See also:

• LAPLAND, or LAPPLAND

LAPLAND, or LAPPLAND  , a name used to indicate the region of See also:

• NORTHERN

northern See also:

• EUROPE

Europe inhabited by the Lapps, though not applied to any administrative See also:

• DISTRICT

district . It covers in See also:

• NORWAY
• NORWAY (Norge)

Norway the See also:

• DIVISION (from Lat. dividere, to break up into parts, separate)

division (amter) of Finmarken and the higher inland parts of See also:

• TROMSO

Tromso and Nordiand; in See also:

• RUSSIAN

Russian territory the western See also:

• PART

part of the See also:

• GOVERNMENT
• GOVERNMENT (0. Fr. governement, mod. gouvernement, O. Fr. governer, mod. gouverner, from Lat. gubernare, to steer a ship, guide, rule; cf. Gr. xv(3epvav)

government of See also:

• ARCHANGEL (ARCHANGELSK)
• ARCHANGEL (ARCHANGELSx)

Archangel as far as the See also:

• WHITE
• WHITE, ANDREW DICKSON (1832– )
• WHITE, GILBERT (1720–1793)
• WHITE, HENRY KIRKE (1785-1806)
• WHITE, HUGH LAWSON (1773-1840)
• WHITE, JOSEPH BLANCO (1775-1841)
• WHITE, RICHARD GRANT (1822-1885)
• WHITE, ROBERT (1645-1704)
• WHITE, SIR GEORGE STUART (1835– )
• WHITE, SIR THOMAS (1492-1567)
• WHITE, SIR WILLIAM ARTHUR (1824--1891)
• WHITE, SIR WILLIAM HENRY (1845– )
• WHITE, THOMAS (1628-1698)
• WHITE, THOMAS (c. 1550-1624)

White See also:

• SEA (in O. Eng. sae, a common Teutonic word; cf. Ger. See, Dutch Zee, &c.; the ultimate source is uncertain)
• SEA, COMMAND OF THE

Sea and the northern part of the Finnish district of See also:

• ULEABORG (Finnish, Oulu)

Uleaborg; and in See also:

• SWEDEN
• SWEDEN [Sverige]
• SWEDEN, NORWAY AND

Sweden the inland and northern parts of the old See also:

• PROVINCE
• PROVINCE (Lat. provincia; perhaps a contraction of providentia)

province of Norrland, roughly coincident with the districts (lan) of Norbotten and Vesterbotten, and divided into five divisions—Torne Lappmark, Lule Lappmark, Pite Lappmark, Lycksele Lappmark and Eisele Lappmark . The See also:

• NORWEGIAN

Norwegian portion is thus insignificant; of the Russian only a little lies See also:

• SOUTH
• SOUTH, ROBERT (1634–1716)

south of the See also:

• ARCTIC (Gr. "ApKroc, the Bear, the northern constellation of Ursa Major)

Arctic circle, and the whole is less accessible and more sparsely populated than the See also:

• SWEDISH

Swedish, the See also:

• SOUTHERN

southern boundary of which may be taken arbitrarily at about 64° N., though scattered families of Lapps occur much farther south, even in the Hardanger Fjeld in Norway . The Scandinavian portion of See also:

• LAPLAND, or LAPPLAND

Lapland presents the usual characteristics of the See also:

• MOUNTAIN (0. Fr. montaigne; popular Lat. montanea, an adjectival form from the classical mons, montis, whence Eng. " mount," a form usually used along with the name of an individual mountain, e.g. Mt Everest)
• MOUNTAIN, THE (La Montagne)

mountain See also:

• PLATEAU (a French term, older platel, for a flat piece of wood, metal, &c., from plat, flat)
• PLATEAU, JOSEPH ANTOINE FERDINAND (1801-1883)

plateau of that See also:

• PENINSULA
• PENINSULA (Lat. paeninsula, from paene, almost, and insula, an island)

peninsula—on the See also:

• WEST
• WEST, BENJAMIN (1738-1820)
• WEST, NICHOLAS (1461-1533)

west See also:

• SIDE
• SIDE (mod. Eski Adalia)

side the bold headlands and fjords, deeply-grooved valleys and glaciers of Norway, on the See also:

• CAST (from the verb meaning " to throw "; the word is Scand. in origin, cf. Dan. kaste, and Swed. kasta; " cast " in Middle Eng. took the place of the A.S. weor pan, cf. Ger. werf en)

cast the See also:

• LONG, GEORGE (1800-1879)
• LONG, JOHN DAVIS (1838– )

long mountain lakes and See also:

• GREAT

great See also:

• LAKE
• LAKE, GERARD LAKE, 1ST VISCOUNT (1744-1808)

lake-fed See also:

• RIVERS
• RIVERS, ANTHONY WOODVILLE, or WYDEVILLE, 2ND EARL (c. 1442—1483)
• RIVERS, EARL
• RIVERS, RICHARD SAVAGE, 4TH EARL (c. 1660—1712)

rivers of Sweden . Russian Lapland is broadly similar to the See also:

• LOWER

lower-lying parts of Swedish Lapland, but the great lakes are more generally distributed, and the valleys are less See also:

• DIRECT

direct . The See also:

• COUNTRY (from the Mid. Eng. contre or contrie, and O. Fr. cuntree; Late Lat. contrata, showing the derivation from contra, opposite, over against, thus the tract of land which fronts the sight, cf. Ger. Gegend, neighbourhood)

country is See also:

• LOW, SETH (1850- )
• LOW, WILL HICOK (1853- )

low and gently undulating, broken by detached hills and ridges not exceeding in See also:

• ELEVATION

elevation 2500 ft . In the uplands of Swedish Lapland, and to some extent in Russian Lapland, the lakes afford the See also:

• PRINCIPAL

principal means of communication; it is almost impossible to See also:

• CROSS

cross the forests from valley to valley without a native See also:

• GUIDE (in Mid. Eng. gyde, from the Fr. guide; the earlier French form was guie, English " guy," the d was due to the Italian form guida; the ultimate origin is probably Teutonic, the word being connected with the base seen in O. Eng. witan, to know)

guide . In Sweden the few farms of the Swedes who inhabit the region are on the lake shores, and the traveller must be rowed from one to another in the typical boats of the district, pointed at how and stern, unusually low amidships, and propelled by See also:

• SHORT, FRANCIS JOB (1857– )

short sculls or paddles . Sailing is hardly ever practised, and squalls on the lakes are often dangerous to the See also:

• ROWING (O. Eng. rowan, to row, cf. Lat. remus, Gr. perµbr, oar)

rowing-boats . On a few of the lakes See also:

• WOOD, ANTHONY A2 (1632-1695)
• WOOD, JOHN GEORGE (1827—1889)
• WOOD, MRS HENRY [ELLEN] (1814—1887)
• WOOD, SEARLES VALENTINE (1798—188o)

wood-fired See also:

• STEAM
• STEAM (0. Eng. steam, vapour, smoke, cf. Du. steam; the origin is unknown)

steam-launches are used in connexion with the See also:

• TIMBER

timber See also:

• TRADE (O. Eng. trod, footstep, from tredan, to tread; in M. Eng. the forms teed, trod and trade appear, the last in the sense of a beaten track)
• TRADE, BOARD OF

trade, which is considerable, as practically the whole region is forested . Between the lakes all journeying is made on See also:

• FOOT

foot . The heads of the Swedish valleys are connected with the Norwegian fjordsby passes generally traversed only by tracks; though from the See also:

• HEAD (in 0. Eng. heafad; the word is common to Teutonic languages; cf. Dutch hoofd, Ger. Haupt, generally taken to be in origin connected with Lat. caput, Gr. KerbOvi7)
• HEAD, SIR EDMUND WALKER, BART
• HEAD, SIR FRANCIS BOND, BART

head of the Ume a See also:

• DRIVING (from " to drive," i.e. generally to propel, force along or in, a word common in various forms to the Teutonic languages)

driving road crosses to Mo on Ranen See also:

• FJORD, or FIORD

Fjord .

Each principal valley has a considerable See also:

• VILLAGE

village at or near the tail of the lake-See also:

• CHAIN (through the O. Fr. citable, chcene, &c., from Lat. catena)

chain, up to which a road runs along the valley . The village consists of wooden cottages with an See also:

• INN

inn (gastgifvaregard), a See also:

• CHURCH
• CHURCH (according to most authorities derived from the Gr. Kvpcaxov [&wµa], " the Lord's [house]," and common to many Teutonic, Slavonic and other languages under various forms—Scottish kirk, Ger. Kirche, Swed. kirka, Dan. kirke, Russ. tserkov, Buig. cerk
• CHURCH, FREDERICK EDWIN (1826-1900)
• CHURCH, GEORGE EARL (1835–1910)
• CHURCH, RICHARD WILLIAM (1815–189o)
• CHURCH, SIR RICHARD (1784–1873)

church, and frequently a collection of huts without windows, closed in summer, but inhabited by the Lapps when they come down from the mountains to the See also:

• WINTER, JOHN STRANGE
• WINTER, PETER (c. 1755-1825)

winter fairs . Sometimes there is another church and small See also:

• SETTLEMENT
• SETTLEMENT, ACT OF

settlement in the upper valley, to which, once or twice in a summer, the Lapps come from great distances to attend service . To these, too, they sometimes bring their dead for See also:

• BURIAL

burial, bearing them if necessary on a See also:

• JOURNEY (through O. Fr. jornee or journee, mod. Fr. journee, from med. Lat. diurnata, Lat. diurnus, of or belonging to dies, day)

journey of many days . Though Lapland gives little See also:

• SCOPE (through Ital. scopo, aim, purpose, intent, from Gr. o'KOaos, mark to shoot at, aim, o ic07reiv, to see, whence the termination in telescope, microscope, &c.)

scope for husbandry, a See also:

• BAD, BCD

bad summer being commonly followed by a winter See also:

• FAMINE (Lat. fames, hunger)

famine, it is richly furnished with much that is serviceable to See also:

• MAN
• MAN, ISLE OF (anc. Mona)

man . There are See also:

• COPPER (symbol Cu, atomic weight 63.1, H=1, or 63.6, O = 16)

copper-mines at the mountain of See also:

• SULITELMA

Sulitelma, and the See also:

• IRON [symbol Fe, atomic weight 55.85 (0=16)]

iron deposits in Norrland are among the most extensive in the See also:

• WORLD

world . Their working is facilitated by the railway from See also:

• STOCKHOLM

Stockholm to See also:

• GELLIVARA [GELLIVARE]

Gellivara, Kirunavara and See also:

• NARVIK

Narvik on the Norwegian See also:

• COAST (from Lat. costa, a rib, side)

coast, which also connects them with the See also:

• PORT

port of See also:

• LULEA

Lulea on the Gulf of See also:

• BOTHNIA, GULF OF

Bothnia . The See also:

• SUPPLY (through Fr. from Lat. supplere, to fill up)

supply of timber (See also:

• PINE (Lat. Pinus, Gr. srlrur)

pine, See also:

• FIR

fir, spruce and See also:

• BIRCH
• BIRCH (Betula)
• BIRCH, SAMUEL (1813–1885)
• BIRCH, THOMAS (1705-1766)

birch) is unlimited . Though See also:

• FRUIT (through the French from the Lat. fructus; frui, to enjoy)

fruit-trees will not See also:

• BEAR
• BEAR, BLACK
• BEAR, BROWN
• BEAR, GRIZZLY
• BEAR, ISABELLINE
• BEAR, WHITE

bear there is an abundance of edible berries; the rivers and lakes abound with See also:

• TROUT (Salmo trutta)

trout, See also:

• PERCH (through Fr. from Lat. perca, Gr. 7rEpKo; the last word is connected with 2repev6r, dark-coloured, spotted)
• PERCH (through Fr. perche from Lat. pertica, a pole or rod used for measurement)

perch, See also:

• PIKE
• PIKE, ZEBULON MONTGOMERY (1779-1813)

pike and other See also:

• FISH (O. Eng. fist, a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Dutch visch, Ger. Fisch, Goth. fisks, cognate with the Lat. piscis)
• FISH, HAMILTON (1808-1893)

fish, and in the lower See also:

• WATERS, TERRITORIAL

waters with See also:

• SALMON
• SALMON, GEORGE (1819-1904)

salmon; and the See also:

• COD

cod, See also:

• HERRING (Clupea harengus, Haring in German, le hareng in French, sill in Swedish)

herring, See also:

• HALIBUT

halibut and See also:

• GREENLAND (Danish, &c., Gronland)

Greenland See also:

• SHARK

shark in the northern seas attract numerous Norwegian and Russian fishermen . The See also:

• CLIMATE

climate is thoroughly Arctic . In the northern parts unbroken daylight in summer and darkness in winter last from two to three months each; and through the greater part of the country the See also:

• SUN
• SUN (0. Eng. sonne, Ger. sonne. Fr. soleil, Lat. sol, Gr. ijXior, from which comes helio- in various English compounds)

sun does not rise at See also:

• MID

mid-winter or set at midsummer . In See also:

• DECEMBER (Lat. decent, ten)

December and See also:

• JANUARY

January in the far See also:

• NORTH
• NORTH, BARONS
• NORTH, MARIANNE (1830—1890)
• NORTH, ROGER (1653-1734)
• NORTH, SIR THOMAS (1535?-16o1?)

north there is little more daylight than a See also:

• COLD (in O. Eng. cald and ceald, a word coming ultimately from a root cognate with the Lat. gelu, gelidus, and common in the Teutonic languages, which usually have two distinct forms for the substantive and the adjective, cf. Ger. Kolte, kalt, Dutch koude

cold glimmer of See also:

• DAWN (the 16th-century form of the earlier " Jawing " or " dawning," from an old verb " daw," O. Eng. dagian, to become day; cf. Dutch dagen, and Ger. tagen)

dawn; by See also:

• FEBRUARY

February, however, there are some See also:

• HOURS, CANONICAL

hours of daylight; in See also:

• MARCH
• MARCH (1) (from Fr. marcher, to walk; the earliest sense in French appears to be " to trample," and the origin has usually been found in the Lat. marcus, hammer; Low Lat. marcare, to hammer; hence to beat the road with the regular tread of a soldier: cf.
• MARCH, AUZIAS (c. "1395-1458)
• MARCH, EARLS OF
• MARCH, FRANCIS ANDREW (1825– )

March the See also:

• HEAT (0. E. haktu, which like " hot," Old Eng. hat, is from the Teutonic type haita, hit, to be hot; cf. Ger. hitze, heiss; Dutch, hitte, heet, &c.)

heat of the sun is beginning to modify the cold, and now and in See also:

• APRIL

April the birds of passage begin to appear .

In April the See also:

• SNOW (in O. Eng. sndw; a common Indo-European word; cf. in Teutonic languages, Ger. Schnee, Du. sneeuw; in Slavonic snieg', Lith. snegas; Gr. vi4a, Lat. nix, nivis, whence the Romanic forms, Ital. neve, Fr. neige, &c.; Ir. and Gael. sneachd; the original

snow is melting from the branches; See also:

• SPRING (from " to spring," " to leap or jump up," " burst out," O. Eng., springau, a common Teut. word, cf. Ger. springer, possibly allied to Gr. QnrFpxecOac, to move rapidly)

spring comes in May; spring See also:

• FLOWERS, ARTIFICIAL

flowers are in blossom, and See also:

• GRAIN (derived through the French from Lat. granum, seed, from an Aryan root meaning " to wear down," which also appears in the common Teutonic word " corn ")

grain is sown . At the end of this See also:

• MONTH
• MONTH (a common Teutonic word, cf. Ger. Mond, Du. maand, Dan. maaned, &c., and cognate with Lat. mensis, Gr. µi7v, &c., in other branches of the Indo-Germanic family; all ultimately from the root seen in the word for the moon in nearly all those languages

month or in See also:

• JUNE

June the See also:

• ICE (a word common to Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Eis)

ice is breaking up on the lakes, See also:

• WOODS, LEONARD (1774-1854)
• WOODS, SIR ALBERT (1816-1904)

woods See also:

• RUSH
• RUSH, BENJAMIN (1745–1813)
• RUSH, RICHARD (1780–1859)

rush into See also:

• LEAF (O. Eng. leaf, cf. Dutch loof, Ger. Laub, Swed. lof, &c.; possibly to be referred to the root seen in Gr. Ma-eta, to peel, strip)

leaf, and the unbroken daylight of the northern summer soon sets in . See also:

• JULY

July is quite warm; the great rivers come down full from the melting snows in the mountains . See also:

• AUGUST (originally Sextilis)

August is a See also:

• RAINY, ROBERT (1826-1906)

rainy month, the See also:

• TIME (0. Eng. Lima, cf. Icel. timi, Swed. timme, hour, Dan. time; from the root also seen in " tide," properly the time of between the flow and ebb of the sea, cf. O. Eng. getidan, to happen, " even-tide," &c.; it is not directly related to Lat. tempus)
• TIME, MEASUREMENT OF
• TIME, STANDARD

time of See also:

• HARVEST (A.S. hcerfest " autumn," O.H. Ger. herbist, possibly through an old Teutonic root representing Lat. car pere, " to pluck ")

harvest; See also:

• NIGHT

night-frosts may begin already about the See also:

• MIDDLE

middle of the month . All preparations for winter are made during See also:

• SEPTEMBER (Lat. septem, seven)

September and See also:

• OCTOBER

October, and full winter has set in by See also:

• NOVEMBER (Lat. novem, nine)

November . The Lapps.—The Lapps (Swed . Lappar; Russian Lopari; Norw . Finner) See also:

• CALL (from Anglo-Saxon ceallian, a common Teutonic word, cf. Dutch kallen, to talk or chatter)

call their country Sabme or Same, and themselves Samelats—names almost identical with those employed by the Finns for their country and See also:

• RACE

race, and probably connected with a See also:

• ROOT (late O.E. rot, adopted from Scand., cf. Norw. and Swed. rot, Dan. rod; the true O.E. word was wyrt, plant, represented in Ger. Wurz or Wurzel; the ultimate root is the same in both words, and is seen in Lat. radix)
• ROOT, ELIHU (1845– )

root signifying " dark." Lapp is almost certainly a See also:

• NICKNAME

nickname imposed by foreigners, although some of the Lapps apply it contemptuously to those of their countrymen whom they think to be less civilized than themselves ? In Sweden and See also:

• FINLAND (Finnish, Suomi or Suomenmaa)

Finland the Lapps are usually divided into See also:

• FISHER
• FISHER, ALVAN (1792–1863)
• FISHER, GEORGE PARK (1827-1909)
• FISHER, JOHN (c. 1469-1535)
• FISHER, JOHN ARBUTHNOT FISHER, 1ST BARON

fisher, mountain and See also:

• FOREST

forest Lapps . In Sweden the first class includes many impoverished mountain Lapps . As described by Laestadius (1827-1832), their See also:

• CONDITION (Lat. condicio, from condicere, to agree upon, arrange; not connected with conditio, from condere, conditum, to put together)

condition was very miserable; but since his time matters have improved . The 'principal See also:

• COLONY (Lat. colonia, from colonus, a cultivator)

colony has its summer quarters on the Stora-Lule Lake, possesses See also:

• GOOD, JOHN MASON (1764-1827)

good boats and nets, and, besides catching and drying fish, makes See also:

• MONEY

money by the See also:

• SHOOTING

shooting of See also:

• WILD, JONATHAN (c. 1682-1725)

wild See also:

• FOWL (Dan. Fugl, Ger. Vogel)

fowl and the gathering of eggs .

When he has acquired a little means it is not unusual for the fisher to See also:

• SETTLE
• SETTLE, ELKANAH (1648–1724)

settle down and reclaim a See also:

• BIT (from the verb " to bite," either in the sense of a piece bitten off, or an act of biting, or a thing that bites or is bitten)

bit of See also:

• LAND

land." The mountain and forest Lapps are the true representatives of the race . In the wandering See also:

• LIFE

life of the mountain Lapp his autumn See also:

• RESIDENCE (Latin residere, to remain behind, to dwell, reside)

residence, on the See also:

• BORDERS, THE

borders of the forest district, may be considered as the central point; it is there that he erects his njalla, a small wooden storehouse raised high above the ground by one or more piles . About the beginning of November he begins to wander south or See also:

• EAST
• EAST, ALFRED (1849- )

east into the forest land, and in the winter he may visit, not only 1 The most probable See also:

• ETYMOLOGY (Gr. grvµos, true, and X6yos, "account)

etymology is the Finnish lappu, and in this See also:

• CASE
• CASE, JOHN (d. 1600)

case the meaning would be the " land's end folk." such places as Jokkmokk and Arjepluog, but even See also:

• GEFLE

Gefle, See also:

• UPSALA, or UPPSALA

Upsala or Stockholm . About the beginning of May he is back at his njalla, but as soon as the See also:

• WEATHER (O. Eng. weder; the word is common to Teutonic languages; cf. Du. weder, Dan. veir, Icel. ve8r, and Ger. Wetter and Gewitter, storm; the root is wa- to blow, from which is derived " wind ")

weather grows warm he pushes up to the mountains, and there throughout the summer pastures his herds and prepares his See also:

• STORE (from O. Fr. estor or estoire, Late Lat. staurum or instaurum, stock, provisions, supply, from the late use of instaurare, to provide, properly to construct, renew, restore)

store of See also:

• CHEESE (Lat. caseus)

cheese . By autumn or October he is busy at his njalla killing the surplus See also:

• REINDEER

reindeer bulls and curing See also:

• MEAT

meat for the winter . From the mountain Lapp the forest (or, as he used to be called, the spruce-fir) Lapp is mainly distinguished by the narrower limits within which he pursues his nomadic life . He never wanders outside of a certain district, in which he possesses hereditary rights, and maintains a See also:

• SERIES (a Latin word from serere, to join)

series of camping-grounds which he visits in See also:

• REGULAR

regular rotation . In May or April he lets his reindeer loose, to wander as they please; but immediately after midsummer, when the mosquitoes become troublesome, he goes to collect them . Catching a single See also:

• DEER (O. E. rigor, dfor, a common Teutonic word, meaning a wild animal, cf. Ger. Tier, Du. dier, &c., probably from a root dhus-, to breathe)
• DEER, CHINESE

deer and belling it, he drives it through the wood; the other deer, whose See also:

• INSTINCT

instinct leads them to gather into herds for mutual See also:

• PROTECTION

protection against the mosquitoes, are attracted by the See also:

• SOUND
• SOUND, THE (Danish Oresund)

sound . Should the summer be very cool and the mosquitoes few, the Lapp finds it next to impossible to bring the creatures together . About the end of August they are again let loose, but they are once more collected in October, the forest Lapp during winter pursuing the same course of life as the mountain Lapp . In Norway there are three classes—the sea Lapps, the See also:

• RIVER

river Lapps and the mountain Lapps, the first two settled, the third nomadic .

The mountain Lapps have a rather ruder and harder life than the same class in Sweden . About See also:

• CHRISTMAS (i.e. the Mass of Christ)

Christmas those of Kautokeino and Karasjok are usually settled in the neighbourhood of the churches; in summer they visit the coast, and in autumn they return inland . Previous to 1852, when they were forbidden by imperial See also:

• DECREE (from the past participle, decretus, of Lat. decernere)

decree, they were wont in winter to move south across the Russian frontiers . It is seldom possible for them to remain more than three or four days in one spot . Flesh is their favourite, in winter almost their only See also:

• FOOD
• FOOD (like the verb " to feed," from a Teutonic root, whence O. Eng. foda; cf. " fodder "; connected with Gr. lrareicOae, to feed)

food, though they also use reindeer See also:

• MILK (0. Eng. meoluc; from a common Indo-European root, cf. Lat. mulgere, Gr. ?t dXyetv)

milk, cheese and See also:

• RYE

rye or See also:

• BARLEY (Hordeum sativum)

barley cakes . The sea Lapps are in some respects hardly to be distinguished from the other coast dwellers of Finmark . Their food consists mainly of cooked fish . The river Lapps, many of whom, however, are descendants of Finns proper, breed See also:

• CATTLE (Norman Fr. catel, from Late Lat. capitale, wealth or property, a word applied in the feudal system to movable property and particularly to live stock, and surviving in its wider meaning as " chattel " or " chattle ")

cattle, See also:

• ATTEMPT (Lat. adtemptare, attentare, to try)

attempt a little tillage and entrust their reindeer to the care of mountain Lapps . In Finland there are comparatively few Laplanders, and the great bulk of them belong to the fisher class . Many are settled in the neighbourhood of the Enare Lake . In the spring they go down to the Norwegian coast and take part in the sea See also:

• FISHERIES

fisheries, returning to the lake about midsummer . Formerly they found the See also:

• CAPTURE (from Lat. capere, to take; Fr. prise maritime; Ger. Wegnahme)

capture of wild reindeer a profitable occupation, using for this purpose a palisaded See also:

• AVENUE (the past participle feminine of Fr. avenir, to come to)

avenue gradually narrowing towards a pitfall .

The Russian Lapps are also for the most part fishers, as is natural in a district with such an extent of coast and such a number of lakes, not to mention the See also:

• ADVANTAGE

advantage which the fisher has over the reindeer keeper in connexion with the many fasts of the See also:

• GREEK
• GREEK, ETRUSCAN AND

Greek Church . They maintain a See also:

• HALF

half nomadic life, very few having become settlers in the Russian villages . It is usual to distinguish them according to the district of the coast which they frequent, as Murman (Murmanski) and Terian (Terski) Lapps . A See also:

• SEPARATE

separate tribe, the Filmans, i.e Finnmans, wander about the Pazyets, Motov and Pechenga tundras, and retain the See also:

• PECULIAR

peculiar See also:

• DIALECT (from Gr. Sia stcror, conversation, manner of speaking, &aXeyec6at, to converse)

dialect and the Lutheran creed which they owe to a former connexion with Sweden . They were formerly known as the " twice and thrice tributary " Lapps, because they paid to two or even three states—See also:

• RUSSIA
• RUSSIA (Rossiya)

Russia, See also:

• DENMARK
• DENMARK (Danmark)

Denmark and Sweden . The Lapps within the See also:

• HISTORICAL

historical See also:

• PERIOD
• PERIOD (Gr. irepioSos, a going or way round, circuit, aepi, round, and &Sis, way, road)

period have considerably recruited themselves from neighbouring races . Shortness of stature' is their most obvious characteristic, though in regard to this much exaggeration has prevailed . Duben found an See also:

• AVERAGE

average of 4.9 ft. for See also:

• MALES

males and a little less for See also:

• FEMALES

females; Mantegazza, who made a number of anthropological observations in Norway in 1879, gives 5 ft. and 4.75 ft., respectively (Archivio 1 Hence they have been supposed by many to be the originals of the " little folk " of Scandinavian See also:

• LEGEND (through the French from the med. Lat. legenda, things to be read, from legere, to read)

legend.per l'antrop., i88o) . Individuals much above or much below the average are rare . The See also:

• BODY

body is usually of See also:

• FAIR

fair proportions, but the legs are rather short, and in many cases somewhat bandy . Dark, swarthy, yellow, copper-coloured are all adjectives employed to describe their complexion—the truth being that their habits of life do not conduce either to the preservation or display of the natural See also:

• COLOUR (Lat. color, connected with celare, to hide, the root meaning, therefore, being that of a covering)

colour of their skin, and that some of them are really fair, and others, perhaps the See also:

• MAJORITY (Fr. majorite; Med. Lat. majoritas; Lat. major, greater)

majority, really dark . The colour of the See also:

• HAIR (a word common to Teutonic languages)

hair ranges from blonde and reddish to a bluish or greyish See also:

• BLACK
• BLACK, ADAM (1784-1874)
• BLACK, JEREMIAH SULLIVAN (1810–1883)
• BLACK, WILLIAM (1841-1898)

black; the eyes are black, See also:

• HAZEL (0. Eng. hresell; cf. Ger. Hasel, Swed. and Dan. Kassel, &c.,; Fr. noiselier, coudrier)

hazel, See also:

• BLUE (common in different forms to most European languages)

blue or See also:

• GREY, CHARLES GREY, 2ND EARL (1764-1845)
• GREY, HENRY GREY, 3RD EARL (1802-1894)
• GREY, LADY JANE (1537-1554)
• GREY, SIR EDWARD
• GREY, SIR GEORGE (1812–1898)

grey .

The shape of the See also:

• SKULL

skull is the most striking peculiarity of the Lapp . He is the most brachycephalous type of man in Europe, perhaps in the world .2 According to See also:

• VIRCHOW, RUDOLF (1821-1902)

Virchow, the See also:

• WOMEN

women in width of See also:

• FACE (from Lat. fades, derived either from facere, to make, or from a root fa-, meaning " appear "; cf. Gr. cbatvstv)

face are more Mongolian in type than the men, but neither in men nor women does the opening of the See also:

• EYE
• EYE (O. Eng. edge, Ger. Auge; derived from an Indo-European root also seen in Lat. oc-ulus, the organ of vision (q.v.)

eye show any true obliquity . In See also:

• CHILDREN, LAW RELATING TO

children the eye is large, open and See also:

• ROUND (O. Fr. rond, Lat. rotundus, the Fr. is the source also of Du. rond; Ger., Swed., Dan. and Nor. rond)

round . The See also:

• NOSE (O.Eng. nosu, cf. Dutch neus, Swed. nos, snout; the Aix in Provence. Both at Aix and at Lyons he acquired great connexion with O.Eng. nasu is obscure, cf. Ger. Nase, Lat. pares, distinction by his labours during outbreaks of the plague. In nostrils,

nose is always low and broad, more markedly retrousse among the females than the males . Wrinkled and puckered by exposure to the weather, the faces even of the younger Lapps assume an See also:

• APPEARANCE (from Lat. apparere, to appear)

appearance of old See also:

• AGE (Fr. age, through late Lat. aetaticum, from aetas)

age . The See also:

• MUSCULAR

muscular'See also:

• SYSTEM

system is usually well See also:

• DEVELOPED

developed, but there is deficiency of fatty See also:

• TISSUE (Fr. tissu, tissue, participle of tisser, Lat. texere, to weave)

tissue, which affects the features (particularly by giving relative prominence to the eyes) and the See also:

• GENERAL
• GENERAL (Lat. generalis, of or relating to a genus, kind or class)

general See also:

• CHARACTER (Gr. xapareri7p, from xap&crew, to scratch)

character of the skin . The thinness of the skin, indeed, can but rarely be paralleled among other Europeans . Among the Lapps, as among other lower races, the See also:

• INDEX

index is shorter than the See also:

• RING (O.E. hring; a word common to Teutonic languages; and probably cognate with the Lat. circus, Gr. KtpKOS or KpLKOS, Skt'. chakra, wheel, circle, cf. also " harangue "); in art, a band of circular shape of varying sizes, made of any material and used f

ring See also:

• FINGER

finger . The Lapps are a quiet, inoffensive See also:

• PEOPLE

people . Crimes of violence are almost unknown, and the only See also:

• COMMON

common See also:

• BREACH (Mid. Eng. breche, derived from the common Teutonic root brec, which appears in " break," Ger. brechen, &c.)

breach of See also:

• LAW
• LAW (0. Eng. lagu, M. Eng. lawe; from an old Teutonic root lag, " lie," what lies fixed or evenly; cf. Lat. lex, Fr. loi)
• LAW, JOHN (1671—1729)
• LAW, WILLIAM (1686-1761)

law is the killing of tame reindeer belonging to other owners . In Russia, however, they have a bad reputation for lying and general untrustworthiness, and See also:

• DRUNKENNESS

drunkenness is well-nigh a universal See also:

• VICE

vice . In Scandinavia See also:

• LAWS

laws have been directed against the importation of intoxicating liquors into the Lapp country since 1723 .

Superficially at least the great bulk of the Lapps have been Christianized—those of the Scandinavian countries being Protestants, those of Russia members of the Greek Church . Al-though the first attempt to convert the Lapps to See also:

• CHRISTIANITY

Christianity seems to have been made in the See also:

• FIRTH, CHARLES HARDING (1857– )
• FIRTH, MARK (1819-1880)

firth See also:

• CENTURY (from Lat. centuria, a division of a hundred men)

century, the See also:

• WORSHIP (i.e. " worth-ship," O. Eng. weor8scipe)

worship of See also:

• HEATHEN

heathen idols was carried on openly in Swedish Lappma'k as See also:

• LATE

late as 1687, and secretly in Norway down to the first See also:

• QUARTER (through Fr. from Lat. quartarius, fourth part)

quarter of the 18th century, while the practices of heathen See also:

• RITES

rites survived into the 19th century, if indeed they are See also:

• EXTINCT

extinct even yet . Lapp See also:

• GRAVES, ALFRED PERCEVAL (1846— )

graves, prepared in the heathen manner, have been discovered in upper Namdal (Norway), belonging to the years 182o and 1826 . In See also:

• EDUCATION

education the Scandinavian Lapps are far ahead of their Russian brethren, to whom See also:

• READING

reading and See also:

• WRITING
• WRITING (the verbal noun of " to write," O. Eng. writan, to inscribe)

writing are arts as unfamiliar as they were to their See also:

• PAGAN
• PAGAN (Lat. paganus, of or belonging to a pagus, a canton, county district, village, commune)

pagan ancestors . The general manner of life is patriarchal . The See also:

• FATHER

father of the See also:

• FAMILY

family has See also:

• COMPLETE

complete authority over all its affairs; and on his See also:

• DEATH

death this authority passes to the eldest son . Parents are See also:

• FREE

free to disinherit their children; and, if a son separates from the family without his father's permission, he receives no See also:

• SHARE (O. Eng. scearu, chiefly in compounds, e.g. land-scearu, a share of land, from sceran to cut; cf. " shear" )

share of the See also:

• PROPERTY

property except a See also:

• GUN

gun and his wife's See also:

• DOWRY (in Anglo-Fr. dowarie, O. Fr. douaire, Med. Lat. dotaria, from Lat. dos; from root of dare, to give; in Fr. dot)

dowry.' The Lapps are of See also:

• NECESSITY (Lat. necessitas)

necessity conservative in most of their habits, many of which can hardly have altered since the first taming of the reindeer . But the strong current of See also:

• MERCANTILE (or COMMERCIAL) AGENCIES

mercantile enterprise has carried a few important products of southern See also:

• CIVILIZATION

civilization into their huts . The lines in which See also:

• JAMES
• JAMES (Gr. 'IlrKw,l3or, the Heb. Ya`akob or Jacob)
• JAMES (JAMES FRANCIS EDWARD STUART) (1688-1766)
• JAMES, 2ND EARL OF DOUGLAS AND MAR(c. 1358–1388)
• JAMES, DAVID (1839-1893)
• JAMES, EPISTLE OF
• JAMES, GEORGE PAYNE RAINSFOP
• JAMES, HENRY (1843— )
• JAMES, JOHN ANGELL (1785-1859)
• JAMES, THOMAS (c. 1573–1629)
• JAMES, WILLIAM (1842–1910)
• JAMES, WILLIAM (d. 1827)

James See also:

• THOMSON, JAMES (1822-1892)
• THOMSON, JAMES (1834-1882)
• THOMSON, JAMES (r700-1748)
• THOMSON, JOHN (1778-184o)
• THOMSON, JOSEPH (1858-1895)
• THOMSON, SIR CHARLES WYVILLE (1830-1882)
• THOMSON, THOMAS (1773-1852)
• THOMSON, WILLIAM (1819-189o)

Thomson describes their See also:

• SIMPLE

simple life The reindeer See also:

• FORM (Lat. forma)

form their riches: these their tents, Their See also:

• ROBES (Fr. robe, Late Lat. roba, raupa, meaning (1)

robes, their beds, and all their homely See also:

• WEALTH

wealth Supply; their wholesome fare and cheerful cups are still applicable in the See also:

• MAIN (from the Aryan root which appears in " may " and " might," and Lat. magnus, great)
• MAIN (Lat. Moenus)

main to the mountain Lapps; but even they have learned to use See also:

• COFFEE (Fr: cafe, Ger. Kaffee)

coffee as an See also:

• ORDINARY (med. Lat. ordinarius, Fr. ordinaire)

ordinary beverage and to See also:

• WEAR

wear stout Norwegian See also:

• CLOTH

cloth (vadmal) . Linguistically the Lapps belong to the Finno-Ugrian See also:

• GROUP

group (q.v.); the similarity of their speech to Finnish is evident though See also:

• BERTILLON, LOUIS ADOLPHE (1821-1883)

Bertillon found in one instance a cephalic index of 94 . The average obtained by Pruner See also:

• BEY (a modern Turk. word, the older form being beg, cf. Pers. baig)

Bey was 84.7, by Virchow 82.5 . A valuable See also:

• PAPER
• PAPER (Fr. papier, from Lat. papyrus)

paper by Ephimenko, on " The Legal Customs of the Lapps, especially in Russian Lapland," appeared in vol. viii. of the Mem. of Russ .

Geog . See also:

• SOC

Soc., Ethnog . See also:

• SECTION
• SECTION (Lat. sectio, cutting, secare, to cut)

Section, 1878 . the See also:

• PHONETICS (Gr. Davit, voice)

phonetics are different and more complicated . It is broken up of places can often be proved to have no connnexion with the Lapps' They occupied their See also:

• PRESENT

present territory when they are first mentioned in See also:

• HISTORY

history . According to Duben the name first occurs in the 13th century—in the Fundinn Noregr, composed about 1200, in Saxo Grammaticus, and in a papal See also:

• BULL
• BULL, GEORGE (1634–1710)
• BULL, JOHN (c. 1562–1628)
• BULL, OLE BORNEMANN (18ro-188o)

bull of date 1230; but the people are probably to be identified with those Finns of See also:

• TACITUS, CORNELIUS (c. 55-120)
• TACITUS, MARCUS CLAUDIUS

Tacitus whom he describes as wild hunters with skins for clothing and See also:

• RUDE, FRANCOIS (1784–1855)

rude huts as only means of shelter, and certainly with the Skrithiphinoi of See also:

• PROCOPIUS

Procopius (Goth. ii . 15), the Scritobini of See also:

• PAULUS
• PAULUS (older form PAur.Lus), LUCIUS AEMILIUS
• PAULUS, HEINRICH

Paulus Warnefridus, and the Scridifinni of the geographer of See also:

• RAVENNA
• RAVENNA, EXARCHATE OF

Ravenna . Some of the details given by Procopius, in regard for instance to the treatment of infants, show that his informant was acquainted with certain characteristic customs of the Lapps . into very distinct and even mutually unintelligible dialects, the origin of several of which is, however, easily found in the See also:

• POLITICAL

political and social dismemberment of the people . Duben distinguishes four leading dialects; but a much greater number are recognizable . In Russian Lapland alone there are three, due to the See also:

• INFLUENCE (Late Lat. influentia, from influere, to flow in)

influence of Norwegian, Karelian and Russian (See also:

• LONNROT, ELIAS (1802-1884)

Lonnrot, Ada Soc . Sci .

Fennicae, vol. iv.) . "The Lapps," says See also:

• CASTREN, MATTHIAS ALEXANDER (1813-1853)

Castren, " have had the misfortune to come into See also:

• CLOSE
• CLOSE (from Lat. clausum, shut)
• CLOSE, MAXWELL HENRY (1822-1903)

close contact with See also:

• FOREIGN

foreign races while their See also:

• LANGUAGE (adapted from the Fr. langage, from langue, tongue, Lat. lingua)

language was yet in its tenderest See also:

• INFANCY

infancy, and consequently it has not only adopted an endless number of foreign words, but in many grammatical aspects fashioned itself after foreign See also:

• MODELS

models." That it began at a very See also:

• EARLY
• EARLY, JUBAL ANDERSON (1816-1894)

early period to enrich itself with Scandinavian words is shown by the use it still makes of forms belonging to a Languagr, linguistic See also:

• STAGE (Fr. 6/age; from Lat. stare, to stand)

stage older even than that of Icelandic . Duben has subjected the vocabulary to a very interesting See also:

• ANALYSIS (Gr. avci and Meta, to break up into parts)

analysis for the purpose of discovering what stage of culture the people had reached before their contact with the Norse . Agricultural terms, the names of the metals and the word for See also:

• SMITH
• SMITH, ADAM (1723–1790)
• SMITH, ALEXANDER (183o-1867)
• SMITH, ANDREW JACKSON (1815-1897)
• SMITH, CHARLES EMORY (1842–1908)
• SMITH, CHARLES FERGUSON (1807–1862)
• SMITH, CHARLOTTE (1749-1806)
• SMITH, COLVIN (1795—1875)
• SMITH, EDMUND KIRBY (1824-1893)
• SMITH, G
• SMITH, GEORGE (1789-1846)
• SMITH, GEORGE (184o-1876)
• SMITH, GEORGE ADAM (1856- )
• SMITH, GERRIT (1797–1874)
• SMITH, GOLDWIN (1823-191o)
• SMITH, HENRY BOYNTON (1815-1877)
• SMITH, HENRY JOHN STEPHEN (1826-1883)
• SMITH, HENRY PRESERVED (1847– )
• SMITH, JAMES (1775–1839)
• SMITH, JOHN (1579-1631)
• SMITH, JOHN RAPHAEL (1752–1812)
• SMITH, JOSEPH, JR
• SMITH, MORGAN LEWIS (1822–1874)
• SMITH, RICHARD BAIRD (1818-1861)
• SMITH, ROBERT (1689-1768)
• SMITH, SIR HENRY GEORGE WAKELYN
• SMITH, SIR THOMAS (1513-1577)
• SMITH, SIR WILLIAM (1813-1893)
• SMITH, SIR WILLIAM SIDNEY (1764-1840)
• SMITH, SYDNEY (1771-1845)
• SMITH, THOMAS SOUTHWOOD (1788-1861)
• SMITH, WILLIAM (1769-1839)
• SMITH, WILLIAM (c. 1730-1819)
• SMITH, WILLIAM (fl. 1596)
• SMITH, WILLIAM FARRAR (1824—1903)
• SMITH, WILLIAM HENRY (1808—1872)
• SMITH, WILLIAM HENRY (1825—1891)
• SMITH, WILLIAM ROBERTSON (1846-'894)

smith are all of Scandinavian origin, and the words for " taming " and " milk " would suggest that the southern strangers taught the Lapps how to turn the reindeer to full See also:

• ACCOUNT
• ACCOUNT (through O. Fr. acont, Late Lat. comptum, cornputare, to calculate)

account . The important See also:

• PLACE (through Fr. from Lat. platea, street; Gr. IrAar6s, wide)

place, however, which this creature must always have held in their estimation is evident from the existence of more than three See also:

• HUNDRED

hundred native words in connexion with reindeer . The Lapp See also:

• TONGUE (O. Eng. lunge)

tongue was long ago reduced to writing by the missionaries; but very little has been printed in it except school-books and religious See also:

• WORKS

works . A number of popular tales and songs, indeed, have been taken down from the lips of the people . The songs are similar to those of the Finns, and a See also:

• PROCESS

process of mutual borrowing seems to have gone on . In one of the See also:

• SAGA (literally a story committed to writing)

saga-like pieces—Pishan-Peshan's son—there seems to be a mention of the See also:

• BAIKAL (known to the Mongols as Dalai-nor, and to the Turkish tribes as Bai-kul)

Baikal Lake, and possibly also of the See also:

• ALTAI (in Mongolian Altain-ula, the " Mountains of Gold ")

Altai Mountains . The See also:

• STORY, JOHN (c. 1510-1571)
• STORY, JOSEPH (1779-1845)
• STORY, ROBERT HERBERT (1835-1907)
• STORY, WILLIAM WETMORE (1819—1895)

story of Njavvisena, daughter of the Sun, is full of See also:

• QUAINT (O. Fr. cointe, from Lat. cognitus, known, probably influenced by association with Lat. corn plus, neat)

quaint folk-See also:

• LORE
• LORE, AMBROISE DE (1396-1446)

lore about the taming of the reindeer . Giants, as well as a See also:

• BLIND, MATHILDE (1841—1896)

blind or one-eyed See also:

• MONSTER (Lat. monstrum, from root of monere, to warn; i.e. something terrible or portentous)
• MONSTER, GEORG, COUNT ZU (1776-1844)

monster, are frequently introduced, and the Aesopic See also:

• FABLE (Fr. fable, Lat. fabula)

fable is not without its representatives . Many of the Lapps are able to speak one or even two of the neighbouring See also:

• TONGUES, GIFT OF, or GLOSSOLALIA (yXwova, tongue, aXeiv, speak)

tongues .

The reputation of the Laplanders for skill in magic and See also:

• DIVINATION
• DIVINATION, OMEN, ASTROLOGY

divination is of very early date, and in Finland is not yet extinct . When Erik See also:

• BLOOD

Blood-See also:

• AXE (0. Eng. aex; a word common, in different forms, in the Teutonic languages, and akin to the Greek 41v17; the New English Dictionary prefers the spelling " ax ")

axe, son of Harold Haarfager, visited Bjarmaland in 922, he found Gunhild, daughter of Asur Tote, living among the Lapps, to whom she had been sent by her father for the purpose of being trained in See also:

• WITCHCRAFT

witchcraft; and See also:

• IVAN (JOHN)

Ivan the Terrible of Russia sent for magicians from Lapland to explain the cause of the appearance of a See also:

• COMET (Gr. Koµieiis, long-haired)

comet . One of the See also:

• POWERS, HIRAM (1805-1873)

powers with which they were formerly credited was that of raising winds . " They tye three knottes," says old See also:

• RICHARD
• RICHARD (d. 1184)
• RICHARD, FRANCOIS MARIE BENJAMIN (18,9-1908)
• RICHARD, HENRY (1812-1888)
• RICHARD, ST

Richard See also:

• EDEN
• EDEN, SIR ASHLEY (1831-1887)

Eden, " on a strynge hangyng at a whyp . When they lose one of these they rayse tollerable wynds . When they lose an other the wynde is more vehement; but by losing the thyrd they rayse playne tempestes as in old tyme they were accustomed to rayse See also:

• THUNDER

thunder and lyghtnyng " (Hist. of Trauayle, 1577) . Though we are See also:

• FAMILIAR (through the Fr. familier, from Lat. familiaris, of or belonging to the familia, family)

familiar in See also:

• ENGLISH

English with allusions to " Lapland witches," it appears that the See also:

• ART

art, according to native See also:

• CUSTOM (from O. Fr. costume, costume or coustume; Low Lat. costuma, a shortened form of consuetudo)

custom, was in the hands of the men . During his divination the wizard See also:

• FELL
• FELL, JOHN (1625-1686)

fell into a See also:

• STATE
• STATE, GREAT OFFICERS OF

state of See also:

• TRANCE (through the French, from Lat. transitus, from transire, to cross, pass over)

trance or See also:

• ECSTASY (Gr. iarra(TLc, from i LarliU, put out of its place, alter)

ecstasy, his soul being held to run at large to pursue its See also:

• WITCH

witch- inquiries . Great use was made of a curious See also:

• DIVINING

divining- See also:

• DRUM (early forms drome or dromme, a word common to many Teut. languages, cf. Dan. tromme, Ger. Trommel: the word is ultimately the same as " trumpet," and is probably onomatopoeic in origin; it appears late in Eng. about the middle of the 16th century)

drum, See also:

• OVAL (Lat. ovum, egg)

oval in shape and made of wood, 1 to 4 ft. in length . Over the upper See also:

• SURFACE

surface was stretched a white-dressed reindeer skin, and at the corners (so to speak) hung a variety of charms—tufts of See also:

• WOOL, WORSTED AND WOOLLEN MANUFACTURES

wool, bones, See also:

• TEETH (O.E. Eel); plural of tooth, O.E. top)

teeth, claws, &c . The See also:

• AREA

area was divided into several spaces, often into three, one for the See also:

• CELESTIAL, OR STELLAR

celestial gods, one for the terrestrial and one for man . A variety of figures and conventional signs were See also:

• DRAWN

drawn in the several compartments: the sun, for in-stance, is frequently represented by a square and a stroke from each corner, See also:

• THOR

Thor by two hammers placed crosswise; and in the more See also:

• MODERN

modern specimens symbols for See also:

• CHRIST (Gr. X pLQTOS, Anointed)
• CHRIST, WILHELM VON (1831-1906)

Christ