See also:

• LEATHER (a word which appears in all Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Leder, Dutch leer or leder, Swed. leder, and in such Celtic forms as Welsh llader)
• LEATHER, ARTIFICIAL

LEATHER (a word which appears in all See also:

• TEUTONIC
• TEUTONIC (GERMANIC) LANGUAGES

Teutonic See also:

• LANGUAGES

languages; cf. Ger. Leder, Dutch See also:

• LEER

leer or leder, Swed. leder, and in such See also:

• CELTIC

Celtic forms as Welsh llader)  , an imputrescible substance prepared from the hides or skins of living creatures, both See also:

• COLD (in O. Eng. cald and ceald, a word coming ultimately from a root cognate with the Lat. gelu, gelidus, and common in the Teutonic languages, which usually have two distinct forms for the substantive and the adjective, cf. Ger. Kolte, kalt, Dutch koude

cold and warm blooded, by chemical and See also:

• MECHANICAL

mechanical treatment . Skins in the raw and natural moist See also:

• STATE
• STATE, GREAT OFFICERS OF

state are readily putrescible, and are easily disintegrated by bacterial or chemical See also:

• ACTION

action, and if dried in this See also:

• CONDITION (Lat. condicio, from condicere, to agree upon, arrange; not connected with conditio, from condere, conditum, to put together)

condition become harsh, horny and intractable . The See also:

• ART

art of the See also:

• LEATHER (a word which appears in all Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Leder, Dutch leer or leder, Swed. leder, and in such Celtic forms as Welsh llader)
• LEATHER, ARTIFICIAL

leather manufacturer is principally directed to overcoming the tendency to putrefaction, securing suppleness in the material, rendering it impervious to and unalterable by See also:

• WATER

water, and increasing the strength of the skin and its See also:

• POWER [WILLIAM GRATTAN] TYRONE (1797-1841)

power to resist See also:

• WEAR

wear and See also:

• TEAR

tear . Leather is made by three processes or with three classes of substances . Thus we have (1) tanned leather, in which the hides and skins are combined with See also:

• TANNIN, or TANNIC ACID

tannin or tannic See also:

• ACID (from the Lat. root ac-, sharp; acere, to be sour)

acid; (2) tawed leather, in which the skins are prepared with See also:

• MINERAL

mineral salts; (3) chamoised (shamoyed) leather, in which the skins are rendered imputrescible by treatment with See also:

• OILS (adopted from the Fr. oile, mod. huile, Lat. oleum, olive oil)

oils and fats, the decomposition products of which are the actual tanning agents . See also:

• SOURCES

Sources and Qualities of Hides and Skins.—The hides used in heavy leather manufacture may be divided into three classes: (I) ox and See also:

• HEIFER

heifer, (2) cow, (3) See also:

• BULL
• BULL, GEORGE (1634–1710)
• BULL, JOHN (c. 1562–1628)
• BULL, OLE BORNEMANN (18ro-188o)

bull . Oxen /e//eavy at6ers . and heifer hides produce the best results, forming a tough, tight, solid leather . Cow hides are thin, the hide itself being fibrous, but still compact, and by See also:

• REASON (Lat. ratio, through French raison)

reason of its spread or See also:

• AREA

area is used chiefly for dressing purposes in the bag and See also:

• PORTMANTEAU

portmanteau manufacture and See also:

• WORK

work of a similar description . Bull hides are fibrous; they are largely used for See also:

• HEEL

heel lifts, and for cheap belting, the thicker hides being used in the See also:

• IRON [symbol Fe, atomic weight 55.85 (0=16)]

iron and See also:

• STEEL, FLORA ANNIE (1847– )

steel See also:

• INDUSTRY (Lat. industria, from indu-, a form of the pre, position in, and either stare, to stand, or struere, to pile up)

industry . A second See also:

• CLASSIFICATION (Lat. classis, a class, probably from the root cal-, cla-, as in Gr. icaMce, clamor)

classification now presents itself, viz. the See also:

• BRITISH

British See also:

• HOME
• HOME, DANIEL DUNGLAS (1833-1886)
• HOME, EARLS OF

home See also:

• SUPPLY (through Fr. from Lat. supplere, to fill up)

supply, See also:

• CONTINENTAL

continental (See also:

• EUROPE

Europe), British colonial, See also:

• SOUTH
• SOUTH, ROBERT (1634–1716)

South See also:

• AMERICAN

American, See also:

• EAST
• EAST, ALFRED (1849- )

East See also:

• INDIAN

Indian, See also:

• CHINESE, JAPANESE AND

Chinese, &c . In the British home supply there are three See also:

• CHIEF (from Fr. chef, head, Lat. caput)

chief breeds: (I) Shorthorns (Scotch breed), (2) Herefords (Midland breed), (3) See also:

• LOWLAND

Lowland, or Dutch class .

From a See also:

• TANNER, HENRY OSSAWA (1859- )
• TANNER, THOMAS (1674-1735)

tanner's standpoint, the shorthorns are the best hides procurable . The See also:

• CATTLE (Norman Fr. catel, from Late Lat. capitale, wealth or property, a word applied in the feudal system to movable property and particularly to live stock, and surviving in its wider meaning as " chattel " or " chattle ")

cattle are exposed to a variable See also:

• CLIMATE

climate in the mountainous districts of See also:

• SCOTLAND
• SCOTLAND, CHURCH OF
• SCOTLAND, EPISCOPAL CHURCH OF

Scotland, and nature, adapting herself to circumstances, provides them with a thicker and more compact hide; they are well grown, have See also:

• SHORT, FRANCIS JOB (1857– )

short necks and small heads . The See also:

• HEREFORD

Hereford class are probably the best See also:

• ENGLISH

English hide; they likewise have small heads and horns, and produce See also:

• GOOD, JOHN MASON (1764-1827)

good solid See also:

• SOLE (Solea)

sole leather . The Lowland hides come chiefly from See also:

• SUFFOLK
• SUFFOLK, CHARLES BRANDON, 1ST DUKE OF (c. 1484–'545)
• SUFFOLK, EARLS AND DUKES OF
• SUFFOLK, THOMAS HOWARD, 1ST EARL OF (1561-1626)
• SUFFOLK, WILLIAM DE LA POLE

Suffolk, See also:

• KENT
• KENT, EARLS AND DUKES OF
• KENT, JAMES (1763-1847)
• KENT, WILLIAM (1685-1748)

Kent and See also:

• SURREY
• SURREY, EARLDOM OF
• SURREY, HENRY HOWARD, EARL OF (1518?-1547)

Surrey; the animals have See also:

• LONG, GEORGE (1800-1879)
• LONG, JOHN DAVIS (1838– )

long legs, long necks and big heads . The hides are usually thin and spready . The hides of the animals killed for the See also:

• CHRISTMAS (i.e. the Mass of Christ)

Christmas See also:

• SEASON (0. Fr. seson, seison, mod. saison, Lat. satio, sowing time, the spring, from serere, to sow; in Late Lat. the word is found with its present meaning, the spring being considered as particularly the season of the year)

season are poor . The animals being See also:

• STALL (0. Eng. steall, stael, cf. Du. stal, Ger. and Swed. Stall, a common Teutonic word for a place, station, place for standing in; the root is the Indo-European std–, to stand, seen also in Latin stabulum, Greek vraO bs, and in stallion, an entire hors

stall-fed for the See also:

• BEEF (through O. Fr. boef, mod. boeuf, from Lat. bos, bovis, ox, Gr. f3oiir, which show the ultimate connexion with the Sanskrit go, gaits, ox, and thus with " cow")

beef, the hides become distended, thin and surcharged with See also:

• FAT (O.E. fdett; the word is common to Teutonic languages, cf. Dutch vet, Ger. Fett, &c., and may be ultimately related to Greek Irian, and =apos, and Sanskrit pivan)

fat, which renders them unsuitable for first-class work . The continental supply may be divided into two classes: (r) Hides from hilly regions, (2) hides from lowlands . All animals subject to strong winds and a wide range of temperatures have a very strong hide, and for this reason those bred in hilly and mountainous districts are best . The hides coming under heading No. r are of Phis class, and include those from the Swiss and See also:

• ITALIAN

Italian See also:

• ALPS

Alps, Bavarian See also:

• HIGHLANDS, THE

Highlands and See also:

• PYRENEES [Span. Pirineos, Fr. Pyrenees]

Pyrenees, also See also:

• FLORENCE
• FLORENCE (Ital. Firenze, Lat. Florentia)

Florence, See also:

• OPORTO (i.e. o Porto, " the port ")

Oporto and See also:

• LISBON (Lisboa)

Lisbon hides . They are magnificent hides, thick, tightly-built, and of smooth See also:

• GRAIN (derived through the French from Lat. granum, seed, from an Aryan root meaning " to wear down," which also appears in the common Teutonic word " corn ")

grain . The See also:

• BUTT
• BUTT, ISAAC (1813-1879)

butt is long and the legs short .

A serious defect in some of these hides is a thick See also:

• PLACE (through Fr. from Lat. platea, street; Gr. IrAar6s, wide)

place on the See also:

• NECK (O. Eng. hnecca; the word appears in many Teutonic languages; cf. Dutch ride, Ger. Nacken; in O. E. the common word was heals; cf. Ger. Hals)

neck caused by the yoke; this See also:

• PART

part of the hide is See also:

• ABSOLUTE (Lat. absolvere, to loose, set free)

absolute See also:

• WASTE (O. Fr. wast, guast, gast, gaste; Lat. vastus, vast, desolate)

waste . Another defect, specially noticeable in Lisbon and Oporto hides, is goad marks on the rump, barbed See also:

• WIRE (A.S. wir, a wire; cf. Swed. vire, to twist, M.H.G. wiere, a gold ornament, Lat. viriae, armlets, ultimately from the root wi, to twist, bind)

wire scratches and warbles, caused by the gadfly . Those hides coming under heading No . 2 are Dutch, See also:

• RHINE (Lat. Rhenus, Ger. Rhein, Fr. Rhin, Dutch Rhyn, or Rijn)

Rhine valley, Danish, See also:

• SWEDISH

Swedish, See also:

• NORWEGIAN

Norwegian, Hungarian, &c . The first three hides are very similar; they are spready, poorly grown, and are best used for bag and portmanteau work . Hungarian oxen are immense animals, and supply a very heavy See also:

• BEND

bend . Swedish and Norwegian hides are evenly grown and of good texture; they are well flayed, and used a See also:

• GREAT

great See also:

• DEAL

deal for manufacturing picker bands, which require an even leather . New See also:

• ZEALAND (also SEALAND Or SEELAND; Danish Sjaelland)

Zealand, Australian and See also:

• QUEENSLAND

Queensland hides resemble good English . A small quantity of See also:

• CANADIAN

Canadian steers are imported; these are generally branded . Chinese hides are exported dry, and they have generally suffered more or less from peptonization in the storing and drying; this cannot be detected until they are in the pits, when they fall to pieces . Anglos are imported as live-stock, and are killed within See also:

• FORTY

forty-eight See also:

• HOURS, CANONICAL

hours . They come to See also:

• HULL
• HULL (in O.Eng. hulu, from helan, to cover, cf. Ger. Hiille, covering)
• HULL (officially KINGSTON-UPON-HULL)
• HULL, ISAAC (1775-1843)

Hull, See also:

• BIRKENHEAD

Birkenhead, Avonmouth and See also:

• DEPTFORD

Deptford from various American ports, and usually give a flatter result than English, the See also:

• GENERAL
• GENERAL (Lat. generalis, of or relating to a genus, kind or class)

general quality depending largely on whether the See also:

• SHIP

ship has had a good voyage or not .

Among South American hides, See also:

• LIEBIG, JUSTUS VON, BARON (1803-1873)

Liebig's slaughter supply the best; they are thoroughly clean and carefully trimmed and flayed . They come to See also:

• LONDON

London, See also:

• ANTWERP
• ANTWERP (Fr. Anvers)

Antwerp and See also:

• HAVRE
• HAVRE, LE

Havre, and except .for being branded are of first-class quality . Second to the Liebig slaughter come the See also:

• URUGUAY (officially the Oriental Republic of the Uruguay, and long locally called the Banda Oriental, meaning the land on the eastern side of the river Uruguay, from which the country takes its name)

Uruguay hides . East Indian hides are known as kips, and are supposed to be, and should be, the hides of yearling cattle . They are now dressed to a large extent in See also:

• IMITATION (Lat. imitatio, from intitari, to imitate)

imitation of See also:

• BOX
• BOX (Gr. irl or, Lat. buxus, box-wood; cf. 2r6Eir, a pyx)

box See also:

• CALF
• CALF, THE GOLDEN

calf, being much cheaper . They come from a small breed of ox, and have an extremely tight grain; the leather is not so soft as calf . Calf-skins are largely supplied by the See also:

• CONTINENT (from Lat. continere, "to hold together "; hence " connected," " continuous ")

continent . They are soft and pliant, and have a characteristically See also:

• FINE

fine grain, are tight in texture and quite apart from any other See also:

• KIND (O. E. ge-cynde, from the same root as is seen in " kin," supra)

kind of skin . The most valuable part of a See also:

• SHEEP
• SHEEP (from the Anglo-Saxon sceap, a word common in various forms to Teutonic languages; e.g. the German Schaf)

sheep-skin is the See also:

• WOOL, WORSTED AND WOOLLEN MANUFACTURES

wool, and the value of the pelt is inversely as the value of the wool . Pure See also:

• LEICESTER
• LEICESTER, EARLS OF
• LEICESTER, ROBERT DUDLEY, EARL
• LEICESTER, ROBERT SIDNEY, EARL OF (1563-1626)
• LEICESTER, THOMAS WILLIAM COKE, EARL OF (1754-1842)

Leicester and See also:

• NORFOLK
• NORFOLK, EARLS AND DUKES OF

Norfolk wools are very valuable, and next is the See also:

• NORTH
• NORTH, BARONS
• NORTH, MARIANNE (1830—1890)
• NORTH, ROGER (1653-1734)
• NORTH, SIR THOMAS (1535?-16o1?)

North and South See also:

• DOWNS

Downs, but the skins, i.e. the /earhers. pelts, of these animals are extremely poor . See also:

• DEVON, EARLS OF

Devon and Cheviot See also:

• CROSS

cross-bred sheep supply a See also:

• FAIR

fair pelt, and sometimes these sheep are so many times crossed that it is quite impossible to tell what the skin is . Welsh skins also supply a good tough pelt, though small .

Indian and See also:

• PERSIAN
• PERSIAN, SYRIAN, EGYPTIAN AND TURKISH

Persian sheep-skins are very goaty, the herds being allowed to roam about together so much . The sheep-skin is the most porous and open-textured skin in existence, as also the most greasy one; it is flabby and soft, with a tight, compact grain, but an extremely loose flesh . Still-See also:

• BORN, IGNAZ, EDLER VON (1742–1791)

born See also:

• LAMBS

lambs and lambs not over a See also:

• MONTH
• MONTH (a common Teutonic word, cf. Ger. Mond, Du. maand, Dan. maaned, &c., and cognate with Lat. mensis, Gr. µi7v, &c., in other branches of the Indo-Germanic family; all ultimately from the root seen in the word for the moon in nearly all those languages

month old are See also:

• WORTH
• WORTH, CHARLES FREDERICK (1825-1895)

worth much more than when they have lived for three months; they are used for the manufacture of best kid gloves, and must be See also:

• MILK (0. Eng. meoluc; from a common Indo-European root, cf. Lat. mulgere, Gr. ?t dXyetv)

milk skins . Once the lambs have taken to grass the skins supply a harsher leather . The best See also:

• GOAT (a common Teut. word; O. Eng. gat, Goth. gaits, Mod. Ger. Geiss, cognate with Lat. haedus, a kid)

goat-skins come from the Saxon and Bavarian Highlands, Swiss Alps, Pyrenees, See also:

• TURKEY

Turkey, Bosnia, See also:

• SOUTHERN

Southern See also:

• HUNGARY
• HUNGARY (Hungarian Magyarorszdg)

Hungary and the Urals . The goats being exposed to all winds yield fine skins . A good number come from See also:

• ARGENTINA

Argentina and from See also:

• ABYSSINIA (officially ETHIOPIA)

Abyssinia, the Cape and other parts of See also:

• AFRICA
• AFRICA, ROMAN

Africa . Of all See also:

• LIGHT

light leathers the goat has the toughest and tightest grain; it is, there-fore, especially liked for See also:

• FANCY (a shortened form, dating from the 15th century, of " fantasy," which is derived through the O. Fr. fantasie, modern fantaisie. from the Latinized form of the Gr. cbavraoia, Oavrai'ecv, Oat Pais, to show)

fancy work . The grain is rather too bold for glace work, for which the sheep is largely used . The See also:

• SEAL
• SEAL, FUR
• SEAL, HAIR

seal-skin, used largely for See also:

• LEVANT

levant work, is the skin of the yellow-See also:

• HAIR (a word common to Teutonic languages)

hair seal, found in the See also:

• NORTHERN

Northern seas, the Baltic, See also:

• NORWAY
• NORWAY (Norge)

Norway and See also:

• SWEDEN
• SWEDEN [Sverige]
• SWEDEN, NORWAY AND

Sweden, &c . The skin has a large, bold, brilliant grain, and being a large skin is much used for upholstery and See also:

• COACH (through the Fr. coche, originally from the Magyar kocsi, an adjective from the Hungarian place named Kocs, between Raab and Buda, i.e. the sort of vehicle used there in the 15th century)

coach work, like the Cape goat . It is quite distinct from the See also:

• FUR (connected with O. Fr. forre, a sheath or case; so " an outer covering ")

fur seal .

See also:

• PORPOISE (sometimes spelled Porpus and Porpesse)

Porpoise hide is really the hide of the See also:

• WHITE
• WHITE, ANDREW DICKSON (1832– )
• WHITE, GILBERT (1720–1793)
• WHITE, HENRY KIRKE (1785-1806)
• WHITE, HUGH LAWSON (1773-1840)
• WHITE, JOSEPH BLANCO (1775-1841)
• WHITE, RICHARD GRANT (1822-1885)
• WHITE, ROBERT (1645-1704)
• WHITE, SIR GEORGE STUART (1835– )
• WHITE, SIR THOMAS (1492-1567)
• WHITE, SIR WILLIAM ARTHUR (1824--1891)
• WHITE, SIR WILLIAM HENRY (1845– )
• WHITE, THOMAS (1628-1698)
• WHITE, THOMAS (c. 1550-1624)

white See also:

• WHALE

whale; it is dressed for See also:

• SHOOTING

shooting, fishing and See also:

• HUNTING (the verbal substantive from " hunt "; O. Eng. huntian, hunta; apparently connected with O. Eng. hentan, Gothic hinpan, to capture, O.H.G. hunda,booty)

hunting boots . See also:

• HORSE (a word common to Teutonic languages in such forms as hors, hros, ros; cf. the Ger. ross)

Horse hide is dressed for light split and upper work; being so much stall-fed it supplies only a thin, spready leather . The skins of other See also:

• EQUIDAE

Equidae, such as the See also:

• ASS (O.E. assa; Lat. asinus)
• ASS, FEAST OF THE

ass, See also:

• ZEBRA

zebra, See also:

• QUAGGA, or COUAGGA

quagga, &c. are also dressed to some small extent, but are not important sources . Structure of Skin.—Upon superficial inspection, the hides and skins of all See also:

• MAMMALIA (from Lat. mamma, a teat or breast)

mammalia appear to be unlike each other in general structure, yet, upon closer examination, it is found that the anatomical structure of most skins is so similar that for all See also:

• PRACTICAL

practical purposes we may assume that there is no distinction (see SKIN AND Exo-See also:

• SKELETON

SKELETON) . But from the practical point of view, as opposed to the anatomical, there are great and very important See also:

• DIFFERENCES, CALCULUS OF (Theory of Finite Differences)

differences, such as those of texture, thickness, area, &c.; and these differences cause a great divergence in the methods of tanning used, almost necessitating a distinct tannage for nearly every class of hide or skin . The skins of the See also:

• LOWER

lower animals, such as alligators, lizards, See also:

• FISH (O. Eng. fist, a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Dutch visch, Ger. Fisch, Goth. fisks, cognate with the Lat. piscis)
• FISH, HAMILTON (1808-1893)

fish and See also:

• SNAKES

snakes, differ to a large extent from those of the mammalia, chiefly in the epidermis, which is much more horny in structure and forms scales . The skin is divided into two distinct layers: (I) the epidermis or epithelium, i.e. the cuticle, (2) the corium See also:

• DERMA

derma, or cutis, i.e. the true skin . These two layers are not only different in structure, but are also of entirely distinct origin . The epidermis again divides itself into two parts, viz. the " horny layer " or See also:

• SURFACE

surface skin, and the rete See also:

• MALPIGHI, MARCELLO (1628-1694)

Malpighi, named after the Italian anatomist who first See also:

• DREW
• DREW, SAMUEL (1765-1833)

drew See also:

• ATTENTION (from Lat. ad-tendo, await, expect; the condition of being " stretched " or " tense ")

attention to its existence . The rete Malpighi is composed of living, soft, nucleated cells, which multiply by See also:

• DIVISION (from Lat. dividere, to break up into parts, separate)

division, and, as they increase, are gradually pushed to the surface of the skin, becoming flatter and drier as they near it, until they reach the surface as dried scales . The epidermis is thus of cellular structure, and more or less horny or waterproof . It must consequently be removed together with the hair, wool or bristles before tannage begins, but as it is very thin compared with the corium, this matters little .

The hair itself does not enter the corium, but is embedded in a sheath of epidermic structure, which is part of and continuous with the epidermis . It is of cellular structure, and the fibrous part is composed of long See also:

• NEEDLE (O. Eng. ncedl; the word appears in various forms in Teutonic languages, Ger. Nadel, Dutch naal, the root being ne-, to sew, cf. Ger. nahen, and probably Lat. nere, to spin, Gr. vi)ats, spinning)

needle-shaped cells which contain the pigment with which the hair is coloured . Upon removal of the hair some of these cells remain behind and See also:

• COLOUR (Lat. color, connected with celare, to hide, the root meaning, therefore, being that of a covering)

colour the skin, and this colour does not disappear until these cells are removed by scudding . Each hair is supplied with at least two fat or sebaceous glands, which See also:

• DISCHARGE (adapted from the O. Fr. discharge, modern decharge, from a med. Lat. discargare, to unload, dis- and earn care, to load, cf. " charge ")

discharge into the orifice of the hair sheath ; these glands impart to the hair that natural glossy See also:

• APPEARANCE (from Lat. apparere, to appear)

appearance which is characteristic of good See also:

• HEALTH

health . The hair bulb (b, fig . I) consists of living nucleated cells, which multiply rapidly, and, like the rete Malpighi, cause an upward pressure, getting harder at the same See also:

• TIME (0. Eng. Lima, cf. Icel. timi, Swed. timme, hour, Dan. time; from the root also seen in " tide," properly the time of between the flow and ebb of the sea, cf. O. Eng. getidan, to happen, " even-tide," &c.; it is not directly related to Lat. tempus)
• TIME, MEASUREMENT OF
• TIME, STANDARD

time, thereby lengthening the hair . The hair papilla (a, fig . I) consists of a globule of the corium or This loosely-See also:

• WOVEN

woven part is full of fatty nodules, and the skin is true skin embedded in the hair bulb, which by means of See also:

• BLOOD

blood- vessels feeds and nourishes the hair . Connected with the lower part of each hair is an oblique muscle known as the arrector or erector pili, seen at k, fig . 1; this is an involuntary muscle, and is contracted by sudden cold, See also:

• HEAT (0. E. haktu, which like " hot," Old Eng. hat, is from the Teutonic type haita, hit, to be hot; cf. Ger. hitze, heiss; Dutch, hitte, heet, &c.)

heat or See also:

• SHOCK, or COLLAPSE

shock, with an accompanying tightening of the skin, producing the phenomenon commonly known as " See also:

• GOOSE (a common Teut. word, O. Eng. gOs, pl. ges, Ger. Gans, O. Norse gas, from Aryan root, ghans, whence Sans. hansa, Lat. anser (for hanser)
• GOOSE (GAME OF)

goose flesh." This is the outcome of the contracted muscle pulling on the See also:

• BASE

base of the hair, thereby giving it a tendency to approach the See also:

• VERTICAL (from Lat. vertex, highest point)

vertical, and producing the simultaneous effect of making the " hair stand on end." The sudoriferous or sweat glands (R, fig. i) consist of long See also:

• SPIRAL

spiral-like capillaries, formed from the See also:

• FIBRES
• FIBRES (or FIBERS, in American spelling; from Lat. fibra, apparently connected either with filum, thread, or findere, to split)

fibres of the connective See also:

• TISSUE (Fr. tissu, tissue, participle of tisser, Lat. texere, to weave)

tissue of the corium . These glands discharge sometimes directly through the epidermis, but more often into the orifice of the hair-sheath . The epidermis is separated from the corium by a very important and very fine membrane, termed the " hyaline " or " glassy layer," which constitutes the actual grain surface of a hide or skin .

This layer is chemically different from the corium, as if it is torn or scratched during the See also:

• PROCESS

process of tanning the colour of the underlying parts is much lighter than that of the grain surface . The corium, unlike the epidermis, is of fibrous, not cellular structure; moreover, the fibres do not multiply among themselves, but are gradually See also:

• DEVELOPED

developed as needed from the interfibrillar substance, a semi-soluble gelatinous modification of the true fibre . This interfibrillar sub-stance consequently has no structure, and is prepared at any time on coming into contact with tannin to See also:

• FORM (Lat. forma)

form amorphous leather, which fills what would in the See also:

• ABSENCE (Lat. absentia)

absence of this substance be inter-fibrillar spaces . The more of this See also:

• MATTER

matter there is See also:

• PRESENT

present the more completely will the spaces be filled, and the more water-See also:

• PROOF (in M. Eng. preove, proeve, preve, &°c., from O. Fr . prueve, proeve, &c., mod. preuve, Late. Lat. proba, probate, to prove, to test the goodness of anything, probus, good)

proof will be the leather . An old bull, as is well known, supplies a very poor, soft and spongy leather, simply be-cause the hide lacks interfibrillar sub-stance, which has been sapped up by the See also:

• BODY

body . The fibres are, therefore, separated by interfibrillar spaces, which on contact with water absorb it with avidity by capillary attraction . But a heifer hide or See also:

• YOUNG
• YOUNG, A
• YOUNG, ARTHUR (1741-1820)
• YOUNG, BRIGHAM (1801-1877)
• YOUNG, CHARLES MAYNE (1777–1856)
• YOUNG, EDWARD (1683–1765)
• YOUNG, JAMES (1811-1883)
• YOUNG, THOMAS (1773-1829)

young calf supplies t h e most tight and generally split at this part, the flesh going for See also:

• CHAMOIS

chamois leather and the grain for skivers . The other notable exception is the horse hide, which has a third skin over the loins just above the kidneys, known as the crup; it is very greasy and tight in structure, and is used for making a very waterproof leather for See also:

• SEAMEN, LAWS RELATING TO

seamen's and fishermen's boots . See also:

• PIG
• PIG (a word of obscure origin, connected with the Low Ger. and Dut. word of the same meaning, bigge)

Pig-skin, perhaps, is rather See also:

• PECULIAR

peculiar, in the fact that the bristles penetrate almost right through the skin . Tanning Materials.—Tannin or tannic acid is abundantly formed in a very large number of See also:

• PLANTS

plants. and secreted in such diverse See also:

• ORGANS

organs and members as the bark, See also:

• WOOD, ANTHONY A2 (1632-1695)
• WOOD, JOHN GEORGE (1827—1889)
• WOOD, MRS HENRY [ELLEN] (1814—1887)
• WOOD, SEARLES VALENTINE (1798—188o)

wood, roots, leaves, See also:

• SEED (from the root seen in Lat. serere, to sow)

seed-pods, See also:

• FRUIT (through the French from the Lat. fructus; frui, to enjoy)

fruit, &c . The number of tannins which exists has not been determined, nor has the constitution of those which do exist been satisfactorily settled . As used in the tanyard tannin is present both in the See also:

• FREE

free state and combined with colouring matter and accompanied by decomposition products, such as gallic acid or phlobaphenes (an-hydrides of the tannins), respectively depending upon the See also:

• SERIES (a Latin word from serere, to join)

series to which the tannin belongs .

In whatever other points they differ, they all have the See also:

• COMMON

common See also:

• PROPERTY

property of being powerfully astringent, of forming insoluble compounds with gelatine or gelatinous tissue, of being soluble in water to a greater or lesser extent, and of form. See also:

• ING

ing blacks (greenish or bluish) with iron . See also:

• PYROGALLOL, or PYROGALLIC ACID

Pyrogallol tannins give a See also:

• BLUE (common in different forms to most European languages)

blue-See also:

• BLACK
• BLACK, ADAM (1784-1874)
• BLACK, JEREMIAH SULLIVAN (1810–1883)
• BLACK, WILLIAM (1841-1898)

black coloration or precipitate with ferric salts, and catechol tannins a See also:

• GREEN, A
• GREEN, ALEXANDER HENRY (1832—1896)
• GREEN, DUFF (1791—1875)
• GREEN, JOHN RICHARD (1837—1883)
• GREEN, MATTHEW (1696-1737)
• GREEN, THOMAS HILL (1836-1882)
• GREEN, VALENTINE (1739–1813)
• GREEN, WILLIAM HENRY (.1825–1900)

green-black; and whereas See also:

• BROMINE (symbol Br, atomic weight 79-96)

bromine water gives a precipitate with catechol tannins, it does not with pyrogallol tannins There are two distinctive classes of tannins, viz. catechol and pyrogallol tannins . The materials belonging to the former series are generally much darker in colour than those classified with the latter, and moreover they yield reds, phlobaphenes or tannin an-hydrides, which See also:

• DEPOSIT (Lat. depositurn, from deponere, to lay down, to put in the care of)

deposit on or in the leather . Pyrogallol tannins include some of the lightest coloured and best materials known, and, speaking generally, the leather produced by them is not so harsh or hard as that produced with catechol tannins . They decompose, yielding ellagic acid (known technically as " See also:

• BLOOM (from A.S. bloma, a flower)

bloom ") and gallic acid; the former has waterproofing qualities, because it fills the leather, at the same time giving See also:

• WEIGHT

weight . It has been stated, and perhaps with some truth, that leather cannot be successfully made with catechol tannins alone; pyrogallol tannins, however, yield an excellent leather; but the finest results are obtained by blending the two . The classification of the chief tanning materials is as follows: Pyrogallols . Myrobalans (Terminalia Chebula), See also:

• CHESTNUT (nux Castanea)

Chestnut wood (Caslanes vesca) . Divi-divi (Caesalpinia Coriolis) . Algarobilla (Cae.salpinia brevijolia) . See also:

• SUMACH

Sumach (RhusCoriaria) . Oakwood (Quercus See also:

• FAMILY

family) .

Chestnut See also:

• OAK (O. Eng., (lc)

oak (Quercus Prinus) . See also:

• GALLS

Galls (Quercus Iniecloria) . See also:

• WILLOW (Salix)

Willow (Salix arenaria) . Cal echoic . See also:

• GAMBIER
• GAMBIER, JAMES GAMBIER, BARON (1756-1833)

Gambier (Uncaria Gamble) . See also:

• HEMLOCK (in O. Eng. hemlic or hymlice; no cognate is found in any other language, and the origin is unknown)

Hemlock (Abies canadensis) . Quebracho (Quebracho See also:

• COLORADO

Colorado) . See also:

• MANGROVE

Mangrove or See also:

• CUTCH, GULF OF
• CUTCH, or KACH
• CUTCH, RUNN OF, or RANN OF KACH

Cutch (Rhizophora See also:

• MANGLE

Mangle) . See also:

• MIMOSA (so named from the movements of the leaves in many species which " mimic " animal sensibility)

Mimosa or See also:

• GOLDEN

Golden Wattle (See also:

• ACACIA

Acacia Pycnanlha) . See also:

• LARCH (from the Ger. Larche, M.H.G. Lerche, Lat. larix)

Larch (Larix Europaea) . Canaigre (Rimer Ilymenosepalum) . See also:

• BIRCH
• BIRCH (Betula)
• BIRCH, SAMUEL (1813–1885)
• BIRCH, THOMAS (1705-1766)

Birch (Belula See also:

• CALM

calm) .

Cutch See also:

• CATECHU

Catechu (Acacia Calechu) . Subsidiary . Oakhark (Quercus Robur) . Valonia (Quercus Aegilops) . Myrobalans are the fruit of an Indian See also:

• TREE (0. Eng. treo, treow, cf. Dan. tree, Swed. Odd, tree, trd, timber; allied forms are found in Russ. drevo, Gr. opus, oak, and 36pv, spear, Welsh derw, Irish darog, oak, and Skr. dare, wood)
• TREE, SIR HERBERT BEERBOHM (1853- )

tree . There are several different qualities, the See also:

• ORDER
• ORDER (through Fr. ordre, for earlier ordene, from Lat. ordo, ordinis, rank, service, arrangement; the ultimate source is generally taken to be the root seen in Lat. oriri, rise, arise, begin; cf. " origin ")
• ORDER, HOLY

order of which is as follows, the best being placed first: Bhimley, Jubbalpore, Raj See also:

• PORE

pore, Fair See also:

• COAST (from Lat. costa, a rib, side)

Coast See also:

• MADRAS

Madras and Vingorlas . They are a very light-coloured material, containing from 27 % to 38 % of tannin; they deposit much " bloom," ferment fairly rapidly, supplying acidity, and yield a mellow leather . Chestnut comes on the See also:

• MARKET (Lat. mercatus, trade or place of trade)

market in the form of crude and decolorized liquid extracts, containing about 27% to 31% of tannin, and yields a good leather of a light-See also:

• BROWN
• BROWN, CHARLES BROCKDEN (1771-181o)
• BROWN, FORD MADOX (1821-1893)
• BROWN, FRANCIS (1849- )
• BROWN, GEORGE (1818-188o)
• BROWN, HENRY KIRKE (1814-1886)
• BROWN, JACOB (1775–1828)
• BROWN, JOHN (1715–1766)
• BROWN, JOHN (1722-1787)
• BROWN, JOHN (1735–1788)
• BROWN, JOHN (1784–1858)
• BROWN, JOHN (1800-1859)
• BROWN, JOHN (1810—1882)
• BROWN, JOHN GEORGE (1831— )
• BROWN, ROBERT (1773-1858)
• BROWN, SAMUEL MORISON (1817—1856)
• BROWN, SIR GEORGE (1790-1865)
• BROWN, SIR JOHN (1816-1896)
• BROWN, SIR WILLIAM, BART
• BROWN, THOMAS (1663-1704)
• BROWN, THOMAS (1778-1820)
• BROWN, THOMAS EDWARD (1830-1897)
• BROWN, WILLIAM LAURENCE (1755–1830)

brown colour . Oakwood reaches the market in the same form; it is a very similar material, but only contains 24% to 27% of tannin, and yields a slightly heavier and darker leather . Divi-divi is the dried seed pods of an Indian tree containing 40% to 45% of tannin, and yielding a white leather; it might be valuable but for the tendency to dangerous See also:

• FERMENTATION

fermentation and development of a dark-red colouring matter . Algarobilla consists of the seeds of an Indian tree, containing about 45% of tannin, and in general properties is similar to See also:

• DIVIDIVI

dividivi, but does not discolour so much upon fermentation . Sumach is perhaps the best and most useful material known .

It is the ground leaves of a Sicilian plant, containing about 28 % of tannin, and yielding a nearly white and very beautiful leather . It is used alone for tanning the best moroccos and finer leather, and being so valuable is much adulterated, the chief adulterant being Pistacia lentiscus (Stinko or Lentisco), an inferior and light-coloured catechol tannin . Other but inferior sumachs are also used . There is Venetian sumach (Rhus cotinus) and See also:

• SPANISH

Spanish sumach (Colpoon compressa) ; these are used to some extent in the countries bordering on the Mediterranean . R . Glabra and R . Copallina are also used in considerable quantities in See also:

• AMERICA

America, where they are cultivated . Galls are abnormal growths found upon oaks, and caused by the See also:

• GALL (a word common to many Teutonic languages, cf. Dutch gal, and Ger. Galle; the Indo-European root appears in Gr. xoXi,, and Lat. fel; possibly connected with " yellow," with reference to the colour of bile)
• GALL, FRANZ JOSEPH (1758-1828)

gall See also:

• WASP (Lat. vespa)

wasp laying eggs in the plant . They are best harvested just before the See also:

• INSECT

insect escapes . They contain from 5o% to 6o% of tannin, and are generally used for the commercial supply of tannic acid, and not for tanning purposes . Gambier, terra japonica or catechu, is the product of a See also:

• SHRUB

shrub cultivated in See also:

• SINGAPORE (Malay, Singapiira, i.e. " The City of the Lion")

Singapore and the See also:

• MALAY

Malay See also:

• ARCHIPELAGO

Archipelago . It is made by a, Hair papilla .

J, Sebaceous glands . b, Hair bulb. k, Erector pili . c, Hair sheath show- ni, Sweat ducts . i n g e p i d e r m i c n and p, Epidermis . structure. n, Rete Malpighi . d, Dermic coat of hair p, Horny layer . sheath . R, Sweat or sudori- e, See also:

• OUTER

Outer See also:

• ROOT (late O.E. rot, adopted from Scand., cf. Norw. and Swed. rot, Dan. rod; the true O.E. word was wyrt, plant, represented in Ger. Wurz or Wurzel; the ultimate root is the same in both words, and is seen in Lat. radix)
• ROOT, ELIHU (1845– )

root sheath. ferous gland . f, inner root sheath . S, Opening at sweat g, Hair cuticle. duct . h, Hair. waterproof leather known, because the animals are young, and having plenty of nourishment do not require to draw upon and See also:

• SAP

sap the interfibrillar substance with which the skin is full to overflowing . The corium obtains its See also:

• FOOD
• FOOD (like the verb " to feed," from a Teutonic root, whence O. Eng. foda; cf. " fodder "; connected with Gr. lrareicOae, to feed)

food from the body by means of See also:

• LYMPH

lymph ducts, with which it is well suppiied .

It is also provided with nodules of lymph to nourish the hair, and nodules of grease, which increase in number as they near the flesh See also:

• SIDE
• SIDE (mod. Eski Adalia)

side, until the See also:

• NET

net skin, panniculus adiposus, or that which separates the corium from See also:

• MEAT

meat proper, is quite full with them . The corium is coarse in the centre of the skin where the fibres, which are of the kind known as white connective tissue, and which exist in bundles See also:

• BOUND, or BOUNDARY (from O. Fr. bonde, Med. Lat. bodena or butina, a frontier line)

bound together with yellow elastic fibres, are loosely woven, but towards the flesh side they become more compact, and as the hyaline layer is neared the bundles of fibres get finer and finer, and are much more tightly interwoven, until finally, next the grain itself, the fibres no longer exist in bundles, but as individual fibrils lying parallel with the grain . This layer is known as the pars papillaris . The bundles of fibre interweave one another in every conceivable direction . The fibrils are extremely See also:

• MINUTE
• MINUTE (Lat. minutes, small; minuere, to make less)

minute, and are cemented together with a See also:

• MEDIUM

medium rather more soluble than themselves . There are only two exceptions to this general structure which need be taken into See also:

• ACCOUNT
• ACCOUNT (through O. Fr. acont, Late Lat. comptum, cornputare, to calculate)

account . Sheep-skin is especially loosely woven in the centre, so much so that any carelessness in the wet work or sweating process enables one to split the skin in two by tearing. boiling the shrub and allowing the See also:

• EXTRACT (from Lat. extrahere, to draw out)

extract to solidify . It is a peculiar material, and may be completely washed out of a leather tanned with it . It mellows exceedingly, and keeps the leather fibre open; it may be said that it only goes in the leather to prepare and make easy the way for other tannins . See also:

• BLOCK
• BLOCK (from the Fr. bloc, and possibly connected with an Old Ger. Block, obstruction, cf. " baulk ")
• BLOCK, MAURICE (1816–19or)

Block gambier contains from 35 % to 40% and See also:

• CUBE (Gr. K46os, a cube)

cube gambier from 5o% to 65 % of tannin . Hemlock generally reaches the market as extract, prepared from the bark of the American tree . It contains about 22 % of tannin, has a See also:

• PINE (Lat. Pinus, Gr. srlrur)

pine-like odour, but yields a rather dark-coloured red leather .

Quebracho is imported mainly as solid extract, containing 63 to 70% of tannin; it is a harsh, light-red tannage, but darkens rapidly on exposure to light . It is used for freshening up very mellow liquors, but is rather wasteful, as it deposits an enormous amount of its tannin as phlobaphenes . Mangrove or cutch is a solid extract prepared from the mangrove tree found in the swarnps of See also:

• BORNEO

Borneo and the Straits Settlements; it contains upwards of 6o% of a red tannin . Mimosa is the bark of the Australian golden wattle (Acacia pycnantha), and contains from 36% to 50% of tannin . It is a rather harsh tannage, yielding a flesh-coloured leather, and is useful for sharpening liquors . This bark is now successfully cultivated in See also:

• NATAL

Natal . The tannin content of this Natal bark is somewhat inferior, but the colour is See also:

• SUPERIOR

superior to the Australian product . Larch bark contains 9% to 10 0/0 of light-coloured tannin, and is used especially for tanning Scotch basils . Canaigre is the See also:

• AIR (from an Indo-European root meaning " breathe," " blow ")
• AIR, or ASBEN

air-dried tuberous roots of a Mexican plant, containing .25 % to 30% of tannin and about 8% of See also:

• STARCH

starch . It yields an See also:

• ORANGE
• ORANGE (Citrus Aurantium)
• ORANGE, HOUSE OF

orange-coloured leather of considerable weight and firmness . Its cultivation did not pay well enough, so that it is little used . Cutch, catechu or " dark catechu," is obtained from the wood of Indian acacias, and is not to be confounded with mangrove cutch .

It contains 60 % of tanning matter and a large proportion of catechin similar to that contained in gambier, but much redder . It is used for See also:

• DYEING (0. Eng. dedgian, dealt ; Mid. Eng. deyen)

dyeing browns and blacks with chrome and iron mordants . The willow and the white birch barks contain, respectively, 12% to 14% and 2 % to 5% of tannin . In See also:

• COMBINATION (Lat. combinare, to combine)

combination they are used to produce the famous See also:

• RUSSIA
• RUSSIA (Rossiya)

Russia leather, whose insect-resisting odour is due to the birch bark . In America this leather is imitated with the American black birch bark (Betula lenta), and also with the oil obtained from its dry See also:

• DISTILLATION (from the Lat. distillare, more correctly destillare, to drop or trickle down)

distillation . In the See also:

• LIST (O.E. lisle, a Teutonic word, cf. Dut. lust, Ger. Leiste, adapted in Ital. lista and Fr. lisle)
• LIST, FRIEDRICH (1789-1846)

list of materials two have been placed in a subsidiary class because they are a mixture of catechol and pyrogallol tannin . Oak bark produces the best leather known, proving that a blend of the two classes of tannins gives the best results . It is the bark of the See also:

• COPPICE, or COPSE (from an O. Fr. copeis or coupeis, from Late Lat. colpare, to cut with a blow; colpas, the Late Lat. for "blow," is a shortened form of colapus or colaphus, adapted from the Gr. ,co)

coppice oak, and contains la % to 14% of a reddish-yellow tannage . Valonia is the See also:

• ACORN

acorn See also:

• CUP (in O.E. cuppe; generally taken to be from Late Lat. cuppa, a variant of Lat. cupa, a cask, cf. Gr. KuaeXXov)

cup of the See also:

• TURKISH

Turkish and See also:

• GREEK
• GREEK, ETRUSCAN AND

Greek oak . The See also:

• SMYRNA (Ismir)

Smyrna or Turkish valonia is best, and contains 32% to 36% of an almost white tannin . Greek valonia is greyer in colour, and contains 26% to 3o% of tannin . It yields a tough, See also:

• FIRM

firm leather of great weight, due to the rapid deposition of a large amount of bloom .

Grinding and Leaching' Tanning Materials.—At first sight it would not seem possible that See also:

• SCIENCE (Lat. scientia, from scire; to learn, know)

science could See also:

• DIRECT

direct such a clumsy process as the grinding of tanning materials, and yet even here, the " scientific smashing " of tanning materials may mean the difference between profit and loss to the tanner . In most materials the tannin exists imprisoned in cells, and is also to some extent free, but with this latter condition the science of grinding has nothing to do . If tanning materials are simply broken by a series of clean cuts, only those cells directly on the surfaces of the cuts will be ready to yield their tannin; therefore, if materials are ground by cutting, a proportion of the See also:

• TOTAL

total tannin is thrown away . Hence it is necessary to bruise, break and otherwise sever the walls of all the cells containing the tannin; so that the See also:

• MACHINE
• MACHINE (through Fr. from Lat. form machina of Gr. µnxavil)

machine wanted is one which crushes, twists and cuts the material at the same tithe, turning it out of See also:

• UNIFORM

uniform See also:

• SIZE

size and with little dust . The apparatus in most common use is built on the same principle as the See also:

• COFFEE (Fr: cafe, Ger. Kaffee)

coffee See also:

• MILL
• MILL (O. Eng. mylen, later myln, or miln, adapted from the late Lat. molina, cf. Fr. moulin, from Lat. mola, a mill, molere, to grind; from the same root, mol, is derived " meal;" the word appears in other Teutonic languages, cf. Du. molen, Ger. muhle)
• MILL, JAMES (1773-1836)
• MILL, JOHN (c. 1645–1707)
• MILL, JOHN STUART (1806-1873)

mill, which consists of a series of segmental cutters; as the bark See also:

• WORKS

works down into the smaller cutters of the mill it is See also:

• TWISTED

twisted and cut in every direction . This is a very good form of mill, but it requires a considerable amount of power and works slowly . The See also:

• TEETH (O.E. Eel); plural of tooth, O.E. top)

teeth require See also:

• CONSTANT, BENJAMIN (1845-1902)

constant renewal, and should, therefore, be replaceable in rows, not, as in some forms, See also:

• CAST (from the verb meaning " to throw "; the word is Scand. in origin, cf. Dan. kaste, and Swed. kasta; " cast " in Middle Eng. took the place of the A.S. weor pan, cf. Ger. werf en)

cast on the See also:

• BELL
• BELL, ALEXANDER MELVILLE (1819—1905)
• BELL, ANDREW (1753—1832)
• BELL, GEORGE JOSEPH (1770-1843)
• BELL, HENRY (1767-1830)
• BELL, HENRY GLASSFORD (1803-1874)
• BELL, JACOB (1810-1859)
• BELL, JOHN (1691-178o)
• BELL, JOHN (1763-1820)
• BELL, JOHN (1797-1869)
• BELL, ROBERT (1800-1867)
• BELL, SIR CHARLES (1774—1842)

bell . The disintegrator is another form of mill, which produces its effect by violent concussion, obtained by the revolution in opposite directions of from four to six large See also:

• METAL
• METAL (through Fr. from Lat. metallum, mine, quarry, adapted from Gr. µATaXAov, in the same sense, probably connected with ,ueraAAdv, to search after, explore, µeTa, after, aAAos, other)

metal arms fitted with projecting spikes inside a See also:

• DRUM (early forms drome or dromme, a word common to many Teut. languages, cf. Dan. tromme, Ger. Trommel: the word is ultimately the same as " trumpet," and is probably onomatopoeic in origin; it appears late in Eng. about the middle of the 16th century)

drum, the faces of which are also fitted with protruding pieces of metal . The arms make from 2000 to 4000 revolutions per minute . The chief objection to this apparatus is that it forms much dust, which is caught in silken bags fitted to gratings in the drum . The myrobalans crusher, a very useful machine for such materials as myrobalans and valonia, consists of a pair of toothed rollers above and a pair of fluted rollers beneath . The material is dropped upon the toothed rollers first, where it is broken and crushed ; then the crushing is finished and any See also:

• SHARP, GRANVILLE (1735-1813)
• SHARP, JAMES (1618-1679)
• SHARP, JOHN (1645-1714)
• SHARP, RICHARD (1759-1835)
• SHARP, WILLIAM (1749-1824)
• SHARP, WILLIAM (1856-1905)

sharp corners rounded off in the fluted rollers .

It must not be thought that now the material is ground it is necessarily ready for leaching . This may or may not be so, de-pending upon whether the tanner is making light or heavy leathers . See See also:

• LYE (0. Eng. leag, cf. Dutch loog, Ger. Lauge, from the root meaning to wash, see in Lat. lavare, and Eng. " lather," froth of soap and water, and " laundry ")

LYE.If light leathers are being considered, it is ready for immediate leaching, i.e. to be infused with water in preparation of a liquor . If heavy leathers are in process of manufacture, he would be a very wasteful tanner who would extract his material raw . It must be See also:

• BORNE, KARL LUDWIG (1786–1837)

borne in mind that when an infusion is made with fresh tanning material, the liquor begins to deposit decomposition products after See also:

• STANDING

standing a See also:

• DAY (O. Eng. dreg, Ger. Tag; according to the New English Dictionary, " in no way related to the Lat. dies")
• DAY, JOHN (1574-1640?)
• DAY, THOMAS (1748-1789)

day or two, and the See also:

• OBJECT

object of the heavy-leather tanner is to get this material deposited in the leather, to fill the pores, produce weight and make a firm, tough product . With this end in view he dusts his hides with this fresh material in the layers, i.e. he spreads a layer between each hide as it is laid down, so that the strong liquors penetrate and deposit in the hides . When most of this power to deposit has been usefully utilized in the layers, then the material (which is now, perhaps, See also:

• HALF

half spent) is leached . The light-leather maker does not want a hard, firm leather, but a soft and pliable product; hence he leaches his material fresh, and does not trouble as to whether the tannin deposits in the pits or not . Whether fresh or partially spent material is leached, the process is carried out in the same way . There are several methods in See also:

• VOGUE, EUGENE MELCHIOR, COMTE DE (1848- )

vogue; the best method only will be described, viz. the " See also:

• PRESS (through Fr. presse from Lat. pressare, frequentative of premere, to crush, squeeze, press)

press leach " See also:

• SYSTEM

system . The leaching is carried out in a series of six square pits, each holding about 3 to 4 tons of material . The method depends upon the fact that when a weak liquor is forced over a stronger one they do not mix, by reason of the higher specific gravity of the stronger one; the weaker liquor, therefore, by its weight forces the stronger liquor downwards, and as the See also:

• PIT (O. E. pytt, cognate with Du. put, Ger. Pfutze, &c., all ultimately adaptations of Lat. puteus, well, formed from root pu-, to cleanse, whence gurus, clean, pure)

pit in which it is contained is fitted with a false bottom and side duct See also:

• RUNNING

running over- into the next pit, the stronger liquor is forced upwards through this duct on to the next stronger pit .

There the process is repeated, until finally the weak liquor or water, as the See also:

• CASE
• CASE, JOHN (d. 1600)

case may be, is run off the last vat as a very strong infusion . As a See also:

• CONCRETE
• CONCRETE (Lat. concretes, participle of concrescere, to grow together)

concrete example let us take the six pits shown in the figure . 3 2 I No . 6 is the last vat, and the liquor, which is very strong, is about to be run off . No . I is spent material, over which all six liquors have passed, the present liquor having been pumped on as fresh water . The liquor from No . 6 is run off into the See also:

• PUMP

pump well, and liquor No . 1 is pumped over No . 2, thus forcing all liquors one forward and leaving pit No . I empty; this pit is now cast and filled with clean fishings and perhaps a little new material, clean water is then pumped on No . 2, which is now the weakest pit, and all liquors are thus forced forward one pit more, making No. the strongest pit .

After infusing for some time this is run off to the pump well, and the process repeated . It may be noted that the hotter the water is pumped on the weakest pit, the better will the material be spent, and the nearer the water is to boiling-point the better; in fact, a well-managed tanyard should have the spent tan down to between I % and 2 % of tannin, although this material is frequently thrown away containing up to to% and sometimes even more . There is a great saving of time and labour in this method, since the liquors are self-adjusting . Testing Tan Liquors.— T he methods by which the tanning value of any substance may be determined are many, but few are at once capable of See also:

• SIMPLE