See also:

• LEBANON
• LEBANON (from Semitic laban, " to be white," or " whitish," probably referring not to snow, but to the bare white walls ofchalk or limestone which form the characteristic feature of the whole range)

LEBANON (from Semitic laban, " to be See also:

• WHITE
• WHITE, ANDREW DICKSON (1832– )
• WHITE, GILBERT (1720–1793)
• WHITE, HENRY KIRKE (1785-1806)
• WHITE, HUGH LAWSON (1773-1840)
• WHITE, JOSEPH BLANCO (1775-1841)
• WHITE, RICHARD GRANT (1822-1885)
• WHITE, ROBERT (1645-1704)
• WHITE, SIR GEORGE STUART (1835– )
• WHITE, SIR THOMAS (1492-1567)
• WHITE, SIR WILLIAM ARTHUR (1824--1891)
• WHITE, SIR WILLIAM HENRY (1845– )
• WHITE, THOMAS (1628-1698)
• WHITE, THOMAS (c. 1550-1624)

white," or " whitish," probably referring not to See also:

• SNOW (in O. Eng. sndw; a common Indo-European word; cf. in Teutonic languages, Ger. Schnee, Du. sneeuw; in Slavonic snieg', Lith. snegas; Gr. vi4a, Lat. nix, nivis, whence the Romanic forms, Ital. neve, Fr. neige, &c.; Ir. and Gael. sneachd; the original

snow, but to the See also:

• BARE

bare white walls ofchalk or See also:

• LIMESTONE

limestone which See also:

• FORM (Lat. forma)

form the characteristic feature of the whole range)  , in its widest sense is the central See also:

• MOUNTAIN (0. Fr. montaigne; popular Lat. montanea, an adjectival form from the classical mons, montis, whence Eng. " mount," a form usually used along with the name of an individual mountain, e.g. Mt Everest)
• MOUNTAIN, THE (La Montagne)

mountain masts of See also:

• SYRIA

Syria, extending for about See also:

• LOO (formerly called " Lanterloo," Fr. lanturlu, the refrain of a popular 17th-century song)

loo m. from N.N.E. to S.S.W . It is bounded W. by the See also:

• SEA (in O. Eng. sae, a common Teutonic word; cf. Ger. See, Dutch Zee, &c.; the ultimate source is uncertain)
• SEA, COMMAND OF THE

sea, N. by the See also:

• PLAIN (O. Fr. plain, from Lat. plenum)

plain Jun Akkar, beyond which rise the mountains of the Ansarieh, and E. by the inland See also:

• PLATEAU (a French term, older platel, for a flat piece of wood, metal, &c., from plat, flat)
• PLATEAU, JOSEPH ANTOINE FERDINAND (1801-1883)

plateau of Syria, mainly See also:

• STEPPE (from the Russ. stepi, a waste)

steppe-See also:

• LAND

land . To the See also:

• SOUTH
• SOUTH, ROBERT (1634–1716)

south See also:

• LEBANON
• LEBANON (from Semitic laban, " to be white," or " whitish," probably referring not to snow, but to the bare white walls ofchalk or limestone which form the characteristic feature of the whole range)

Lebanon ends about the point where the See also:

• RIVER

river See also:

• LITANY

Litany bends westward„ and at Banias . A valley narrowing towards its See also:

• SOUTHERN

southern and, and now called the Buka'a, divides the mountainous See also:

• MASS (O.E. maesse; Fr. messe; Ger. Messe; Ital. messa; from eccl. Lat. missa)
• MASS, IN

mass into two See also:

• GREAT

great parts . That lying to the See also:

• WEST
• WEST, BENJAMIN (1738-1820)
• WEST, NICHOLAS (1461-1533)

west is still called See also:

• JEBEL (plur. jibed)

Jebel Libnan; the greater See also:

• PART

part of the eastern mass now bears the name of the Eastern Mountain (Jebel el-Sharki) . In See also:

• GREEK
• GREEK, ETRUSCAN AND

Greek the western range was called Libanos, the eastern Antilibanos . The southern See also:

• EXTENSION (Lat. ex, out ; tendere, to stretch)

extension of the latter, See also:

• MOUNT, WILLIAM SIDNEY (1807-1868)

Mount See also:

• HERMON

Hermon (q.v.), may in many respects be treated as a See also:

• SEPARATE

separate mountain . Lebanon and See also:

• ANTI, or CAMPA

Anti-Lebanon have many features in See also:

• COMMON

common; in both the southern portion is less arid and barren than the See also:

• NORTHERN

northern, the western valleys better wooded and more fertile than the eastern . In See also:

• GENERAL
• GENERAL (Lat. generalis, of or relating to a genus, kind or class)

general the See also:

• MAIN (from the Aryan root which appears in " may " and " might," and Lat. magnus, great)
• MAIN (Lat. Moenus)

main elevations of the two ranges See also:

• FORM (Lat. forma)

form pairs lying opposite one another; the forms of both ranges are monotonous, but the colouring is splendid, especially when viewed from a distance; when seen See also:

• CLOSE
• CLOSE (from Lat. clausum, shut)
• CLOSE, MAXWELL HENRY (1822-1903)

close at See also:

• HAND
• HAND (a word common to Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Hand, Goth. handus)
• HAND, FERDINAND GOTTHELF (1786-185r)

hand only a few valleys with perennial streams offer pictures of landscape beauty, their See also:

• RICH, BARNABE (c. 1540-1617)
• RICH, CLAUDIUS JAMES (1787-1821)
• RICH, JOHN (1692-1761)
• RICH, PENELOPE, LADY (c. 1562–1607)
• RICH, RICHARD, 1ST BARON RICH (1490?-1567)

rich See also:

• GREEN, A
• GREEN, ALEXANDER HENRY (1832—1896)
• GREEN, DUFF (1791—1875)
• GREEN, JOHN RICHARD (1837—1883)
• GREEN, MATTHEW (1696-1737)
• GREEN, THOMAS HILL (1836-1882)
• GREEN, VALENTINE (1739–1813)
• GREEN, WILLIAM HENRY (.1825–1900)

green contrasting pleasantly with the See also:

• BARE

bare See also:

• BROWN
• BROWN, CHARLES BROCKDEN (1771-181o)
• BROWN, FORD MADOX (1821-1893)
• BROWN, FRANCIS (1849- )
• BROWN, GEORGE (1818-188o)
• BROWN, HENRY KIRKE (1814-1886)
• BROWN, JACOB (1775–1828)
• BROWN, JOHN (1715–1766)
• BROWN, JOHN (1722-1787)
• BROWN, JOHN (1735–1788)
• BROWN, JOHN (1784–1858)
• BROWN, JOHN (1800-1859)
• BROWN, JOHN (1810—1882)
• BROWN, JOHN GEORGE (1831— )
• BROWN, ROBERT (1773-1858)
• BROWN, SAMUEL MORISON (1817—1856)
• BROWN, SIR GEORGE (1790-1865)
• BROWN, SIR JOHN (1816-1896)
• BROWN, SIR WILLIAM, BART
• BROWN, THOMAS (1663-1704)
• BROWN, THOMAS (1778-1820)
• BROWN, THOMAS EDWARD (1830-1897)
• BROWN, WILLIAM LAURENCE (1755–1830)

brown and yellow mountain sides . The finest scenery is found in N . Lebanon, in the Maronite districts of Kesrawan and Bsherreh, where the See also:

• GORGES, SIR FERDINANDO (c. 1566-1647)

gorges are veritable canyons, and the villages are often very picturesquely situated . The south of the See also:

• CHAIN (through the O. Fr. citable, chcene, &c., from Lat. catena)

chain is more open and undulating .

Anti-Lebanon is the barest and most inhospitable part of the See also:

• SYSTEM

system . The See also:

• DISTRICT

district west of Lebanon, averaging about 20 m. in breadth, slopes in an intricate See also:

• SERIES (a Latin word from serere, to join)

series of plateaus and terraces to the Mediterranean . The See also:

• COAST (from Lat. costa, a rib, side)

coast is for the most part abrupt and rocky, often leaving See also:

• ROOM

room for only a narrow path along the See also:

• SHORE

shore, and when viewed from the sea it does not suggest the extent of See also:

• COUNTRY (from the Mid. Eng. contre or contrie, and O. Fr. cuntree; Late Lat. contrata, showing the derivation from contra, opposite, over against, thus the tract of land which fronts the sight, cf. Ger. Gegend, neighbourhood)

country lying between its cliffs and the lofty summits behind . Most of the mountain spurs run from See also:

• EAST
• EAST, ALFRED (1849- )

east to west, but in northern Lebanon the prevailing direction of the valleys is See also:

• NORTH
• NORTH, BARONS
• NORTH, MARIANNE (1830—1890)
• NORTH, ROGER (1653-1734)
• NORTH, SIR THOMAS (1535?-16o1?)

north-See also:

• WESTERLY

westerly, and in the south some ridges run parallel with the See also:

• PRINCIPAL

principal chain . The valleys have for the most part been deeply excavated by mountain streams; the apparently inaccessible heights are crowned by numerous villages, castles or cloisters embosomed among trees . The See also:

• CHIEF (from Fr. chef, head, Lat. caput)

chief perennial streams, beginning from the north, are the Nahr Akkar, N . Arka, N. el-Barid, N . Kadisha, " the See also:

• HOLY

holy river " (the valley of which begins in the immediate neighbourhood of the highest summits, and rapidly descends in a series of great bends till the river reaches the sea at See also:

• TRIPOLI
• TRIPOLI (Tarabulus el-Gharb, i.e. Tripoli of the West)
• TRIPOLI, or TARABULUS (anc. Tripolis)

Tripoli), See also:

• WADI

Wadi el-Joz (falling into the sea at Batrun), Wadi Fidar, Nahr See also:

• IBRAHIM

Ibrahim (the See also:

• ANCIENT
• ANCIENT (also spelt ANTIENT; derived, through the Fr. ancien, old, from the late Lat. antianum, from ante, before)

ancient See also:

• ADONIS

Adonis, having its source in a See also:

• RECESS (Lat. recessus, a going back, withdrawal, from recedere, to withdraw)

recess of the great mountain See also:

• AMPHITHEATRE (Gr. 441, around, and O&arpov, a place for spectators)

amphitheatre where the famous See also:

• SANCTUARY (from the late Lat. sanctuarium, a sacred place)

sanctuary Apheca, the See also:

• MODERN

modern Afka, See also:

• LAY

lay), Nahr el-Kelb (the ancient Lycus), Nahr See also:

• BEIRUT

Beirut (the ancient Magoras, entering the sea at Beirut), Nahr Damur (ancient Tamyras), Nahr el-'Auwali (the ancient Bostrenus, which in the upper part of its course is joined by the Nahr el-Baruk) . The `Auwali and the Nahr el-Zaherani, the only other considerable streams before we reach the Litany, flow north-east to south-west, in consequence of the interposition of a See also:

• RIDGE (a word. common to many Teutonic languages, meaning " back," whether of a man or an animal, cf. German Rucke)
• RIDGE, WILLIAM PETT (1864- )

ridge subordinate and parallel to the central chain . On the north, where the mountain bears the See also:

• SPECIAL

special name of Jebel Akkar, the main ridge of Lebanon rises gradually from the plain . A number of valleys run to the north and north-east, among them that of the Nahr el-Kebir, the Eleutherus of the ancients, which rises in the Jebel el-Abiad on the eastern slope of Lebanon, and afterwards, skirting the district, flows westward to the sea . South of Jebel el-Abiad, beneath the main ridge, which as a See also:

• RULE

rule falls away suddenly towards the east, occur several small elevated terraces having a southward slope; among these are the Wadi en-Nusur (" vale of eagles "), and the See also:

• BASIN, or BASON (the older form bacin is found in many of the Romanic languages, from the Late Lat. baccinus or bacchinus, probably derived from bacca, a bowl)
• BASIN, THOMAS (1412—1491)

basin of the See also:

• LAKE
• LAKE, GERARD LAKE, 1ST VISCOUNT (1744-1808)

lake Yammuna, with its intermittent See also:

• SPRING (from " to spring," " to leap or jump up," " burst out," O. Eng., springau, a common Teut. word, cf. Ger. springer, possibly allied to Gr. QnrFpxecOac, to move rapidly)

spring Neb'a el-Arba'in .

Of the streams which descend into the Buka`a, the Berdani rises in Jebel Sunnin, and enters the plain by a deep and picturesque mountain cleft at Zahleh . The most elevated summits occur in the north, but even these are of very See also:

• GENTLE (through the Fr. gentil, from Lat. gentilis, belonging to the same gens, or family)

gentle gradient . The " See also:

• CEDAR (Lat. cedrus, Gr. iapos)

Cedar See also:

• BLOCK
• BLOCK (from the Fr. bloc, and possibly connected with an Old Ger. Block, obstruction, cf. " baulk ")
• BLOCK, MAURICE (1816–19or)

block " consists of a See also:

• DOUBLE
• DOUBLE (from the Mid. Eng. duble, the form which gives the present pronunciation, through the Old Er. duble, from Lat. duplus, twice as much)

double See also:

• LINE

line of four and three summits respectively, ranged from north to south, with a deviation of about 35 ° . Those to the east are 'Uyun Urghush, Makmal, Muskiyya (or Naha' esh-Shemaila) and See also:

• RAS

Ras Zahr el-Kazib; fronting the sea are Kam Sauda or Timarun, Fumm el-Mizab and Zahr el-Kandil . The height of Zahr el-Kazib, by barometric measurement, is lo,o18 ft.; that of the others dces not reach io,000 ft . South from them is the pass (8351 ft.) which leads from See also:

• BAALBEK
• BAALBEK (anc. Heliopolis)

Baalbek to Tripoli; the great mountain amphitheatre on the west See also:

• SIDE
• SIDE (mod. Eski Adalia)

side of its See also:

• SUMMIT

summit is remarkable . Farther south is a second See also:

• GROUP

group of lofty summits—the See also:

• SNOW (in O. Eng. sndw; a common Indo-European word; cf. in Teutonic languages, Ger. Schnee, Du. sneeuw; in Slavonic snieg', Lith. snegas; Gr. vi4a, Lat. nix, nivis, whence the Romanic forms, Ital. neve, Fr. neige, &c.; Ir. and Gael. sneachd; the original

snow-capped Sunnin. visible from Beirut; its height is 8482 ft . Between this group and the more southerly Jebel Keniseh (about 6700 ft.) lies the pass (4700 ft.) traversed by the See also:

• FRENCH
• FRENCH, DANIEL CHESTER (1850– )
• FRENCH, NICHOLAS (1604-1678)

French See also:

• POST

post road between Beirut and See also:

• DAMASCUS

Damascus . Among the bare summits still farther south are the See also:

• LONG, GEORGE (1800-1879)
• LONG, JOHN DAVIS (1838– )

long ridge of Jebel el-Baruk (about 7000 ft.), the Jebel Niha, with the Tau'amat Niha (about 6100 ft.), near which is a pass to See also:

• SIDON (Phoen. ins, Hebrew 1-rs, Assyr. Sidunnu, Egypt. Diduna)

Sidon, and the Jebel Rihan (about S400 ft.) . The Buka'a, the broad valley which separates Lebanon from Anti-Lebanon, is watered by two See also:

• RIVERS
• RIVERS, ANTHONY WOODVILLE, or WYDEVILLE, 2ND EARL (c. 1442—1483)
• RIVERS, EARL
• RIVERS, RICHARD SAVAGE, 4TH EARL (c. 1660—1712)

rivers having their See also:

• WATERSHED

watershed near Baalbek, at an See also:

• ELEVATION

elevation of about 3600 ft., and separated only by a See also:

• SHORT, FRANCIS JOB (1857– )

short mile at their See also:

• SOURCES

sources . That flowing northwards, El-'Asi, is the ancient See also:

• ORONTES

Orontes (q.v.) ; the other is the Litany . In the See also:

• LOWER

lower part of its course the latter has scooped out a deep and narrow rocky See also:

• BED
• BED (a common Teutonic word, cf. German Bett, probably connected with the Indo-European root bhodh, seen in the Lat. fodere, to dig; so " a dug-out place " for safe resting, or in the same sense as a garden " bed ")

bed; at Burghuz it is spanned by a great natural See also:

• BRIDGE

bridge .

Not. far from the point where it suddenly trends to the west he, immediately above the romantic valley, at an elevation of 1500 ft., the imposing ruins of the old See also:

• CASTLE
• CASTLE (Lat. castellum, a fort, diminutive of castra, a camp; Fr. chateau and chdtel)

castle Kal'at esh-Shakif, near one of the passes to Sidon . In its lower part the Litany bears the name of Nahr el-Kasimiya . Neither the Orontes nor the Litany has any important affluent . The Buka'a used to be known as Coelesyria (See also:

• STRABO (born c. 63 n.c.)

Strabo. xvi . 2, 21) ; but that word as employed by the ancients had a much more extensive application . At See also:

• PRESENT

present its full name is Buka'a el-'Aziz (the dear Buka'a), and its northern portion is known as Sahlet Ba'albek (the plain of Baalbek) . The valley is from 4 to 6 m. broad, with an undulating See also:

• SURFACE

surface . The Anti-Lebanon chain has been less fully explored than that of Lebanon . Apart from its southern offshoots it is 67 m. long, while its width varies from 16 to 132 m . It rises from the plain of Hasya-See also:

• HOMS

Homs, and in its northern portion is very arid . The range has not so many offshoots as occur on the west side of Lebanon; under its precipitous slopes stretch table-lands and broad plateaus, which, especially on the east side looking towards the steppe, steadily increase in width . Along the western side of northern Anti-Lebanon stretches the Khasha'a, a rough red region lined with See also:

• JUNIPER

juniper trees, a See also:

• SUCCESSION (Lat. successio, from succedere, to follow after)

succession of the hardest See also:

• LIMESTONE

limestone crests and ridges, bristling with bare See also:

• ROCK
• ROCK (O.Fr. rake, Sp. rota, Ital. rocca; possibly from a Lat. form rupica, from rupes, rock)
• ROCK, DANIEL (1799–187t)

rock and See also:

• CRAG (a Celtic word, cf. Gael. creag, Manx creg, and Welsh and modern Scots craig)

crag that shelter tufts of vegetation, and are divided by a succession of grassy ravines .

On the eastern side the parallel valley of 'Asal el-See also:

• WARD
• WARD, ADOLPHUS WILLIAM (1837- )
• WARD, ARTEMUS
• WARD, EDWARD MATTHEW (1816-1879)
• WARD, ELIZABETH STUART PHELPS (1844-1911)
• WARD, JAMES (1769--1859)
• WARD, JAMES (1843– )
• WARD, JOHN QUINCY ADAMS (1830-1910)
• WARD, LESTER FRANK (1841– )
• WARD, MARY AUGUSTA [MRS HUMPHRY WARD]
• WARD, WILLIAM (1766-1826)
• WARD, WILLIAM GEORGE (1812-1882)

Ward deserves special mention the descent towards the plain eastwards, as seen for example at Ma'lula, is singular—first a spacious amphitheatre and then two deep very narrow gorges . Few perennial streams take their rise in Anti-Lebanon; one of the finest and best watered valleys is that of Helbun, the ancient Chalybon, the Helbon of Ezek. See also:

• XXVII

xxvii . 18 . The highest points of the range, reckoning from the north, are Halimat el-Kabu (8257 ft.), which has a splendid view; the Fatli block, including Tal'at Musa (8721 ft.) and the adjoining Jebel Nebi Baruh (7900 ft.); and a third group near Bludan, In which the most prominent names are Shakif, Akhyar and See also:

• ABU

Abu'1-Hin (8330 ft.) . Of the valleys descending westward the first to claim mention is the Wadi Yafufa; a little farther south, lying north and south, is the rich upland valley of Zebedani, where the Barada has its highest sources . Pursuing an easterly course, this stream receives the See also:

• WATERS, TERRITORIAL

waters of the romantic 'See also:

• AIN

Ain Fije (which doubles its See also:

• VOLUME

volume), and bursts out by a rocky gateway upon the plain of Damascus, in the See also:

• IRRIGATION (Lat. in, and rigare, to water or wet)

irrigation of which it is the chief See also:

• AGENT (from Lat. agere, to act)

agent . It is the See also:

• ABANA (or AMANAH, classical Chrysorrhoas)

Abana of 2 See also:

• KINGS, FIRST AND SECOND BOOKS OF

Kings v . 12; the portion of Anti-Lebanon traversed by it was also called by the same name (See also:

• CANTICLES

Canticles iv . 8) . From the point where the southerly continuation of Anti-Lebanon begins to take a more westerly direction, a See also:

• LOW, SETH (1850- )
• LOW, WILL HICOK (1853- )

low ridge shoots out towards the south-west, trending farther and farther away from the eastern chain and narrowing the Buka'a; upon the eastern side of this ridge lies the elevated valley or hilly stretch known as Wadi et-Teim . In the north, beside 'Ain Faluj, it is connected by .a low watershed with the Buka'a; from the See also:

• GORGE

gorge of the Litany it is separated by the ridge of Jebel See also:

• EEL

eel-Dahr . At its southern end it contracts and merges into the plain of Banias, thus enclosing Mount Hermon on its north-west and west sides; eastward from the Hasbany See also:

• BRANCH (from the Fr. branche, late Lat. branca, an animal's paw)

branch of the See also:

• JORDAN (the down-comer; Arab. esh-Sheri'a, the watering-place)
• JORDAN, CAMILLE (1771—1821)
• JORDAN, DOROTHEA (1762—1816)
• JORDAN, THOMAS (1612 ?–1685)
• JORDAN, WILHELM (1819–1904)

Jordan lies the meadow-land Merj 'Iyun, the ancient Ijon (1 Kings xv .

20) . Vegetation.—The western slope of Lebanon has the common characteristics of the See also:

• FLORA

flora of the Mediterranean coast, but the Anti-Lebanon belongs to the poorer region of the See also:

• STEPPES

steppes, and the Mediterranean See also:

• SPECIES

species are met with only sporadically along the See also:

• WATER

water-courses . See also:

• FOREST

Forest and pasture land do not properly exist: the See also:

• PLACE (through Fr. from Lat. platea, street; Gr. IrAar6s, wide)

place of the first is for the most part taken by a low brushwood; grass is not plentiful, and the higher ridges maintain alpine See also:

• PLANTS

plants only so long as patches of snow continue to See also:

• LIE, JONAS LAURITZ EDEMIL (1833—1908)
• LIE, MARIUS SOPHUS (1842–1899)

lie . The rock walls See also:

• HARBOUR (from M.E. hereberge, here, an army; cf. Ger. Heer and -beorg, protection or shelter. Other early forms in English were herberwe and haiborow, as seen in various place names, such as Market Harborough.. The French auberge, an inn, derived through

harbour some rock plants, but many absolutely barren wildernesses of See also:

• STONE
• STONE (0. Eng. shin; the word is common to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Stein, Du. steen, Dan. and Swed. sten; the root is also seen in Gr. aria, pebble)
• STONE, CHARLES POMEROY (1824-1887)
• STONE, EDWARD JAMES (1831-1897)
• STONE, FRANK (1800-1859)
• STONE, GEORGE (1708—1764)
• STONE, LUCY [BLACKWELL] (1818-1893)
• STONE, MARCUS (184o— )
• STONE, NICHOLAS (1586-1647)

stone occur . (1) On the western slope, to a height of 1600 ft., is the coast region, similar to that of Syria in general and of the south of See also:

• ASIA

Asia See also:

• MINOR
• MINOR (Lat. for smaller, lesser)
• MINOR, ROBERT CRANNELL (1839-1904)

Minor . Characteristic trees are the See also:

• LOCUST

locust See also:

• TREE (0. Eng. treo, treow, cf. Dan. tree, Swed. Odd, tree, trd, timber; allied forms are found in Russ. drevo, Gr. opus, oak, and 36pv, spear, Welsh derw, Irish darog, oak, and Skr. dare, wood)
• TREE, SIR HERBERT BEERBOHM (1853- )

tree and the stone See also:

• PINE (Lat. Pinus, Gr. srlrur)

pine; in Melia Azedarach and Ficus Sycomorus (Beirut) is an admixture of See also:

• FOREIGN

foreign and partially subtropical elements . The great mass of the vegetation, however is of the low-growing type (maquis or garrigue of the western Mediterranean), with small and stiff leaves, and frequently thorny and aromatic, as for example the ilex (Quercus coccifera), Smilax, Cistus, Lentiscus, Calycotome, &c . (2) Next comes, from 1600 to 6500 ft., the mountain region, which may also be called the forest region, still exhibiting sparse woodsand isolated trees wherever shelter, moisture and the inhabitants have permitted their growth . From i600 to 3200 ft. is a See also:

• ZONE (Gr. 'WV77, a girdle, from 'wvvLvay to gird)

zone of See also:

• DWARF (A.S. dweorg, D. dwerg, Icel. dvergr)

dwarf hard-leaved oaks, amongst which occur the See also:

• ORIENTAL

Oriental forms Fonlanesia phillyraeoides, Acer syriacum and the beautiful red-stemmed Arbutus Andrachne . Higher up, between 3700 and 4200 ft., a tall pine, Pinus Brutia, is characteristic . Between 4200 and 6200 ft. is the region of the two most interesting forest trees of Lebanon, the See also:

• CYPRESS (Cupressus)

cypress and the cedar . The former still grows thickly, especially in the valley of the Kadisha; the See also:

• HORIZONTAL

horizontal is the prevailing variety .

In the upper Kadisha valley there is a cedar See also:

• GROVE (O.E. graf, cf. O.E. gr(efa, brushwood, later" greave "; the word does not appear in any other Teutonic language, and the New English Dictionary finds no Indo-European root to which it can be referred; Skeat considers it connected with " grave," to
• GROVE, SIR GEORGE (182o-1900)
• GROVE, SIR WILLIAM ROBERT (1811-1896)

grove of about three See also:

• HUNDRED

hundred trees, amongst which five are of gigantic See also:

• SIZE

size . (See also CEDAR.) The cypress and cedar zone exhibits a variety of other See also:

• LEAF (O. Eng. leaf, cf. Dutch loof, Ger. Laub, Swed. lof, &c.; possibly to be referred to the root seen in Gr. Ma-eta, to peel, strip)

leaf-bearing and coniferous trees; of the first may be mentioned several oaks—Quercus subalpina (Kotschy), Q . Cerris and the See also:

• HOP (Ger. Hopfen, Fr. houblon)

hop-See also:

• HORNBEAM (Carpinus betulus)

hornbeam (Ostrya) ; of the second class the rare Cilician See also:

• SILVER

silver See also:

• FIR

fir (Abies cilicica) may be noticed . Next come the junipers, sometimes attaining the size of trees (Juniperus excelsa, J. rufescens and, with See also:

• FRUIT (through the French from the Lat. fructus; frui, to enjoy)

fruit as large as plums, J. drupacea) . But the chief See also:

• ORNAMENT (Lat. ornare, to adorn)

ornament of Lebanon is the See also:

• RHODODENDRON

Rhododendron ponticum, with its brilliant See also:

• PURPLE

purple See also:

• FLOWER (Lat. flos, floris; Fr. fleur)
• FLOWER, SIB

flower clusters; a See also:

• PECULIAR

peculiar See also:

• EVERGREEN

evergreen, Vinca libanotica, also adds beauty to this zone . (3) Into the alpine region (6200 to 10,400 ft.) penetrate a few very stunted oaks (Quercus subalpina), the junipers already mentioned and a See also:

• BARBERRY (Berberis vulgaris)

barberry (Berberis cretica), which sometimes spreads into close thickets . Then follow the low, dense, prone, See also:

• PILLOW (O. Eng. pylu; Lat. pulvinus, a cushion)

pillow-like dwarf bushes, thorny and See also:

• GREY, CHARLES GREY, 2ND EARL (1764-1845)
• GREY, HENRY GREY, 3RD EARL (1802-1894)
• GREY, LADY JANE (1537-1554)
• GREY, SIR EDWARD
• GREY, SIR GEORGE (1812–1898)

grey, common to the Oriental See also:

• HIGHLANDS, THE

highlands—Astragalus and the peculiar Acantholimon . They are found to within 300 ft. of the highest summits . Upon the exposed mountain slopes a species of See also:

• RHUBARB

rhubarb (Rheum Ribes) is noticeable, and also a See also:

• VETCH

vetch (Vicia canescens) excellent for See also:

• SHEEP
• SHEEP (from the Anglo-Saxon sceap, a word common in various forms to Teutonic languages; e.g. the German Schaf)

sheep . The spring vegetation, which lasts until See also:

• JULY

July, appears to be rich, especially as regards showy plants, such as Corydalis, Gagea, See also:

• COLCHICUM

Colchicum, Puschkinia, See also:

• GERANIUM

Geranium, Ornithogalurn, &c . The flora of the highest ridges, along the edges of the snow patches, exhibits no forms related to the northern alpine flora, but suggestions of it are found in a Draba, an Androsace, an Alsine and a See also:

• VIOLET

violet, occurring, however, only in See also:

• LOCAL

local species . Upon the highest summits are found Saponaria Pumilio (resembling our Silene acaulis) and varieties of Galium, See also:

• EUPHORBIA

Euphorbia, Astragalus, See also:

• VERONICA, ST

Veronica, Jurinea, Festuca, Scrophularia, Geranium, Asphodeline, See also:

• ALLIUM (Lat. for " garlic ")

Allium, Asperula; and, on the margins of the snow See also:

• FIELDS, JAMES THOMAS (1817-1881)

fields, a See also:

• TARAXACUM

Taraxacum and See also:

• RANUNCULUS

Ranunculus demissus .

The alpine flora of Lebanon thus connects itself directly with the Oriental flora of lower altitudes, and is unrelated to the glacial flora of See also:

• EUROPE

Europe and northern Asia . See also:

• ZOOLOGY (from Gr. Nov, a living thing, and ?byos, theory)

Zoology.—There is nothing of special See also:

• INTEREST

interest about the See also:

• FAUNA

fauna of Lebanon . Bears are no longer numerous; the See also:

• PANTHER

panther and the See also:

• OUNCE

ounce are met with; the See also:

• WILD, JONATHAN (c. 1682-1725)

wild hog, hyaena, See also:

• WOLF
• WOLF (Canis lupus)
• WOLF, FRIEDRICH AUGUST (1759-1824)
• WOLF, HUGO (1860-1903)
• WOLF, JOSEPH (1820-1899)

wolf and See also:

• FOX
• FOX, C
• FOX, CHARLES JAMES (1749-1806)
• FOX, EDWARD (c. 1496-1538)
• FOX, GEORGE (1624-1691)
• FOX, RICHARD (c. 1448-1528)
• FOX, ROBERT WERE (1789—1877)
• FOX, SIR STEPHEN (1627–1716)
• FOX, SIR WILLIAM (1812-1893)

fox are by no means rare; jackals and gazelles are very common . The See also:

• POLECAT

polecat and See also:

• HEDGEHOG, or URCHIN

hedgehog also occur . As a rule there are not many birds, but the See also:

• EAGLE (Fr. aigle, from the Lat. aquila)

eagle and the See also:

• VULTURE

vulture may occasionally be seen; of eatable kinds partridges and wild pigeons are the most abundant . See also:

• POPULATION (Lat. populus, people; populare, to populate)

Population.--In the following sections the Lebanon proper will alone be considered, without reference to Anti-Lebanon, because the peculiar See also:

• POLITICAL

political status of the former range since 1364 has effectually differentiated it; whereas the Anti-Lebanon still forms an integral part of the See also:

• OTTOMAN

Ottoman See also:

• PROVINCE
• PROVINCE (Lat. provincia; perhaps a contraction of providentia)

province of Syria (q.v.), and neither its population nor its See also:

• HISTORY

history is readily distinguishable from those of the surrounding districts . . The See also:

• TOTAL

total population in the Lebanon proper is about 400,000, and is increasing faster than the development of the province will admit . There is consequently much See also:

• EMIGRATION (from Lat. emigrare; e, ex, out of, and migrare, to depart)

emigration, the See also:

• CHRISTIAN
• CHRISTIAN, WILLIAM (1608-1663)

Christian surplus going mainly to See also:

• EGYPT

Egypt, and to See also:

• AMERICA

America, the See also:

• DRUSES
• DRUSES, or DRUZES (Arab. Druz)

Druses to the latter country and to the Hauran . The emigrants to America, however, usually return after making See also:

• MONEY

money, build new houses and See also:

• SETTLE
• SETTLE, ELKANAH (1648–1724)

settle down . The singularly complex population is composed of Christians, See also:

• MARONITES (Arab. Mawarina)

Maronites, and Orthodox Eastern and Uniate; of Moslems, both Sunni and Shiah (Metawali); and of Druses . (a) Maronites (q.v.) form about three-fifths of the whole and have the north of the Mountain almost to themselves, while even in the south, the old Druse stronghold, they are now numerous . See also:

• FEUDALISM
• FEUDALISM (from Late Lat. feodum or feudum, a fee or fiel; see FEE)

Feudalism is practically See also:

• EXTINCT

extinct among them and with the decline of the Druses, and the great stake they have acquired in See also:

• AGRICULTURE
• AGRICULTURE (from Lat. ages, field, and colere, to cultivate)
• AGRICULTURE, BOARD OF

agriculture, they have laid aside much of their warlike See also:

• HABIT (through the French from Lat. habitus, from habere, to have, hold, or, in a reflective sense, to be in a certain condition; in many of the English senses the French use habitude, not habit)

habit together with their arms .

Even their See also:

• INSTINCT

instinct of See also:

• NATIONALITY

nationality is being sensibly impaired by their See also:

• GRADUAL (Med. Lat. gradualis, of or belonging to steps or degrees; gradus, step)

gradual assimilation to the Papal See also:

• CHURCH
• CHURCH (according to most authorities derived from the Gr. Kvpcaxov [&wµa], " the Lord's [house]," and common to many Teutonic, Slavonic and other languages under various forms—Scottish kirk, Ger. Kirche, Swed. kirka, Dan. kirke, Russ. tserkov, Buig. cerk
• CHURCH, FREDERICK EDWIN (1826-1900)
• CHURCH, GEORGE EARL (1835–1910)
• CHURCH, RICHARD WILLIAM (1815–189o)
• CHURCH, SIR RICHARD (1784–1873)

Church, whose agents exercise from Beirut an increasing See also:

• INFLUENCE (Late Lat. influentia, from influere, to flow in)

influence on their ecclesiastical elections and church See also:

• GOVERNMENT
• GOVERNMENT (0. Fr. governement, mod. gouvernement, O. Fr. governer, mod. gouverner, from Lat. gubernare, to steer a ship, guide, rule; cf. Gr. xv(3epvav)

government . They are strong also in the Buka'a, and have colonies in most of the Syrian cities . (b) Orthodox Eastern form a little more than one-eighth of the whole, and are strongest in S . Lebanon (Metn and Kurah districts) . Syrians by See also:

• RACE

race and Arab-speaking, they are descendants of those " Melkites " who took the side of the See also:

• BYZANTINE

Byzantine church in the See also:

• TIME (0. Eng. Lima, cf. Icel. timi, Swed. timme, hour, Dan. time; from the root also seen in " tide," properly the time of between the flow and ebb of the sea, cf. O. Eng. getidan, to happen, " even-tide," &c.; it is not directly related to Lat. tempus)
• TIME, MEASUREMENT OF
• TIME, STANDARD

time of Justinian II. against the Moslems and eventually the Maronites . They are among the most progressive of the Lebanon elements . (c) Greek Uniate are less numerous, forming little more than one-twelfth, but are equally progressive . Their headquarters is Zahleh; but they are found also in strength in Metn and Jezzin, where they help to counterbalance Druses . They sympathize with the baronites against the Orthodox Eastern, and, like both, are of Syrian race, and Arab speech . (d) Sunnite Moslems are a weak See also:

• ELEMENT (Lat. elementum)

element, strongest in Shuf and Kurah, and composed largely of Druse renegades and " Druse " families, which, like the Shehab, were of Arab extraction and never conformed to the creed of Hamza . (e) Shiite Moslems outnumber the Sunni, and make about one t wenty-fifth of the whole . They are called Metawali and are strongest in North Lebanon (Kesrawan and Batrun), but found also in the south, in Buka'a and in the coast-towns from Beirut to See also:

• ACRE
• ACRE, or AQUIRY

Acre .

They are said to be descendants of See also:

• PERSIAN
• PERSIAN, SYRIAN, EGYPTIAN AND TURKISH

Persian tribes; but the fact is very doubtful, and they may be at least as aboriginal as the Maronites, and a remnant of an old Incarnationist population which did not accept See also:

• CHRISTIANITY

Christianity, and kept its heretical See also:

• ISLAM

Islam See also:

• FREE

free from those influences which modified Druse creed . They own a chief See also:

• SHEIKH, or SHAIKH

sheikh, See also:

• RESIDENT

resident at Jeba'a, and have the reputation, like most heretical communities in the Sunni part of the Moslem See also:

• WORLD

world, of being exceedingly fanatical and inhospitable . It is undoubtedly the See also:

• CASE
• CASE, JOHN (d. 1600)

case that they are suspicious of strangers and defiant of interference . Another small See also:

• BODY

body of See also:

• SHIITES (from Arab. shi`a, a party, and then a sect)

Shiites, the Ismailites (Assassins (q.v.) of the crusading See also:

• CHRONICLES, BOOKS OF

chronicles), also said to be of Persian origin, live about Kadmus at the extreme N. of Lebanon, but outside the limits of the privileged province . They are about 9000 strong . (f) Druses (q.v.), now barely an eighth of the whole and confined to Shuf and Metn in S . Lebanon, are tending to emigrate or conform to Sunni Islam . Since the See also:

• ESTABLISHMENT (0. Fr. establissement, Fr. etablissement, late Norm. Fr. establishement, from O. Fr. establir, Fr. etablir, Lat. stabilire, to make stable)

establishment of the privileged province they have lost the Ottoman support which used to compensate for their numerical inferiority as compared with the Christians; and they are fast losing also their old habits and distinctiveness . No longer armed or wearing their former singular See also:

• DRESS (from the Fr. dresser, to set out, arrange, formed from Lat. directus, arranged, dirigere, to direct, arrange)

dress, the remnant of them in Lebanon seems likely ere long to be assimilated to the " Osmanli " Moslems . Their See also:

• FEUD

feud with the Maronites, whose accentuation in the See also:

• MIDDLE

middle of the 19th See also:

• CENTURY (from Lat. centuria, a division of a hundred men)

century was largely due to the tergiversations of the ruling Shehab See also:

• FAMILY

family, now reduced to low See also:

• ESTATE (through O. Fr. estat, mod. flat, from Lat. status, state, condition, position, stare, to stand)

estate, is dying away, but they retain something of their old See also:

• CLAN (Gaelic clann, O. Ir. cland, connected with Lat. planta, shoot or scion, the ancient Gaelic or Goidelic substituting k for p)

clan feeling and feudal organization, especially in Shuf . The mixed population, as a whole, displays the usual characteristics of mountaineers, See also:

• FINE

fine physique and vigorous See also:

• INDEPENDENT

independent spirit; but its ancient truculence has given way before strong government See also:

• ACTION

action since the middle 19th century, and the great increase of agricultural pursuits, to which the purely See also:

• PASTORAL (from Lat. pastor, a shepherd)

pastoral are now quite secondary . The culture of the mulberry and See also:

• SILK

silk, of See also:

• TOBACCO

tobacco, of the See also:

• OLIVE (Olea europaea)

olive and See also:

• VINE

vine, of many kinds of fruits and cereals, has See also:

• EXPANDED

expanded enormously, and the Lebanon is now probably the most productive region in See also:

• ASIATIC

Asiatic See also:

• TURKEY

Turkey in proportion to its See also:

• AREA

area .

It exports largely through Beirut and Saida, using. both the French railway which crosses S . Lebanon on its way to Damascus, and the excellent roads and See also:

• MULE (Lat. mulus)

mule-paths made since 1883 . Lebanon has thick deposits of See also:

• LIGNITE (Lat. lignum, wood)

lignite See also:

• COAL

coal, but of inferior quality owing to the presence of See also:

• IRON [symbol Fe, atomic weight 55.85 (0=16)]

iron See also:

• PYRITES

pyrites . The abundant iron is little worked . Manufactures are of small See also:

• ACCOUNT
• ACCOUNT (through O. Fr. acont, Late Lat. comptum, cornputare, to calculate)

account, the raw material going mostly to the coast ; but olive-oil is made, together with various wines, of which the most famous is the vino d'oro, a sweet liqueur-like beverage . This See also:

• WINE (Lat. vinum, Gr. oivos)

wine is not exported in any quantity, as it will not See also:

• BEAR
• BEAR, BLACK
• BEAR, BROWN
• BEAR, GRIZZLY
• BEAR, ISABELLINE
• BEAR, WHITE

bear a voyage well and is not made to keep . See also:

• BEE (Sanskrit blza, AS. ben, Lat. apis)

Bee-keeping is general, and there is an export of eggs to Egypt . History.—The inhabitants of Lebanon have at no time played a conspicuous part in history . There are remains of prehistoric occupation, but we do not even know what races dwelt there in the See also:

• HISTORICAL

historical See also:

• PERIOD
• PERIOD (Gr. irepioSos, a going or way round, circuit, aepi, round, and &Sis, way, road)

period of antiquity . Probably they belonged chiefly to the Aramaean group of nationalities; the See also:

• BIBLE
• BIBLE, ENGLISH

Bible mentions See also:

• HIVITES

Hivites (See also:

• JUDGES, THE BOOK OF

Judges iii . 3) and Giblites (See also:

• JOSHUA, BOOK OF

Joshua xiii . 5); Lebanon was included within the ideal boundaries of the land of See also:

• ISRAEL (Hebrew for " God strives " or " rules "; see Gen. xxxii. 28; and the allusion in Hosea xii. 4)

Israel, and the whole region was well known to the See also:

• HEBREWS, EPISTLE TO THE

Hebrews, by whose poets its many excellences are often praised .

How far the Phoenicians had any effective See also:

• CONTROL (Fr. contrdle, older form contre rolle, from Med. Lat. contra-rotulus, a counter roll or copy of a document used to check the original; there is no instance in English of the use of " control " in this, its literal, meaning)

control over it is unknown; the See also:

• ABSENCE (Lat. absentia)

absence of their monuments does not argue much real See also:

• JURISDICTION
• JURISDICTION, CRIMINAL LAW, DIVORCE

jurisdiction . Nor apparently did the Greek Seleucid See also:

• KINGDOM

kingdom have much to do with the Mountain . In the See also:

• ROMAN

Roman period the district of Phoenice extended to Lebanon . In the 2nd century, with the inland districts, it constituted a subdivision of the province of Syria, having Emesa (Homs)for its See also:

• CAPITAL (i.e. capital stock or fund)
• CAPITAL (Lat. caput, head)

capital . From the time of See also:

• DIOCLETIAN (GAIUs AURELIUS VALERIUS DIOCLETIANUS) (A.D. 245–313)
• DIOCLETIAN, EDICT OF (De Pretiis rerum venalium)

Diocletian there was a Phoenice ad Libanum, with Emesa as capital, as well as a Phoenice Maritime of which See also:

• TYRE (Phoen. and Hebr. =" rock," Assyr. S'urru, Egypt. Dara, Early Lat. Sarra)

Tyre was the chief See also:

• CITY (through Fr. cite, from Lat. civitas)

city . Remains of the Roman period occur through-out Lebanon . By the 6th century it was evidently virtuallyindependent again; its Christianization had begun with the See also:

• IMMIGRATION (from Lat. in, into, and tnigrare, to depart)

immigration of Monothelite sectaries, flying from persecution in the See also:

• ANTIOCH

Antioch district and Orontes valley . At all times Lebanon has been a place of See also:

• REFUGE

refuge for unpopular See also:

• CREEDS (Lat. credo, I believe), or CONFESSIONS OF FAITH

creeds . Large part of the mountaineers took up Monothelism and initiated the See also:

• NATIONAL

national distinction of the Maronites, which begins to emerge in the history of the 7th century . The sectaries, after helping Justinian II. against the See also:

• CALIPH, CALIF

caliph Abdalmalik, turned on the See also:

• EMPEROR (Fr. empereur, from the Lat. imperator)

emperor and his Orthodox See also:

• ALLIES, THOMAS WILLIAM (1813-1903)

allies, and were named Mardaites (rebels) . Islam now began to penetrate S . Lebanon, chiefly by the immigration of various more or less heretical elements, Kurd, See also:

• TURKOMAN

Turkoman, Persian and especially Arab, the latter largely after the break-up of the kingdom of See also:

• HIRA

Hira; and See also:

• EARLY
• EARLY, JUBAL ANDERSON (1816-1894)

early in the See also:

• FIRTH, CHARLES HARDING (1857– )
• FIRTH, MARK (1819-1880)

firth century these coalesced into a nationality (see DRUSES) under the congenial influence of the Incarnationist creed brought from See also:

• CAIRO
• CAIRO (Arabic Misr-al-Kahira, or simply Misr)

Cairo by Ismael Darazi and other emissaries of the caliph Hakim and his See also:

• VIZIER

vizier Hamza .

The subsequent history of Lebanon to the middle of the 19th century will be found under DRUSES and MARONITES, and it need only be stated here that Latin influence began to be See also:

• FELT (cognate with Ger. Filz, Du. vilt, Swed. and Dan. fill; the root is unknown; the word has given Med. Lat. filtrum, " filter ")

felt in N . Lebanon during the See also:

• FRANK, JAKOB (1726-1791)

Frank period of Antioch and See also:

• PALESTINE

Palestine, the Maronites being inclined to take the part of the crusading princes against the Druses and Moslems; but they were still regarded as heretic See also:

• MONOTHELITES (µovoOe? rai, monothelitae, from Gr. phvos, only, OEXe.v, to will)

Monothelites by Abulfaragius (See also:

• BAR
• BAR (0. Fr. barre, Late Lat. barra, origin unknown)
• BAR, CONFEDERATION OF
• BAR, FRANCOIS DE (1538-1606)
• BAR, THE

Bar-Hebraeus) at the end of the 13th century; nor is their effectual reconciliation to See also:

• ROME
• ROME (Roma)

Rome much older than 1736, the date of the See also:

• MISSION

mission sent by the See also:

• POPE (Gr. irarraas, post-classical Lat. papa, father)
• POPE, ALEXANDER (1688–1744)
• POPE, ALEXANDER (1763-1835)
• POPE, JANE (1742-1818)
• POPE, JOHN (1822-1892)
• POPE, SIR THOMAS (c. 1507-1559)

pope See also:

• CLEMENT (Lat. Clemens, i.e. merciful; Gr. K)4gs)
• CLEMENT, FRANCOIS (1714-1793)
• CLEMENT, JACQUES (1567-1589)

Clement XII., which fixed the actual status of their church . An informal French See also:

• PROTECTION

protection had, however, been exercised over them for some time previously, and with it began the feud of Maronites and Druses, the latter incited and spasmodically supported by Ottoman pashas . The feudal organization of both, the one under the See also:

• HOUSE
• HOUSE (O. Eng. hiss, a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Dut. huis, Ger. Haus; in Gothic it is only found in gudhiss, a temple; it may be ultimately connected with the root of " hide," conceal)

house of Khazin, the other under those of Maan and Shehab successively, was in full force during the 17th and 18th centuries; and it was the break-up of this in the first part of the 19th century which produced the anarchy that culminated after 184o in the See also:

• CIVIL

civil See also:

• WAR
• WAR (O. Eng. werre, Fr. guerre, of Teutonic origin; cf. O.H.G. werran, to confound)

war . The Druses renounced their Shehab amirs when Beshir al-Kassim openly joined the Maronites in 1841, and the Maronites definitely revolted from the Khazin in 1858 . The events of 186o led to the formation of the privileged Lebanon province, finally constituted in 1864 . It should be added, however, that among the Druses of Shuf, feudalism has tended to re-establish itself, and the See also:

• POWER [WILLIAM GRATTAN] TYRONE (1797-1841)

power is now divided between the Jumblat and Yezbeki families, a leading member of one of which is almost always Ottoman kaimakam of the Druses, and locally called emir . The Lebanon has now been constituted a sanjak or mutessariflik, dependent directly on the See also:

• PORTE, THE SUBLIME (Arab. babi-'ali, the high gate, through the French translation la sublime porte)

Porte, which acts in this case in consultation with the six great See also:

• POWERS, HIRAM (1805-1873)

powers . This province extends about 93 m. from N. to S . (from the boundary of the sanjak of Tripoli to that of the caza of Saida), and has a mean breadth of about 28 m. from one See also:

• FOOT

foot of the chain to the other, beginning at the edge of the littoral plain behind Beirut and ending at the W. edge of the Buka'a: but the boundaries are See also:

• ILL

ill-defined, especially on the E. where the See also:

• ORIGINAL

original line See also:

• DRAWN

drawn along the See also:

• CREST
• CREST (Lat. crista, a plume or tuft)

crest of the ridge has not been adhered to, and the mountaineers have encroached on the Buka'a . The Lebanon is under a military See also:

• GOVERNOR (from the Fr. gouverneur, from gouverner, O. Fr. governer, Lat. gubernare, to steer a ship, to direct, guide)

governor (mushir)who must be a Christian in the service of the See also:

• SULTAN (an Arabic word meaning " victorious " or " a ruler," sultat, dominion)

sultan, approved by the powers, and has, so far, been chosen from the Roman Catholics owing to the great preponderance of Latin Christians in the province . He resides at See also:

• DEIR, or DEIR

Deir al-Kamar, an old seat of the Druse amirs .

At first appointed for three years, then for ten, his See also:

• TERM

term has been fixed since 1892 at five years, the longer term having aroused the fear of the Porte, lest a See also:

• PERSONAL

personal domination should become established . Under the governor are seven kaimakams, all Christians except a Druse in Shuf, and See also:

• FORTY

forty-seven mudirs, who all depend on the kaimakams except one in the See also:

• HOME
• HOME, DANIEL DUNGLAS (1833-1886)
• HOME, EARLS OF

home district of Deir al-Kamar . A central mejliss or See also:

• COUNCIL (Lat. concilium, from cum, together, and the root cal, to call)

Council of twelve members is composed of four Maronites, three Druses, one Turk, two Greeks (Orthodox), one See also:

• CREEK
• CREEK (Mid. Eng. crike or creke, common to many N. European languages)

Creek Uniate and one Metawali . This was the original proportion, and it has not been altered in spite of the decline of the Druses and increase of the Maronites . The members are elected by the seven cazas . In each mudirieh there is also a local mejliss . The old feudal and mukataji (see DRUsEs) jurisdictions are abolished, i.e. they often persist under Ottoman forms, and three courts of First Instance, under the mejliss, and See also:

• SUPERIOR

superior to the See also:

• PETTY, SIR WILLIAM (1623-1687)

petty courts of the mudirs and the See also:

• VILLAGE

village sheikhs, administer See also:

• JUSTICE (Lat. justitia)

justice. judges are appointed by the governor, but sheikhs by the villages . Commercial cases, and litigation in which strangers are concerned, are carried to Beirut . The See also:

• POLICE (Fr. police, government, civil administration, a police force, Gr. sroXumeia, constitution, condition of a state, roars, city, state)

police is recruited locally, and no See also:

• REGULAR

regular troops appear in the province except on special requisition . The taxes are collected directly, and must meet the needs of the province, before any sum is remitted to the Imperial See also:

• TREASURY

Treasury . The latter has to make deficits See also:

• GOOD, JOHN MASON (1764-1827)

good . Ecclesiastical jurisdiction is exercised only over the See also:

• CLERGY (M.E. clergie, O. Fr. clergie, from Low Lat. form clericia [Skean, by assimilation with O. Fr. clergie, Fr. clerge,from Low Lat. clericatus)
• CLERGY, BENEFIT OF

clergy, and all rights of See also:

• ASYLUM (from Gr. b.-, privative, arid earl, right'of seizure)
• ASYLUM, RIGHT OF (Fr. droit d'asile; Ger. Asylrecht)

asylum are abolished .

This constitution has worked well on the whole, the onlysserious hitches having been due to the tendency of See also:

• GOVERNORS

governors-general and kaimakams to See also:

• ATTEMPT (Lat. adtemptare, attentare, to try)

attempt to supersede the mejliss by autocratic action, and to impair the freedom of elections . The See also:

• ATTENTION (from Lat. ad-tendo, await, expect; the condition of being " stretched " or " tense ")

attention of the porte was called to these tendencies in 1892 and again in 1902, on the appointments of new governors . Since the last date there has been no complaint . Nothing now remains of the former French pre-dominance in the Lebanon, except a certain influence exerted by the fact that the railway is French, and by the See also:

• PRECEDENCE (from Lat. praecedere, to go before, precede)

precedence in ecclesiastical functions still accorded by the Maronites to See also:

• OFFICIAL (Late Lat. QJicialis, for class. Lat. apparitor, from officium, office, duty)

official representatives of See also:

• FRANCE
• FRANCE, ANATOLE (1844– )

France . In the Lebanon, as in N . See also:

• ALBANIA

Albania, the traditional claim of France to protect Roman Catholics in the Ottoman See also:

• EMPIRE

Empire has been greatly impaired by the non-religious See also:

• CHARACTER (Gr. xapareri7p, from xap&crew, to scratch)

character of the See also:

• REPUBLIC (Lat. respublica, a commonweal or common-wealth)

Republic . Like See also:

• ITALY
• ITALY (Italia)

Italy, she is now regarded by Eastern Catholics with distrust as an enemy of the Holy See also:

• FATHER

Father . See DRUSES . Also V . Cuinet, Syrie, Liban et Palestine (1896); N . See also:

• VERNEY

Verney and G . Dambmann, Puissances etrangeres en Syrie, &c .

(1900) ; G . See also:

• YOUNG
• YOUNG, A
• YOUNG, ARTHUR (1741-1820)
• YOUNG, BRIGHAM (1801-1877)
• YOUNG, CHARLES MAYNE (1777–1856)
• YOUNG, EDWARD (1683–1765)
• YOUNG, JAMES (1811-1883)
• YOUNG, THOMAS (1773-1829)

Young, See also:

• CORPS (pronounced as in French, from which it is taken, being a late spelling of tors, from Lat. corpus, a body; cf. " corpse ")

Corps de See also:

• DROIT (Fr. for " right," from Lat. directus, straight)

droit ottoman, vol. i . (1905) ; G . E . Post, Flora of Syria, &c . (1896); M. von See also:

• OPPENHEIM

Oppenheim, Vom Mittelmeer, &c . (1899) . (A . So.; D . G .