eng. contre or contrie, and O. Fr. cuntree; Late Lat. contrata, showing the derivation from contra, opposite, over against, thus the tract of land which fronts the sight, cf. Ger. Gegend, neighbourhood)

country, and was, moreover, thoroughly imbued Old Persian or Zend . Pahlavi . New Persian. with the freethinking spirit of his age . Soon after this, in 8zo kaufa (See also:

• MOUNTAIN (0. Fr. montaigne; popular Lat. montanea, an adjectival form from the classical mons, montis, whence Eng. " mount," a form usually used along with the name of an individual mountain, e.g. Mt Everest)
• MOUNTAIN, THE (La Montagne)

mountain) kof koh (205 A.H.), Tahir, who aided Mamun to wrest the caliphate from gathu (place), Z. gatu See also:

• GAS

gas gal his See also:

• BROTHER

brother Amin, succeeded in establishing the first semi- cathware (four) . . cihar See also:

• INDEPENDENT

independent Persian dynasty in Khorasan, which was overthrown bandaka (slave) bandak bandah in 872 (259 A.H.) by the Saffarids . Spada (See also:

• ARMY
• ARMY (from Fr. armee, Lat. armata)

army) sipaham . The development of Persian See also:

• POETRY

poetry under these first native dih dadami (I give) . . .

Old d and dh frequently become y— dynasties was slow . Arabic language and literature had gained Old Persian or-.Zend . Pahlavi . New Persian. too See also:

• FIRM

firm a footing to be supplanted at once by a new literary madhu (See also:

• WINE (Lat. vinum, Gr. oivos)

wine) . . See also:

• MAI, ANGELO (1782—1854)

mai idiom still in its infancy; nevertheless the few poets who arose baodho (consciousness) See also:

• BED
• BED (a common Teutonic word, cf. German Bett, probably connected with the Indo-European root bhodh, seen in the Lat. fodere, to dig; so " a dug-out place " for safe resting, or in the same sense as a garden " bed ")

bed boi under the Tahirids and Saffarids show already the germs of the adha (See also:

• FOOT

foot) . . . . pai characteristic tendency of all later Persian literature, which tadha (when) . . . . kai. aims at amalgamating the enforced spirit of Islamism with their Old y often appears as j: Zend See also:

• YAMA (Sanskrit " twin," in allusion to his being twin with his sister Yami, traditionally the first human pair)

yama (See also:

• GLASS
• GLASS (O.E. glees, cf. Ger. Glas, perhaps derived from an old Teutonic root gla-, a variant of glo-, having the general sense of shining, cf. " glare," " glow ")
• GLASS, STAINED

glass), New Persian jam; own Aryan feelings, and reconciling the strict See also:

• DEISM (Lat. dens, god)

deism of the yavan (a youth), New Persian Javan . Two consonants are not See also:

• MAHOMMEDAN

Mahommedan religion with their inborn loftier and more or less allowed to stand together at the beginning of a word; hence vowels are frequently inserted or prefixed, e.g . New Persian sitadan or pantheistic ideas; and we can easily trace in the few fragmentary istadan (to stand), root stet; biradar (bror.her), Zend and Pahlavi verses of men like I,lanzala, Hakim Firuz and See also:

• ABU

Abu Salik those bratar.' See also:

• PRINCIPAL

principal forms of poetry now used in common by Forms of Amongst modern languages and dialects other than Persian which all Mahommedan nations—the forms of the gasida Eastern must be also assigned to the Iranian family may be Modern (the encomiastic, elegiac or satirical poem), the Poetry . Dialects. mentioned: t .

Kurdish, a language nearly akin to New Persian, ghazal or See also:

• ODE (Gr. uiSri, from aei&ew, to sing)

ode (a love-ditty, wine-song or religious hymn), the with which it has important characteristics in common . It is ruba'i or See also:

• QUATRAIN

quatrain (our See also:

• EPIGRAM

epigram, for which the Persians invented chiefly distinguished from it by a marked tendency to shorten a new metre in addition to those adopted from the See also:

• ARABS

Arabs), and words at all See also:

• COSTS

costs, e.g . Kurd. beret (brother) =New Persian biradar; the mathnawi or See also:

• DOUBLE
• DOUBLE (from the Mid. Eng. duble, the form which gives the present pronunciation, through the Old Er. duble, from Lat. duplus, twice as much)

double-rhymed poem the legitimate form for Kurd. dim (I give) =New Persian diham; Kurd. spi (See also:

• WHITE
• WHITE, ANDREW DICKSON (1832– )
• WHITE, GILBERT (1720–1793)
• WHITE, HENRY KIRKE (1785-1806)
• WHITE, HUGH LAWSON (1773-1840)
• WHITE, JOSEPH BLANCO (1775-1841)
• WHITE, RICHARD GRANT (1822-1885)
• WHITE, ROBERT (1645-1704)
• WHITE, SIR GEORGE STUART (1835– )
• WHITE, SIR THOMAS (1492-1567)
• WHITE, SIR WILLIAM ARTHUR (1824--1891)
• WHITE, SIR WILLIAM HENRY (1845– )
• WHITE, THOMAS (1628-1698)
• WHITE, THOMAS (c. 1550-1624)

white) New p ( Persian siped. epic and didactic poetry) . The first who wrote such a mathnawi 2 . Baluch, the language of See also:

• BALUCHISTAN

Baluchistan, also very closely akin was Abu Shukur of See also:

• BALKH

Balkh, the oldest literary representative of to New Persian, but especially distinguished from it in that all the third dynasty of Khorasan, the See also:

• SAMANIDS

Samanids, who had been able the old spirants are changed into See also:

• EXPLOSIVES

explosives, e.g . Baluch vab (See also:

• SLEEP (0. Eng. slcepan; Ger. schlafen; cf. Lat. labi, to glide, and " slip ")

sleep) = Zend hvafna; Baluch kap (slime) = Zend kafa, New Persian kaf; in the course of time to dethrone the Saffarids, and to secure the Baluch hapt (seven) =New Persian haft. See also:

• GOVERNMENT
• GOVERNMENT (0. Fr. governement, mod. gouvernement, O. Fr. governer, mod. gouverner, from Lat. gubernare, to steer a ship, guide, rule; cf. Gr. xv(3epvav)

government of Persia, nominally still under the supremacy of 3 . Ossetic, true Iranian, in spite of its resemblance in sound to the caliphs in See also:

• BAGDAD, or BAGHDAD

Bagdad, but in fact with full See also:

• SOVEREIGNTY

sovereignty . The the Georgian.' undisputed reign of this family See also:

• DATES

dates from the See also:

• ACCESSION (from Lat. accedere, to go to, to approach)

accession of See also:

• AMIR, or AMEER (an Arabic word meaning " commander," from the root amr, " commanding ")

Amir 4 . See also:

• PUSHTU

Pushtu (less accurately Afghan), which has certainly been Nasr II . (913—942; ' 301–331 A.H.), who, more than any of his increasingly influenced by the neighbouring Indian languages in See also:

• INFLEXION (from Lat. inflectere, to bend)

inflexion, syntax and vocabulary, but is still at bottom a pure predecessors, patronized arts and sciences in his dominions . Iranian language, not merely intermediate between Iranian and The most accomplished minstrels of his time were minstrels Indian . Mahommed Faraladi (or Faralawi); Abu '1-'Abbas of loth The position of Armenian remains doubtful .

Some scholars of See also:

• BOKHARA (Bokhara-i-Sherif)
• BOKHARA, or BUKHARA (the common central Asian pronunciation is Bukhara)

Bokhara, a writer of very See also:

• TENDER

tender verses; Abu century. attribute it to the Iranian family; others prefer to regard it as a separate and independent member of the Indo-European group . '1-Mu2affar Nasr of See also:

• NISHAPUR
• NISHAPUR (Old Pers. Nev-shdpur-nev, New Pers. niv, nik= good; Arab. Naisabur)

Nishapur; Abu 'Abdallah Mahommed of Many words that at first sight seem to prove its Iranian origin are Junaid, equally renowned for his Arabic and Persian poetry; only adopted from the Persians (K . G.) Ma'nawi of Bokhara, full of original thoughts and spiritual II . Modern Persian Literature.—Persian historians are greatly subtleties; Khusrawani, from whom even Firdousi condescended at variance about the origin of their national poetry . .Most of to See also:

• BORROW, GEORGE HENRY (18o3-1881)

borrow quotations; Abu '1-See also:

• HASAN

Hasan Shahid of Balkh, the first them go back to the 5th See also:

• CHRISTIAN
• CHRISTIAN, WILLIAM (1608-1663)

Christian century and ascribe to one who made a diwan or alphabetical collection of his lyrics; and of the Sassanian See also:

• KINGS, FIRST AND SECOND BOOKS OF

kings, Bahram V . (420—439), the invention of Rudagi (or Rudaki), the first classic See also:

• GENIUS (from Lat. genere, gignere)

genius of Persia, who See also:

• IM(K2+a2+h2—2 ah cos 0)

im- ' Grammars of New Persian, by M . See also:

• LUMSDEN, SIR HARRY BURNETT (1821-1896)

Lumsden (See also:

• CALCUTTA

Calcutta, 1810), pressed upon every form of lyric and didactic poetry its peculiar A . B . Chodzko (Paris, 1852 ; new ed., 1883), D . See also:

• FORBES
• FORBES, ALEXANDER PENROSE (1817-1875)
• FORBES, ARCHIBALD (1838-1900)
• FORBES, DAVID (1828--1876)
• FORBES, DUNCAN
• FORBES, EDWARD (1815—1854)
• FORBES, JAMES DAVID (1809—1868)
• FORBES, SIR JOHN (1787—1861)

Forbes (1869), See also:

• STAMP (from " to stamp," to strike or tread heavily, hence to impress, O. Eng. stempen, Du. stampen, Ger. stampfen, whence, O. Fr. estamper, mod. etamper)

stamp and individual character (see RUDAGi) . His graceful and J . A .

Vullers (See also:

• GIESSEN

Giessen, 187o), A . Wahrmund (Giessen, 1875), C. captivating style was imitated by Hakim Khabbaz of Nishapur, Salemann and V . Zhukovski (Leipzig, 1889) ; J . T . Platts a great See also:

• BAKER, HENRY (1698-1774)
• BAKER, SIR BENJAMIN (1840-1907)
• BAKER, SIR RICHARD (1568-1644/5)
• BAKER, SIR SAMUEL WHITE (1821-1893)
• BAKER, THOMAS (1656-1740)
• BAKER, VALENTINE [BAKER PASHA] (1827-1887)

baker, poet and See also:

• QUACK

quack; Abu Shu'aib Salih of Herat, who (pt. i . 1984) . For the New Persian dialects see Fr . See also:

• MULLER, FERDINAND VON, BARON (1825–1896)
• MULLER, FRIEDRICH (1749-1825)
• MULLER, GEORGE (1805-1898)
• MULLER, JOHANNES PETER (18o1-1858)
• MULLER, JOHANNES VON (1752-1809)
• MULLER, JULIUS (18oi-1878)
• MULLER, KARL OTFRIED (1797-1840)
• MULLER, LUCIAN (1836-1898)
• MULLER, WILHELM (1794-1827)
• MULLER, WILLIAM JAMES (1812-1845)

Muller, in the left a spirited little song in honour of a See also:

• YOUNG
• YOUNG, A
• YOUNG, ARTHUR (1741-1820)
• YOUNG, BRIGHAM (1801-1877)
• YOUNG, CHARLES MAYNE (1777–1856)
• YOUNG, EDWARD (1683–1765)
• YOUNG, JAMES (1811-1883)
• YOUNG, THOMAS (1773-1829)

young Christian See also:

• MAIDEN, or MAID

maiden; Sillzungsber. der wien . Akad., vols. lxxvii., lxxviii . Raunaqi of Bokhara; Abu'l-Fath of Bust, who was also a good Cf . Hubschmann, in See also:

• KUHN, FRANZ FELIX ADALBERT (1812–1881)

Kuhn's Zeitschrift, See also:

• XXIV

xxiv . 396 .

' Cf . P. de See also:

• LAGARDE, PAUL ANTON DE (1827–1891)

Lagarde, Armenische Studien (See also:

• GOTTINGEN

Gottingen, 1877) ; Arabic poet; the amir Atha '1-Iilasan 'See also:

• ALI

Ali Alagatchi, who handled )EI . Hubschmann, Armenische Studien (Leipzig, 1883). the See also:

• PEN (Lat. penna, a feather, pen)

pen as skilfully as the See also:

• SWORD (0. Eng. sweord; ultimately from an Indo-European root meaning to wound)

sword; 'Umara of Merv, a famous astronomer; and Kisa'i, a native of the same town, a man of stern and ascetic See also:

• MANNERS, CHARLES (1857– )

manners, who sang in melodious See also:

• RHYTHM (Greek pvBµds, from bap, to flow)

rhythm the praise of `Ali and the twelve imams . All these poets flourished under the patronage of the Samanid princes, who also fostered the growing See also:

• DESIRE

desire of their nation for historical and antiquarian researches, for exegetical and medical studies . Mansur I., the See also:

• GRANDSON (Ger. Grandsee)