LATIN LITERATURE  . The germs of an indigenous literature had existed at an See also:

• EARLY
• EARLY, JUBAL ANDERSON (1816-1894)

early See also:

• PERIOD
• PERIOD (Gr. irepioSos, a going or way round, circuit, aepi, round, and &Sis, way, road)

period in See also:

• ROME
• ROME (Roma)

Rome and in the See also:

• COUNTRY (from the Mid. Eng. contre or contrie, and O. Fr. cuntree; Late Lat. contrata, showing the derivation from contra, opposite, over against, thus the tract of land which fronts the sight, cf. Ger. Gegend, neighbourhood)

country districts of See also:

• ITALY
• ITALY (Italia)

Italy, and they have an importance as indicating natural wants in the See also:

• ITALIAN

Italian See also:

• RACE

race, which were ultimately satisfied by See also:

• REGULAR

regular See also:

• LITERARY

literary forms . The See also:

• ART

art of See also:

• WRITING
• WRITING (the verbal noun of " to write," O. Eng. writan, to inscribe)

writing was first employed in the service of the See also:

• STATE
• STATE, GREAT OFFICERS OF

state and of See also:

• RELIGION
• RELIGION, FOLKLORE, CUSTOM

religion for books of See also:

• RITUAL (from Lat. ritus, a custom, especially a religious rite or custom)

ritual, See also:

• TREATIES

treaties with other states, the See also:

• LAWS

laws of the Twelve Tables and the like . An approach to literature was made in the Annales Maximi, records of private families, funeral orations and in-, 1 scrintions on busts and tombs such as those of the Scipios in the See also:

• APPIAN (Gr. 'Aairtavbs)

Appian Way . In the See also:

• SATISFACTION (Lat. salisfacerc, to satisfy)

satisfaction they afforded to the commemorative and patriotic instincts they anticipated an See also:

• OFFICE (from Lat. officium, " duty," " service," a shortened form of opifacium, from facere, " to do," and either the stem of opes, " wealth," " aid," or opus, " work ")

office afterwards performed by the See also:

• NATIONAL

national epics and the See also:

• WORKS

works of regular historians . A still nearer approach to literature was probably made in See also:

• ORATORY (Lat. oratorio, sc. ors; from orare, to speak or pray)

oratory, as we learn from See also:

• CICERO

Cicero that the famous speech delivered by Appius See also:

• CLAUDIUS
• CLAUDIUS [TIBERIUS CLAUDIUS DRUSUS NERO GERMANICUS]
• CLAUDIUS, MARCUS AURELIUS
• CLAUDIUS, MATTHIAS (174o-1815)

Claudius Caecus against concluding See also:

• PEACE
• PEACE, BREACH OF THE

peace with See also:

• PYRRHUS (c. 318–272 B.C.)

Pyrrhus (28o B.C.) was extant in his See also:

• TIME (0. Eng. Lima, cf. Icel. timi, Swed. timme, hour, Dan. time; from the root also seen in " tide," properly the time of between the flow and ebb of the sea, cf. O. Eng. getidan, to happen, " even-tide," &c.; it is not directly related to Lat. tempus)
• TIME, MEASUREMENT OF
• TIME, STANDARD

time . Appius also published a collection of moral See also:

• MAXIMS, LEGAL

maxims and reflections in See also:

• VERSE (from Lat. versus, literally a line or furrow drawn by turning the plough, from vertere, and afterwards signifying an arrangement of syllables into feet)

verse . No other name associated with any See also:

• FORM (Lat. forma)

form of literature belonging to the pre-literary See also:

• AGE (Fr. age, through late Lat. aetaticum, from aetas)

age has been preserved by tradition . But it was rather in the chants and litanies of the See also:

• ANCIENT
• ANCIENT (also spelt ANTIENT; derived, through the Fr. ancien, old, from the late Lat. antianum, from ante, before)

ancient religion, such as those of the See also:

• SALII

Salii and the Fratres Arvales, and the dirges for the dead (neniae), and in certain extemporaneous effusions, that some germs of a native See also:

• POETRY

poetry might have been detected; and finally in the use of Saturnian verse, a See also:

• METRE ((terpuc?, sc. rFxvf, from Gr. Or poi', measure)

metre of pure native origin, which by its rapid and lively See also:

• MOVEMENT

movement gave expression to the vivacity and See also:

• QUICK

quick See also:

• APPREHENSION (Lat. ad, to; prehendere, to seize)

apprehension of the Italian race . This metre was employed in ritual See also:

• HYMNS

hymns, which seem to have assumed definite shapes out of the exclamations of a See also:

• PRIMITIVE

primitive priesthood engaged in a See also:

• RUDE, FRANCOIS (1784–1855)

rude ceremonial See also:

• DANCE
• DANCE (Fr. danse; of obscure origin, connected with Old High Ger. danson, to stretch)

dance . It was also used by a class of bards or itinerant soothsayers known by the name of vales, of whom the most famous was one Marcius, and in the " Fescennine verses," as sung at See also:

• HARVEST (A.S. hcerfest " autumn," O.H. Ger. herbist, possibly through an old Teutonic root representing Lat. car pere, " to pluck ")

harvest-homes and weddings, which gave expression to the coarse gaiety of the See also:

• PEOPLE

people and to their strong tendency to See also:

• PERSONAL

personal raillery and satiric comment . The metre was also employed in commemorative poems, accompanied with See also:

• MUSIC

music, which were sung at funeral banquets in celebration of the exploits and virtues of distinguished men .

These had their origin in the same impulse which ultimately found its full gratification in See also:

• ROMAN

Roman See also:

• HISTORY

history, Roman epic poetry, and that form of Roman oratory known as laudationes, and in some of the Odes of See also:

• HORACE [QuINTus HORATIUS FLACCUS] (65-8 B.C.)

Horace . The latest and probably the most important of these rude and inchoate forms was that of dramatic saturae (medleys), put together without any regular See also:

• PLOT
• PLOT, ROBERT (164o-1696)

plot and consisting apparently of contests of wit and satiric invective, and perhaps of comments on current events, accompanied with music (See also:

• LIVY [Thus L1v1us] (59 B.C.—A.D: 17)

Livy vii . 2) . These have a real bearing on the subsequent development of Latin literature . They prepared the mind of the people for the reception of regular See also:

• COMEDY

comedy . They may have contributed to the formation of the See also:

• STYLE
• STYLE (from Gr. a-6'1ms, a column; a different word from that used in literature, see below)

style of comedy which appears at the very outset much more mature than that of serious poetry, tragic or epic . They gave the name and some of the characteristics to that See also:

• SPECIAL

special literary product of the Roman See also:

• SOIL

soil, the satura, addressed to readers, not to spectators, which ultimately was See also:

• DEVELOPED

developed into pure poetic See also:

• SATIRE (Lat. satira, satura; see below)

satire in See also:

• LUCILIUS, GAIUS (c. 18o–ro3 B.C.)

Lucilius, Horace, See also:

• PERSIUS

Persius and See also:

• JUVENAL (DECIMUS JUNIUS JUVENALIS) (c. 60-140)

Juvenal, into the See also:

• PROSE

prose and verse See also:

• MISCELLANY

miscellany of See also:

• VARRO, MARCUS TERENTIUS (116—27 B.C.)
• VARRO, PUBLIUS TERENTIUS

Varro, and into something approaching the prose novel in See also:

• PETRONIUS (G. (?)1

Petronius . First Period : from 240 to about 8o , B.C . The See also:

• HISTORICAL

historical event which brought about the greatest See also:

• CHANGE (derived through the Fr. from the Late Lat. cambium, cambiare, to barter; the ultimate derivation is probably from the root which appears in the Gr. «a urmu', to bend)

change in the intellectual See also:

• CONDITION (Lat. condicio, from condicere, to agree upon, arrange; not connected with conditio, from condere, conditum, to put together)

condition of the See also:

• ROMANS
• ROMANS, EPISTLE TO THE

Romans, and thereby exercised a decisive See also:

• INFLUENCE (Late Lat. influentia, from influere, to flow in)

influence on the whole course of human culture, was the See also:

• CAPTURE (from Lat. capere, to take; Fr. prise maritime; Ger. Wegnahme)

capture of See also:

• TARENTUM
• TARENTUM (Gr. rapas)

Tarentum in 272 . After the capture many See also:

• GREEK
• GREEK, ETRUSCAN AND

Greek slaves were brought to Rome, and among them the See also:

• YOUNG
• YOUNG, A
• YOUNG, ARTHUR (1741-1820)
• YOUNG, BRIGHAM (1801-1877)
• YOUNG, CHARLES MAYNE (1777–1856)
• YOUNG, EDWARD (1683–1765)
• YOUNG, JAMES (1811-1883)
• YOUNG, THOMAS (1773-1829)

young Livius Andronicus (c . 284–204), who was employed in teaching Greek in the See also:

• FAMILY

family of his See also:

• MASTER (Lat. magister, related to tnagis, more, as the corresponding minister is to minus, less; the English form is due partly to the O. Eng. maegister, and partly to O. Fr. maistre, mod. maitre; cf. Du. meester, Ger. Meister, Ital. maestro)

master, a member of the Livian gens . From that time to learn Greek became a regular See also:

• PART

part of the See also:

• EDUCATION

education of a Roman See also:

• NOBLE, SIR ANDREW (1832- )

noble .

The capture of Tarentum was followed by the See also:

• COMPLETE

complete Romanizing of all See also:

• SOUTHERN

southern Italy . Soon after came the first Punic See also:

• WAR
• WAR (O. Eng. werre, Fr. guerre, of Teutonic origin; cf. O.H.G. werran, to confound)

war, the See also:

• PRINCIPAL

principal See also:

• SCENE (Fr. scene, Lat. scaena, Gr. oflvil, a tent or booth, a stage or scene)

scene of which was See also:

• SICILY (Ital. Sicilia)

Sicily, where, from See also:

• COMMON

common hostility to the Carthaginian, Greek and Roman were brought into friendly relations, and the Roman armies must have become See also:

• FAMILIAR (through the Fr. familier, from Lat. familiaris, of or belonging to the familia, family)

familiar with the See also:

• SPECTACLES

spectacles and performances of the Greek See also:

• THEATRE (BEarpov, " a place for seeing," from OeacOae)

theatre . In the See also:

• YEAR

year after the war (240), when the armies had returned and the people were at leisure to enjoy the fruits of victory, Livius Andronicus substituted at one of the public festivals a regular See also:

• DRAMA (literally "action," from Gr. Snail, act or do)

drama, translated or adapted from the Greek, for the musical medleys (saturae) hitherto in use . From this time dramatic performances became a regular See also:

• ACCOMPANIMENT (i.e. that which " accompanies ")

accompaniment of the public See also:

• GAMES, CLASSICAL

games, and came more and more to encroach on the older kinds of amusement, such as the See also:

• CHARIOT (derived from an O. Fr. word, formed from char, a car)

chariot races . The dramatic See also:

• WORK

work of Livius was mainly of educative value . The same may be said of his See also:

• TRANSLATION

translation of the Odyssey, which was still used as a school-See also:

• BOOK

book in the days of Horace, and the religious hymn which he was called upon to compose in 207 had no high literary pretensions . He was, however, the first to familiarize the Romans with the forms of the Greek drama and the Greek epic, and thus to determine the See also:

• MAIN (from the Aryan root which appears in " may " and " might," and Lat. magnus, great)
• MAIN (Lat. Moenus)

main lines which Latin literature followed for more than a See also:

• CENTURY (from Lat. centuria, a division of a hundred men)

century afterwards . His immediate successor, Cn . See also:

• NAEVIUS, GNAEUS (c. 264–? 194 B.C.)

Naevius (d. c . 200 B.c.), was not, like Livius, a Greek, but either a Roman See also:

• CITIZEN (a form corrupted in Eng., apparently by analogy with " denizen," from O. Fr. citeain, mod. Fr. citoyen)

citizen or, more probably, a Campanian who enjoyed the limited citizenship of a Naevius . Latin and who had served in the Roman See also:

• ARMY
• ARMY (from Fr. armee, Lat. armata)

army in the first Punic war . His first See also:

• APPEARANCE (from Lat. apparere, to appear)

appearance as a dramatic author was in 235 .

He adapted both tragedies and comedies from the Greek, but the See also:

• BENT
• BENT (E1. BENI)
• BENT, JAMES THEODORE (1852–1897)

bent of his See also:

• GENIUS (from Lat. genere, gignere)

genius, the tastes of his See also:

• AUDIENCE (from Lat. audire, to hear)

audience, and the condition of the See also:

• LANGUAGE (adapted from the Fr. langage, from langue, tongue, Lat. lingua)

language developed through the active intercourse and business of See also:

• LIFE

life, gave a greater impulse to comedy than to tragedy . Naevius tried to use the theatre, as it had been used by the writers of the Old Comedy of See also:

• ATHENS
• ATHENS ['AN vat, Athenae, modem colloquial Greek `Ath va]

Athens, for the purposes of See also:

• POLITICAL

political warfare, and thus seems to have anticipated by a century the part played by Lucilius . But his attacks upon the Roman See also:

• ARISTOCRACY (Gr. apuvror, best; «paria, government)

aristocracy, especially the Metelli, were resented by their See also:

• OBJECTS

objects; and Naevius, after being imprisoned, had to retire in his old age into banishment . He was not only the first in point of time, and according to ancient testimony one of the first in point of merit, among the comic poets of Rome, and in spirit, though not in form, the earliest of the See also:

• LINE

line of Roman satirists, but he was also the See also:

• OLDEST

oldest of the national poets . Besides celebrating the success of M . Claudius See also:

• MARCELLUS

Marcellus in 222 over the Gauls in a See also:

• PLAY

play called See also:

• CLASTIDIUM (mod. Casteggio)

Clastidium, he gave the first specimen of the fabula praetexta in his Alimonium Romuli et Remi, based on the most national of all Roman traditions . Still more important service was rendered by him in his See also:

• LONG, GEORGE (1800-1879)
• LONG, JOHN DAVIS (1838– )

long Saturnian poem on the first Punic war, in which he not only told the See also:

• STORY, JOHN (c. 1510-1571)
• STORY, JOSEPH (1779-1845)
• STORY, ROBERT HERBERT (1835-1907)
• STORY, WILLIAM WETMORE (1819—1895)

story of contemporary events but gave shape to the See also:

• LEGEND (through the French from the med. Lat. legenda, things to be read, from legere, to read)

legend of the See also:

• SETTLEMENT
• SETTLEMENT, ACT OF

settlement of See also:

• AENEAS

Aeneas in See also:

• LATIUM

Latium,—the theme ultimately adopted for the See also:

• GREAT

great national epic of Rome . _ His younger contemporary T . Maccius See also:

• PLAUTUS, TITUS MACCIUS (originally perhaps MACCUS; cf. Asin. Prol. 11)

Plautus (c . 254–184) was the greatest comic dramatist of Rome . He lived and wrote only to amuse his contemporaries, and thus, although Plautus. more popular in his lifetime and more fortunate than any of the older authors in the ultimate survival of a large number of his works, he is less than any of the great writers of Rome in sympathy with either the serious or the See also:

• CAUSTIC (Gr. rcavvraubs, burning)

caustic spirit in Latin literature . Yet he is the one extant See also:

• WITNESS
• WITNESS (from O. Eng. witan, to know)

witness to the See also:

• HUMOUR (Latin humor)

humour and vivacity of the Italian temperament at a See also:

• STAGE (Fr. 6/age; from Lat. stare, to stand)

stage between its early rudeness and rigidity and its subsequent degeneracy .

Thus far Latin literature, of which the predominant characteristics are dignity, gravity and fervour of feeling, seemed likely to become a See also:

• MERE
• MERE, ADALBERT (1838-1909)

mere vehicle of amusement adapted to all classes of the people in their See also:

• HOLIDAY

holiday See also:

• MOOD

mood . But a new spirit, which henceforth became predominant, appeared in the time of Plautus . Latin literature ceased to be in See also:

• CLOSE
• CLOSE (from Lat. clausum, shut)
• CLOSE, MAXWELL HENRY (1822-1903)

close sympathy with the popular spirit, either politically or as a form of amusement, but became the expression of the ideas, sentiment and culture of the aristocratic governing class . It was by Q . See also:

• ENNIUS, QUINTUS (239-170 B.c.)

Ennius (239–169) Ennius. of Rudiae in Messapia, that a new direction was given to Latin literature . Deriving from his birthplace the culture, literary and philosophical, of Magna Graecia, and having gained the friendship of the greatest of the Romans living in that great age, he was of all the early writers most fitted to be the See also:

• MEDIUM

medium of conciliation between the serious genius of ancient See also:

• GREECE

Greece and the serious genius of Rome . Alone among the older writers he was endowed with the gifts of a poetical See also:

• IMAGINATION

imagination and animated with See also:

• ENTHUSIASM

enthusiasm for a great ideal . First among his special services to Latin literature was the fresh impulse which he gave to tragedy . He turned the eyes of his contemporaries from the See also:

• COMMONPLACE

commonplace social humours of later Greek life to the. contemplation of the heroic age . But he did not thereby denationalize the Roman drama . He animated the heroes of early Greece with the See also:

• MARTIAL (MARCUS VALERIUS MARTIALIS)

martial spirit of Roman Livius Andronicus . soldiers and the ideal magnanimity and sagacity of Roman senators, and imparted See also:

• WEIGHT

weight and dignity to the language and verse in which their sentiments and thoughts were expressed .

Although Rome wanted creative force to add a great See also:

• SERIES (a Latin word from serere, to join)

series of tragic dramas to the literature of the See also:

• WORLD

world, yet the spirit of See also:

• ELEVATION

elevation and moral authority breathed into tragedy by Ennius passed into the ethical and didactic writings and the oratory of a later time . Another work was the Saturae, written in various metres, but chiefly in the See also:

• TROCHAIC (from Gr. rpoxalos, rpoxaixos; Lat. trochaeus)

trochaic tetrameter . He thus became the inventor of a new form of literature; and, if in his hands the satura was rude and indeterminate in its See also:

• SCOPE (through Ital. scopo, aim, purpose, intent, from Gr. o'KOaos, mark to shoot at, aim, o ic07reiv, to see, whence the termination in telescope, microscope, &c.)

scope, it became a vehicle by which to address a See also:

• READING

reading public on matters of the See also:

• DAY (O. Eng. dreg, Ger. Tag; according to the New English Dictionary, " in no way related to the Lat. dies")
• DAY, JOHN (1574-1640?)
• DAY, THOMAS (1748-1789)

day, or on the materials of his wide reading, in a style not far removed from the language of common life . His greatest work, which made the Romans regard him as the See also:

• FATHER

father of their literature, was his epic poem, in eighteen books, the Annales, in which the See also:

• RECORD (Lat. recordari, to recall to mind, from cor, heart or mind)

record of the whole career of Rome was unrolled with idealizing enthusiasm and realistic detail . The See also:

• IDEA (Gr. Ibia, connected with i&eiv, to see; cf. Lat. species from specere, to look at)

idea which inspired Ennius was ultimately realized in both the national epic of See also:

• VIRGIL (PUBLIUS VERGILIUS MARC)
• VIRGIL, POLYDORE (c. 1470-1555)

Virgil and the national history of Livy . And the metrical vehicle which he conceived as the only one adequate to his great theme was a rude experiment, which was ultimately developed into the stately Virgilian See also:

• HEXAMETER

hexameter . Even as a grammarian he performed an important service to the literary language of Rome, by fixing its See also:

• PROSODY (Gr. rpovwSta)

prosody and arresting the tendency to decay in its final syllables . Although of his writings only fragments remain, these fragments are enough, along with what we know of him from ancient testimony, to justify us in regarding him as the most important among the makers of Latin literature before the age of Cicero . There is still one other name belonging partly to this, partly to the next See also:

• GENERATION (from Lat. generare, to beget, procreate; genus, stock, race)

generation, to be added to those of the men of See also:

• ORIGINAL

original See also:

• CATO, DIONYSIUS
• CATO, MARCUS PORCIUS (234—149 B.c.)
• CATO, MARCUS PORCIUS (95-46 B.c.)
• CATO, PUBLIUS VALERIUS

Cato. force of mind and See also:

• CHARACTER (Gr. xapareri7p, from xap&crew, to scratch)

character who created Latin litera- See also:

• TURE

ture, that of M . Porcius Cato the See also:

• CENSOR (from Lat. censere, assess, estimate; in Gr. rt s ris)

Censor (234-149), the younger contemporary of Ennius, whom he brought to Rome . More than Naevius and Plautus he represented the pure native See also:

• ELEMENT (Lat. elementum)

element in that literature, the mind and character of Latium, the plebeian pugnacity, which was one of the great forces in the Roman state . His lack of imagination and his narrow patriotism made him the natural See also:

• LEADER, BENJAMIN WILLIAMS (1831– )

leader of the reaction against the new Hellenic culture .

He strove to make literature See also:

• ANCILLARY (from the Lat. ancilla, a handmaid)

ancillary to politics and to objects of See also:

• PRACTICAL

practical utility, and thus started prose literature on the See also:

• CHIEF (from Fr. chef, head, Lat. caput)

chief lines that.it afterwards followed . Through his See also:

• INDUSTRY (Lat. industria, from indu-, a form of the pre, position in, and either stare, to stand, or struere, to pile up)

industry and vigorous understanding he gave a great impulse to the creation of Roman oratory, history and systematic didactic writing . He was one of the first to publish his speeches and thus to bring them into the domain of literature . Cicero, who speaks of 150 of these speeches as extant in his day, praises them for their acuteness, their wit, their conciseness . He speaks with emphasis of the impressiveness of Cato's eulogy and the satiric bitterness of his invective . Cato was the first historical writer of Rome to use his native See also:

• TONGUE (O. Eng. lunge)

tongue . His Origines, the work of his old age, was written with that thoroughly Roman conception of history which regarded actions and events solely as they affected the continuous and progressive life of a state . Cato See also:

• FELT (cognate with Ger. Filz, Du. vilt, Swed. and Dan. fill; the root is unknown; the word has given Med. Lat. filtrum, " filter ")

felt that the record of Roman See also:

• GLORY (through the O. Fr. glorie, modern gloire, from Lat. gloria, cognate with Gr. KXebs, abets)

glory could not be isolated from the story of the other Italian communities, which, after fighting against Rome for their ow.1 See also:

• INDEPENDENCE
• INDEPENDENCE, DECLARATION OF
• INDEPENDENCE, WAR OF

independence, shared with her the task of conquering the world . To the wider national sympathies which stimulated the re-searches of the old censor into the legendary history of the Italian towns we owe some of the most truly national parts of Virgil's Aeneid . In Naevius, Plautus, Ennius and Cato are represented the contending forces which strove for ascendancy in determining what was to be the character of the new literature . The work, begun by them, was carried on by younger contemporaries and successors; by See also:

• STATIUS, PUBLIUS PAPINIUS (c. A.D. 45-96)

Statius See also:

• CAECILIUS

Caecilius (c.220-168), an Insubrian See also:

• GAUL
• GAUL, GILBERT WILLIAM (1855— )

Gaul, in comedy; in tragedy by M . See also:

• PACUVIUS, MARCUS (c. 220-130 B.C.)

Pacuvius (c.220-132), the See also:

• NEPHEW

nephew of Ennius, called by Cicero the greatest of Roman tragedians;and, in the following generation, by L .

See also:

• ACCIUS
• ACCIUS, LUCIUS

Accius (c.170-86), who was more usually placed in this position . The impulse given to oratory by Cato, See also:

• SER

Ser . Sulpicius See also:

• GALBA, SERVIUS SULPICIUS

Galba and others, and along with it the development of prose See also:

• COMPOSITION
• COMPOSITION (Lat. compositio, from componere, to put together)

composition, went on with increased momentum till the age of Cicero . But the See also:

• INTERVAL

interval between the See also:

• DEATH

death of Ennius (169) and the beginning of Cicero's career, while one of progressive advance in the appreciation of literary form and style, was much less distinguished by original force than the time immediately before and after the end of the second Punic war . The one complete survival of the generation after the death of Ennius, the comedy of P . Terentius See also:

• TERENCE

Terence . See also:

• AFER, DOMITIUS

Afer or Terence (c . 185-159), exemplifies the gain in literary accomplishment and the loss in literary freedom . Terence has nothing Roman or Italian except his pure and idiomatic Latinity . His Athenian elegance affords the strongest contrast to the Italian rudeness of Cato's De Re Rustica . By looking at them together we understand how much the comedy of Terence was able to do to refine and humanize the See also:

• MANNERS, CHARLES (1857– )

manners of Rome, but at the same time what a solvent it was of the discipline and ideas of the old See also:

• REPUBLIC (Lat. respublica, a commonweal or common-wealth)

republic . What makes Terence an important witness of the culture of his time is 0 _ at he wrote from the centre of the Scipionic circle, in which what was most humane and liberal in Roman statesmanship was combined with the appreciation of what was most vital in the Greek thought and literature of the time .

The comedies of Terence may therefore be held to give some indication of the tastes of Scipio, See also:

• LAELIUS

Laelius and their See also:

• FRIENDS, SOCIETY
• FRIENDS, SOCIETY OF

friends in their youth . The influence of See also:

• PANAETIUS (c. 185-18o to I10-108 B.C.)

Panaetius and See also:

• POLYBIUS (c. 204–122 B.C.)

Polybius was more adapted to their maturity, when they led the state in war, statesmanship and oratory, and when the humaner teaching of Stoicism began to enlarge the sympathies of Roman jurists . But in the last years during which this circle kept together a new spirit appeared in Roman politics and a new See also:

• POWER [WILLIAM GRATTAN] TYRONE (1797-1841)

power in Roman literature,—the revolutionary spirit evoked by the Gracchi in opposition to the long-continued ascendancy of the See also:

• SENATE (Lat. senatus, from root sen-, as in senex, old; the root is the Sanskrit sana, cf. Gr. 'vos; the same element appears in senor, seigneur, seneschal)

senate, and the new power of Roman satire, which was exercised impartially and unsparingly against both the excesses of the revolutionary spirit and the arrogance and incompetence of the extreme party among the nobles . Roman satire, though in form a legitimate development of the indigenous dramatic satura through the written satura of Ennius and Pacuvius, is really a See also:

• BIRTH (a word common in various forms to Teutonic languages from the root of the verb " to bear ")

birth of this time, and its author was the youngest of those admitted into the intimacy of the Scipionic circle, C . Lucilius of Suessa Aurunca (c . 180-103) . Luclllus . Among the writers before the age of Cicero he alone deserves to be named with Naevius, Plautus Ennius and Cato as a great originative force in literature . For about See also:

• THIRTY

thirty years the most important event in Roman literature was the See also:

• PRODUCTION (Lat. productionem, from producere, to pro-duce)

production of the satires of Lucilius, in which the politics, morals, society and letters of the time were criticized with the utmost freedom and pungency, and his own See also:

• PERSONALITY (from Lat. persona, originally an actor's mask, from personare,1 to sound through)

personality was brought immediately and familiarly before his contemporaries . The years that intervened between his death and the beginning of the Ciceronian age are singularly barren in works of original value . But in one direction there was some novelty . The tragic writers had occasionally taken their subjects from Roman life (fabulae praetextae), and in comedy we find the corresponding togatae of See also:

• LUCIUS

Lucius See also:

• AFRANIUS, LUCIUS

Afranius and others, in which comedy, while assuming a Roman See also:

• DRESS (from the Fr. dresser, to set out, arrange, formed from Lat. directus, arranged, dirigere, to direct, arrange)

dress, did not assume the virtue of a Roman matron .

The See also:

• GENERAL
• GENERAL (Lat. generalis, of or relating to a genus, kind or class)

general results of the last fifty years of the first period (130 to 80) may be thus summed up . In poetry we have the satires of Lucilius, the tragedies of Accius and of a aenerat few successors among the Roman aristocracy, who results thus exemplified the See also:

• AFFINITY (Lat. affinitas, relationship by marriage, from offinis, bordering on, related to; finis, border, boundary)
• AFFINITY, CHEMICAL

affinity of the Roman stage from Roman oratory; various annalistic poems intended 130 to 80 to serve as continuations of the great poem of Ennius; See also:

• MINOR
• MINOR (Lat. for smaller, lesser)
• MINOR, ROBERT CRANNELL (1839-1904)

minor poems of an epigrammatic and erotic character, unimportant anticipations of the Alexandrian tendency operative in the following period; works of See also:

• CRITICISM
• CRITICISM (from the Gr. KpiTrlS, a judge, Kpivew, to decide, to give an authoritative opinion)

criticism in trochaic tetrameters by Porcius Licinus and others, forming part of the See also:

• CRITICAL (in alphabetical order of authors)

critical and grammatical movement which almost from the first accompanied the creative movement in Latin literature, and which may be regarded as rude precursors of the didactic epistles that Horace devoted to literary criticism . The only extant prose work which may be assigned to the end of this period is the See also:

• TREATISE

treatise on See also:

• RHETORIC (Gr. psroperctj TEXvq, the art of the orator)

rhetoric known by the See also:

• TITLE (0. Fr. title, mod. titre, from Lat. titulus)

title Ad Herennium (c . .84) a work indicative of the See also:

• ATTENTION (from Lat. ad-tendo, await, expect; the condition of being " stretched " or " tense ")

attention bestowed on prose style and rhetorical studies during the last century of the republic, and which may be regarded as a precursor of the oratorical See also:

• TREATISES

treatises of Cicero and of the work of See also:

• QUINTILIAN [MARCUS FABIUS QUINTILIANUS] (C. A.D. 35-95)

Quintilian . But the great literary product of this period was oratory, developed indeed with the aid of these rhetorical studies, but oratory. itself the immediate outcome of the imperial interests, the legal conflicts, and the political passions of that time of agitation . The speakers and writers of a later age looked back on Scipio and Laelius, the Gracchi and their See also:

• CON

con-temporaries, L . See also:

• CRASSUS (literally " dense," " thick," " fat ")

Crassus and M . See also:

• ANTONIUS

Antonius, as masters of their art . In history, regarded as a great See also:

• BRANCH (from the Fr. branche, late Lat. branca, an animal's paw)

branch of prose literature, it is not probable that much was accomplished, although, with History. the advance of oratory and grammatical studies, there must have been not only greater fluency of composition but the beginning of a richer and more ornate style . Yet Cicero denies to Rome the existence, before his own time, of any adequate historical literature . Nevertheless it was by the work of a number of Roman chroniclers during this period that the materials of early Roman history were systematized, and the record of the state, as it was finally given to the world in the See also:

• ARTISTIC

artistic work of Livy, was extracted from the early See also:

• ANNALS (Annales, from annus, a year)

annals, state documents and private memorials, combined into a coherent unity, and supplemented by invention and reflection . Amongst these chroniclers may be mentioned L .

See also:

• CALPURNIUS, TITUS

Calpurnius See also:

• PISO

Piso Frugi (See also:

• CONSUL
• CONSUL (in Gr. generally ihraros,ashortened form of errpavgybs 8hraeos, i.e. praetor maximus)

consul 133, censor 108), C . Sempronius Tuditanus (consul 129), Cn . See also:

• GELLIUS, AULUS (c. A.D. 13o-I8o)

Gellius, C . Fannius (consul 122), L . Coelius See also:

• ANTIPATER (398?-319 B.C.)

Antipater, who wrote a narrative of the second Punic war about 120, and Sempronius Asellio, who wrote a history of his own times, have a better claim to be considered historians . There were also special works on antiquities and contemporary See also:

• MEMOIRS

memoirs, and autobiographies such as those of M . See also:

• AEMILIUS, PAULUS (PAOLO Ea111.io) (d. 1529)

Aemilius See also:

• SCAURUS, MARCUS AEMILIUS (c. 163-88 B.C.)
• SCAURUS, QUINTUS TERENTIUS

Scaurus, the See also:

• ELDER (0. Eng. ellarn; Ger. Holunder; Fr. sureau)
• ELDER (Gr. 1rpev(3iTepos)

elder, Q . Lutatius See also:

• CATULUS

Catulus (consul 102 B.C.), and P . Rutilius See also:

• RUFUS, GAIUS VALGIUS
• RUFUS, LUCIUS VARIUS (c 74—14 B.c.)

Rufus, which formed the See also:

• SOURCES

sources of future historians . (See further ANNALES; and RoME: History, Ancient, § " Authorities." Although the artistic product of the first period of Latin literature which has reached us in a complete shape is limited to the comedies of Plautus and Terence, the influence of the ary of the lost literature in determining the spirit, form of the period. and style of the eras of more perfect accomplishment which followed is unmistakable . While humour and vivacity characterize the earlier, and urbanity of See also:

• TONE, THEOBALD WOLFE (1763-1798)

tone the later development of comedy, the tendency of serious literature had been in the main practical, ethical, commemorative and satirical . The higher poetical imagination had appeared only in Ennius, and had been called forth in him by sympathy with the grandeur of the national life and the great personal qualities of its representative men .

Some of the chief motives of the later poetry, e.g. the pleasures and sorrows of private life, had as yet found scarcely any expression in Latin literature . The fittest metrical vehicle for epic, didactic, and satiric poetry had been discovered, but its movement was as yet rude and inharmonious . The See also:

• IDIOM (Gr. t&%wµa, something peculiar and personal; lbws, one's own, personal)

idiom of See also:

• ORDINARY (med. Lat. ordinarius, Fr. ordinaire)

ordinary life and social intercourse and the more fervid and elevated diction of oratorical prose had made great progress, but the language of imagination and poetical feeling was, if vivid and impressive in isolated expressions, still incapable of being wrought into consecutive passages of artistic composition . The influences of Greek literature to which Latin literature owed its birth had not as yet spread beyond Rome and Latium . The Sabellian races of central and eastern Italy and the Italo-See also:

• CELTIC

Celtic and Venetian races of the See also:

• NORTH
• NORTH, BARONS
• NORTH, MARIANNE (1830—1890)
• NORTH, ROGER (1653-1734)
• NORTH, SIR THOMAS (1535?-16o1?)

north, in whom the poetic susceptibility of Italy was most See also:

• MANIFEST (Lat. manifestus, clear, open to view)

manifest two generations later, were not, until after the Social war, sufficiently in sympathy with Rome, and were probably not as yet sufficiently educated to induce them to contribute their See also:

• SHARE (O. Eng. scearu, chiefly in compounds, e.g. land-scearu, a share of land, from sceran to cut; cf. " shear" )

share to the national literature . Hence the end of the Social war, and of the See also:

• CIVIL

Civil war, which arose out of it, is most clearly a determining See also:

• FACTOR (from Lat. facere, to make or do)

factor in Roman literature, andmay most appropriately be taken as marking the end of one period and the beginning of another . Second Period: from 8o to 42 B.C . The last age of the republic coincides with the first See also:

• HALF

half of the See also:

• GOLDEN

Golden age of Roman literature . It is generally known as the Ciceronian age from the name of its greatest literary representative, whose activity as as peaker and writer was unremitting during nearly the whole period . It is the age of purest excellence in prose, and of a new birth of poetry, characterized rather by great original force and artistic promise than by perfect accomplishment . The five chief representatives of this age who still hold their See also:

• RANK (O.Fr. rant or rent, mod. rang, generally connected with the O.E. and O.H.G. bring, a ring)

rank among the great classical writers are Cicero, See also:

• CAESAR, GAIUS JULIUS (102—44 B.c.)
• CAESAR, SIR JULIUS (1557-1558-1636)

Caesar and See also:

• SALLUST [Gams SALLUSTIUS CRlspus] (86–34 B.c.)

Sallust in prose, See also:

• LUCRETIUS (TITUS LUCRETIUS CARUS) (c. 98–55 B.C.)

Lucretius and See also:

• CATULLUS, GAIUS VALERIUS (?84-J4 B.C.)

Catullus in verse . The works of other prose writers, Varro and See also:

• CORNELIUS
• CORNELIUS, CARL AUGUST PETER (1824-1874)
• CORNELIUS, PETER VON (1784–1867)

Cornelius See also:

• NEPOS, CORNELIUS (c. 99–24 B.C.)
• NEPOS, JULIUS

Nepos, have been partially preserved; but these writers have no claim to rank with those already mentioned as creators and masters of literary style .

Although literature had not as yet become a See also:

• TRADE (O. Eng. trod, footstep, from tredan, to tread; in M. Eng. the forms teed, trod and trade appear, the last in the sense of a beaten track)
• TRADE, BOARD OF

trade or profession, an educated reading public already existed, and books and intellectual intercourse filled a large part of the leisure of men actively engaged in affairs . Even oratory was intended quite as much for readers as for the audiences to which it was immediately addressed; and some of the greatest speeches which have come down from that great age of orators were never delivered at all, but were published as manifestoes after the event with the view of influencing educated See also:

• OPINION (Lat. opinio, from opinari, to think)

opinion, and as works of art with the view of giving See also:

• PLEASURE (through Fr. plaisir from Lat. placere, to please; Gr. rlbovii)

pleasure to educated See also:

• TASTE (from Lat. taxare, to touch sharply; tangere, to touch)

taste . Thus the speeches of M.Tullius Cicero (106-43) belong to the domain of literature quite as much as to that of forensic or political oratory . And, although See also:

• DEMOSTHENES

Demosthenes is a Cicero. master of style unrivalled even by Cicero, the literary See also:

• INTEREST

interest of most of Cicero's speeches is stronger than that of the great See also:

• MASS (O.E. maesse; Fr. messe; Ger. Messe; Ital. messa; from eccl. Lat. missa)
• MASS, IN

mass of Greek oratory . It is urged with See also:

• JUSTICE (Lat. justitia)

justice that the greater part of Cicero's See also:

• DEFENCE
• DEFENCE (Lat. defendere, to defend)

Defence of See also:

• ARCHIAS, AULUS LICINJUS

Archias was irrelevant to the issue and would not have been listened to by a Greek See also:

• COURT
• COURT (from the O. Fr. court, Late Lat. cortis, curtis, a popular form of class. Lat. cohors, gen. cohortis; the mod. Fr. form tour is due to the influence of the Lat. curia, the word used in medieval documents to translate " court " in the feudal sense)
• COURT, ANTOINE (1696-176o)

court of justice or a See also:

• MODERN

modern See also:

• JURY

jury . But it was fortunate for the interests of literature that a court of educated Romans could be influenced by the considerations there submitted to them . In this way a question of the most temporary interest, concerning an individual of no particular See also:

• EMINENCE (Lat. eminentia)

eminence or importance, has produced one of the most impressive vindications of literature ever spoken or written . Oratory at Rome assumed a new type from being cultivated as an art which endeavoured to produce persuasion not so much by intellectual conviction as by See also:

• APPEAL

appeal to general human sympathies . In oratory, as in every other intellectual See also:

• PROVINCE
• PROVINCE (Lat. provincia; perhaps a contraction of providentia)

province, the Greeks had a truer sense of the limits and conditions of their art . But command over form is only one element in the making of an orator or poet . The largeness and dignity of the See also:

• MATTER

matter with which he has to See also:

• DEAL

deal are at least as important . The Roman oratory of the See also:

• LAW
• LAW (0. Eng. lagu, M. Eng. lawe; from an old Teutonic root lag, " lie," what lies fixed or evenly; cf. Lat. lex, Fr. loi)
• LAW, JOHN (1671—1729)
• LAW, WILLIAM (1686-1761)

law courts had to deal not with See also:

• PETTY, SIR WILLIAM (1623-1687)

petty questions of disputed See also:

• PROPERTY

property, of See also:

• FRAUD (Lat. fraus, deceit)

fraud, or violence, but with great imperial questions, with matters affecting the well-being of large provinces and the See also:

• HONOUR (Lat. honos or lwnor, honoris; in English the word was spelled with or without the u indifferently until the 17th century, but during the 18th century it became fashion-able to spell the word " honor "; Johnson's and Webster's Dictionaries stereoty

honour and safety of the republic; and no See also:

• MAN
• MAN, ISLE OF (anc. Mona)

man ever lived who, in these respects, was better fitted than Cicero to be the representative of the type of oratory demanded by the condition of the later republic .

To his great artistic accomplishment, perfected by practice and elaborate study, to the power of his patriotic, his moral, and personal sympathies, and his passionate emotional nature, must be added his vivid imagination and the See also:

• RICH, BARNABE (c. 1540-1617)
• RICH, CLAUDIUS JAMES (1787-1821)
• RICH, JOHN (1692-1761)
• RICH, PENELOPE, LADY (c. 1562–1607)
• RICH, RICHARD, 1ST BARON RICH (1490?-1567)

rich and copious stream of his language, in which he had no See also:

• RIVAL

rival among Roman writers or speakers . It has been said that Roman poetry has produced few, if any, great types of character . But the See also:

• VERRES, GAIUS (c. 120-43 B.C.)

Verres, See also:

• CATILINE [Lucius SERGIUS CATILINA] (C. I08-62 B.C.)

Catiline, Antony of Cicero are living and permanent types . The story told in the See also:

• PRO

Pro Cluentio may be true or false, but the picture of provincial See also:

• CRIME (Lat. crimen, accusation)

crime which it presents is vividly dramatic . Had we only known Cicero in his speeches we should have ranked him with Demosthenes as one who had realized the highest literary ideal . We should think of him also as the creator and master of Latin style—and, moreover, not only as a great orator but as a just and appreciative critic of oratory . But to his services to Roman oratory we have to add his services not indeed to See also:

• PHILOSOPHY (Gr. gthos, fond of, and vo4 (a, wisdom)

philosophy but to the literature of philosophy, Though not a philosopher he is an admirable interpreter of those branches of philosophy which are fitted for practical application, and he presents us with the results of Greek reflection vivified by his own human sympathies and his large experience of men . In giving a See also:

• MODEL (0. Fr. modelle, mod. modele; It. modello, pattern, mould; from Lat. modus, measure, standard)

model of the style in which human interest can best be imparted to abstract discussions, he used his great oratorical See also:

• GIFT (a common Teutonic word, cf. Ger. die Gift, gift, das Gift, poison, formed from the Teut. stem gab-, to give, cf. Dutch geven, Ger. geben; in O. Eng. the word appears with initial y, the guttural of later English is due to Scandinavian influence)

gift and art to persuade the world to accept the most hopeful opinions on human destiny and the principles of conduct most conducive to elevation and integrity of character . The Letters of Cicero are thoroughly natural—colloquia absentium amicorum, to use his own phrase . Cicero's letters to See also:

• ATTICUS, TITUS POMPONIUS (109–32 B.c.)

Atticus, and to the friends with whom he was completely at his ease, are the most sincere and immediate expression of the thought and feeling of the moment . They let us into the See also:

• SECRET (Lat. secretum, hidden, concealed)

secret of his most serious thoughts and cares, and they give a rgatural outlet to his vivacity of observation, his wit and humour, his kindliness of nature . It shows how flexible an See also:

• INSTRUMENT (Lat. instrumentum, from insincere, to build up, furnish, arrange, prepare)

instrument Latin prose had become in his See also:

• HAND
• HAND (a word common to Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Hand, Goth. handus)
• HAND, FERDINAND GOTTHELF (1786-185r)

hand, when it could do justice at once to the ample and vehement See also:

• VOLUME

volume of his oratory, to the calmer and more rhythmical movement of his philosophical meditation, and to the natural interchange of thought and feeling in the everyday intercourse of life .

Among the many rival orators of the age the most eminent were See also:

• QUINTUS

Quintus See also:

• HORTENSIUS, QUINTUS
• HORTENSIUS, QUINTUS (114—50 B.C.)

Hortensius Ortalus and C . See also:

• JULIUS

Julius Caesar . The Caesar. former was the leading representative of the See also:

• ASIATIC

Asiatic or florid style of oratory, and, like other members of the aristocracy, such as C.See also:

• MEMMIUS, GAIUS (incorrectly called Gemellus, " The Twin ")

Memmius and L . See also:

• MANLIUS

Manlius Torquatus, and like Q . Catulus in the preceding generation, was a See also:

• KIND (O. E. ge-cynde, from the same root as is seen in " kin," supra)

kind of See also:

• DILETTANTE

dilettante poet and a precursor of the poetry of pleasure, which attained such prominence in the elegiac poets of the Augustan age . Of C . Julius Caesar (102–44) as an orator we can See also:

• JUDGE (Lat. judex, Fr. juge)

judge only by his reputation and by the testimony of his great rival and adversary Cicero; but we are able to appreciate the special praise of perfect taste in the use of language attributed to him.' In his Commentaries, by laying aside the ornaments of oratory, he created the most admirable style of prose narrative, the style which presents interesting events in their sequence of time and dependence on the will of the actor, rapidly and vividly, with scarcely any colouring of personal or moral feeling, any oratorical See also:

• PASSION (post-classical Lat. passio, formed from pati, passus, to suffer, endure)

passion, any pictorial See also:

• ILLUSTRATION

illustration . While he shows the persuasive art of an orator by presenting the subjugation of Gaul and his own See also:

• ACTION

action in the Civil War in the See also:

• LIGHT

light most favourable to his claim to See also:

• RULE

rule the Roman world, he is entirely See also:

• FREE

free from the Roman See also:

• FASHION (adapted from Fr. facon, agon, Lat. factio, making, facere, to do or make)

fashion of self-laudation or disparagement of an adversary . The character of the man reveals itself especially in a perfect simplicity of style, the result of the clearest intelligence and the strongest sense of personal dignity . He .avoids not only every unusual but every superfluous word; and, although no writing can be more free from rhetorical colouring, yet there may from time to time be detected a glow of sympathy, like the glow of generous passion in See also:

• THUCYDIDES (OovavMns)

Thucydides, the more effective from the reserve with which it betrays itself whenever he is called on to record any See also:

• ACT (Lat. actus, actum)

act of personal heroism or of devotion to military See also:

• DUTY (from " due," that which is owing, O. Fr. deu, dil, past participle of devoir; Lat. debere, debitum; cf. " debt ")

duty . In the simplicity of his style, the directness of his narrative, the entire See also:

• ABSENCE (Lat. absentia)

absence of any didactic tendency, Caesar presents a See also:

• BALLAST (O. Swed. barlast, perhaps from bar, bare or mere, and last, load)

Ballast. marked contrast to another prose writer of that age the historian C . Sallustius Crispus or Sallust (c .

87-36) . Like Varro, he survived Cicero by some years, but the tone and spirit in which his works are written assign him to the republican era . He was the first of the purely artistic historians, as distinct from the See also:

• ANNALISTS (from Lat. annas, year; hence annales, sc. libri, annual records)

annalists and the writers of personal memoirs . He imitated the Greek historians in taking particular actions—the Jugurthan War and the Catilinarian See also:

• CONSPIRACY (from Lat. conspirare, literally to breathe together, to agree, combine, and especially to form a secret plot)

Conspiracy—as the subjects of artistic treatment . He wrote also a continuous work, Historiae, treating of the events of the twelve years following the death of See also:

• SULLA, LUCIUS CORNELIUS (138–78 B.C.)

Sulla, of which only fragments are preserved . His two extant works are more valuable as artistic studies of the rival parties in the state and of personal character than as trustworthy narratives of facts . His style aims at effectiveness by pregnant expression, sententiousness, archaism . He produces the impression of 1 Latine loqui elegantissime.Caring more for the manner of saying a thing than for its truth . Yet he has great value as a painter of historical portraits, some of them those of his contemporaries,and as an author who had been a political See also:

• PARTISAN, or PARTIZAN

partisan and had taken some part in making history before undertaking to write it; and he gives us, from the popular See also:

• SIDE
• SIDE (mod. Eski Adalia)

side, the views of a contemporary on the politics of the time . Of the other historians, or rather annalists, who belong to this period, such as Q . Claudius Quadrigarius, Q . See also:

• VALERIUS, PUBLIUS

Valerius Antias, and C .

See also:

• LICINIUS

Licinius See also:

• MACER, AEMILIUS

Macer, the father of Calvus, we have only fragments remaining . The period was also remarkable for the production of works which we should class as technical or scientific rather than literary . The activity of one of these writers was so Varro. great that he is entitled to a See also:

• SEPARATE

separate mention . This was M . Terentius Varro,the most learned not only of the Romans but of the Greeks, as he has been called . The See also:

• LIST (O.E. lisle, a Teutonic word, cf. Dut. lust, Ger. Leiste, adapted in Ital. lista and Fr. lisle)
• LIST, FRIEDRICH (1789-1846)

list of Varro's writings includes over seventy treatises and more than six See also:

• HUNDRED

hundred books dealing with topics of every conceivable kind . His Menippeae Saturae, miscellanies in prose and verse, of which unfortunately only fragments are See also:

• LEFT

left, was a work of singular literary interest . Since the Annals of Ennius no great and original poem had appeared . The powerful poetical force which for half a century continued to be the strongest force in literature, and Lucretius. which created masterpieces of art and genius, first revealed itself in the latter part of the Ciceronian age . The conditions which enabled the poetic genius of Italy to come to maturity in the See also:

• PERSON, OFFENCES AGAINST THE

person of T . Lucretius See also:

• CARUS, KARL GUSTAV (1789–1869)
• CARUS, MARCUS AURELIUS

Carus (96–55) were entire seclusion from public life and absorption in the ideal pleasures of contemplation and artistic production . This See also:

• ISOLATION

isolation from the familiar ways of his contemporaries, while it was, according to tradition and the See also:

• INTERNAL

internal See also:

• EVIDENCE (Lat. evidentia, evideri, to appear clearly)

evidence of his poem, destructive to his spirit's See also:

• HEALTH

health, resulted in a work of genius, unique in character, which still stands forth as the greatest philosophical poem in any language .

In the form of his poem he followed a Greek original; and the stuff out of which the texture of his philosophical See also:

• ARGUMENT

argument is framed was derived from Greek See also:

• SCIENCE (Lat. scientia, from scire; to