See also:

• LEIBNITZ (LEIBNIZ), GOTTFRIED WILHELM

LEIBNITZ (LEIBNIZ), GOTTFRIED WILHELM  (1646-1716)', See also:

• GERMAN
• GERMAN, DUTCH AND SCANDINAVIAN

German philosopher, mathematician and See also:

• MAN
• MAN, ISLE OF (anc. Mona)

man of affairs, was See also:

• BORN, IGNAZ, EDLER VON (1742–1791)

born on the 1st of See also:

• JULY

July 1646 at See also:

• LEIPZIG

Leipzig, where his See also:

• FATHER

father was See also:

• PROFESSOR (the Latin noun formed from the verb profiteri, to declare publicly, to acknowledge, profess)

professor of moral See also:

• PHILOSOPHY (Gr. gthos, fond of, and vo4 (a, wisdom)

philosophy . Though the name Leibniz, See also:

• LEIBNITZ (LEIBNIZ), GOTTFRIED WILHELM

Leibnitz or Lubeniecz was originally See also:

• SLAVONIC, OLD

Slavonic, his ancestors were German, and for three generations had been in the employment of the Saxon See also:

• GOVERNMENT
• GOVERNMENT (0. Fr. governement, mod. gouvernement, O. Fr. governer, mod. gouverner, from Lat. gubernare, to steer a ship, guide, rule; cf. Gr. xv(3epvav)

government . See also:

• YOUNG
• YOUNG, A
• YOUNG, ARTHUR (1741-1820)
• YOUNG, BRIGHAM (1801-1877)
• YOUNG, CHARLES MAYNE (1777–1856)
• YOUNG, EDWARD (1683–1765)
• YOUNG, JAMES (1811-1883)
• YOUNG, THOMAS (1773-1829)

Young Leibnitz was sent to the See also:

• NICOLAI, CHRISTOPH FRIEDRICH (1733-1811)

Nicolai school at Leipzig, but, from 1652 when his father died, seems to have been for the most See also:

• PART

part his own teacher . From his father he had acquired a love of See also:

• HISTORICAL

historical study . The German books at his command were soon read through, and with the help of two Latin books—the See also:

• THESAURUS (Gr. B17o-avp6s)

Thesaurus Chronologicus of See also:

• CALVISIUS, SETHUS (1556-1615)

Calvisius and an illustrated edition of See also:

• LIVY [Thus L1v1us] (59 B.C.—A.D: 17)

Livy—he learned Latin at the See also:

• AGE (Fr. age, through late Lat. aetaticum, from aetas)

age of eight . His father's library was now thrown open to him, to his See also:

• GREAT

great joy, with the permission, " Tolle, lege." Before he was twelve he could read Latin easily and had begun See also:

• GREEK
• GREEK, ETRUSCAN AND

Greek; he had also remarkable facility in See also:

• WRITING
• WRITING (the verbal noun of " to write," O. Eng. writan, to inscribe)

writing Latin See also:

• VERSE (from Lat. versus, literally a line or furrow drawn by turning the plough, from vertere, and afterwards signifying an arrangement of syllables into feet)

verse . He next turned to the study of See also:

• LOGIC (Xoy1K7, sc. rixvrt, the art of reasoning)

logic, attempting already to reform its doctrines, and zealously See also:

• READING

reading the scholastics and some of the See also:

• PROTESTANT

Protestant theologians . At the age of fifteen, he entered the university of Leipzig as a See also:

• LAW
• LAW (0. Eng. lagu, M. Eng. lawe; from an old Teutonic root lag, " lie," what lies fixed or evenly; cf. Lat. lex, Fr. loi)
• LAW, JOHN (1671—1729)
• LAW, WILLIAM (1686-1761)

law student . His first two years were devoted to philosophy under See also:

• JAKOB, LUDWIG HEINRICH VON (1759—1827)

Jakob See also:

• THOMASIUS, CHRISTIAN (1655-1728)

Thomasius, a Neo-Aristotelian, who is looked upon as having founded the scientific study of the See also:

• HISTORY

history of philosophy in See also:

• GERMANY
• GERMANY (Ger. Deutschland)

Germany . It was at this See also:

• TIME (0. Eng. Lima, cf. Icel. timi, Swed. timme, hour, Dan. time; from the root also seen in " tide," properly the time of between the flow and ebb of the sea, cf. O. Eng. getidan, to happen, " even-tide," &c.; it is not directly related to Lat. tempus)
• TIME, MEASUREMENT OF
• TIME, STANDARD

time probably that he first made acquaintance with the See also:

• MODERN

modern thinkers who had already revolutionized See also:

• SCIENCE (Lat. scientia, from scire; to learn, know)

science and philosophy, See also:

• FRANCIS
• FRANCIS (FRarrcols) OF SALES, ST (1567-1622)
• FRANCIS (Lat. Franciscus, Ital. Francesco, Span. Francisco, Fr. Francois, Ger. Franz)
• FRANCIS, SIR PHILIP (174o-1818)

Francis See also:

• BACON
• BACON (through the O. Fr. bacon, Low Lat. baco, from a Teutonic word cognate with " back," e.g. O. H. Ger. pacho, M. H. Ger. backe, buttock, flitch of bacon)
• BACON, FRANCIS (BARON VERULAM, VISCOUNT ST ALBANS) (1561-1626)
• BACON, JOHN (1740–1799)
• BACON, LEONARD (1802–1881)
• BACON, ROGER (c. 1214-c. 1294)
• BACON, SIR NICHOLAS (1509-1579)

Bacon, See also:

• CARDAN [Ital. CARDANOI, GIROLAMO [GERONYMO or HIERONIMO] (1501-1576)

Cardan and See also:

• CAMPANELLA, TOMMASO (1568-1639)

Campanella, See also:

• KEPLER, JOHANN (1571-1630)

Kepler, Galileo and See also:

• DESCARTES, RENE (1596-1650)

Descartes; and he began to consider the difference between the old and new ways of regarding nature . He resolved to study See also:

• MATHEMATICS (Gr. /saBnµar1Kil, Sc. vOcvn or E7rlQTt'µn; from p iN.La, "learning" or "science ")

mathematics . It was not, how-ever, till the summer of 1663, which he spent at See also:

• JENA

Jena under E .

Weigel, that he obtained the instructions of a mathematician of repute; nor was the deeper study of mathematics entered upon till his visit to See also:

• PARIS
• PARIS (also called ALEXANDROS)
• PARIS, ALEXIS PAULIN (1800-x881)
• PARIS, BRUNO PAULIN GASTON (1839-1903)
• PARIS, FRANCOIS DE (169o-1727)
• PARIS, LOUIS PHILIPPE ALBERT
• PARIS, TREATIES OF (1814-1815)

Paris and acquaintance with See also:

• HUYGENS, CHRISTIAAN (1629-1695)
• HUYGENS, SIR CONSTANTIJN (1596-1687)

Huygens many years later . The next three years he devoted to legal studies, and in 1666 applied for the degree of See also:

• DOCTOR (Lat. for " teacher ")

doctor of law, with a view to obtaining the See also:

• POST

post of See also:

• ASSESSOR (Lat. assessare, assidere, to sit by)

assessor . Being refused on the ground of his youth he See also:

• LEFT

left his native See also:

• TOWN

town for ever . The doctor's degree refused him there was at once (See also:

• NOVEMBER (Lat. novem, nine)

November 5, 1666) conferred on him at See also:

• ALTDORF

Altdorf—the university town of the See also:

• FREE

free See also:

• CITY (through Fr. cite, from Lat. civitas)

city of See also:

• NUREMBERG (Ger. Nurnberg)

Nuremberg—where his brilliant dissertation procured him the immediate offer of a professor's See also:

• CHAIR (in. Mid. Eng. chcere, through O. Fr. chaire or chaiere, from Lat. cathedra, later caledra, Gr. xaOi3pa, seat, cf. "cathedral"; the modern Fr. form chaise, a chair, has been adopted in English with a particular meaning as a form of carriage; chaire

chair . This, however, he declined, having, as he said, " very different things in view." Leibnitz, not yet twenty-one years of age, was already the author of several remarkable essays . In his See also:

• BACHELOR (from Med. Lat. baccalarius, with its late and rare variant baccalaris—cf. Ital. baccalare—through O. Fr. bacheler)

bachelor's dissertation De principio individui (1663), he defended the nominalistic See also:

• DOCTRINE

doctrine that individuality is constituted by the whole entity or essence of a thing; his arithmetical See also:

• TRACT (from Lat. tractare, to treat of a matter, through Provencal tractat and Ital. trattato)

tract De complexionibus, published in an extended See also:

• FORM (Lat. forma)

form under the See also:

• TITLE (0. Fr. title, mod. titre, from Lat. titulus)

title De arte combinatoria (1666), is an See also:

• ESSAY, ESSAYIST (Fr. essai, Late Lat. exagium, a weighing or balance; exigere, to examine; the term in general meaning any trial or effort)

essay towards his See also:

• LIFE

life-See also:

• LONG, GEORGE (1800-1879)
• LONG, JOHN DAVIS (1838– )

long project of a reformed symbolism and method of thought; and besides these there are our juridical essays, including the Nova methodus docendi discendique See also:

• JURIS

juris, written in the intervals of his See also:

• JOURNEY (through O. Fr. jornee or journee, mod. Fr. journee, from med. Lat. diurnata, Lat. diurnus, of or belonging to dies, day)

journey from Leipzig to Altdorf . This last essay is remarkable, not only for the reconstruction it attempted of the Corpus Juris, but as containing the first clear recognition of the importance of the historical method in law . Nuremberg was a centre of the Rosicrucians, and Leibnitz, busying himself with writings of the alchemists, soon gained such a knowledge of their tenets that he was supposed to be one of the See also:

• SECRET (Lat. secretum, hidden, concealed)

secret brotherhood, and was even elected their secretary . A more important result of his visit to Nuremberg was his acquaintance with Johann See also:

• CHRISTIAN
• CHRISTIAN, WILLIAM (1608-1663)

Christian von Boyneburg (1622-1672), formerly first See also:

• MINISTER (Lat. minister, servant)

minister to the elector of See also:

• MAINZ (Fr. Mayence)

Mainz, and one of the most distinguished German statesmen of the See also:

• DAY (O. Eng. dreg, Ger. Tag; according to the New English Dictionary, " in no way related to the Lat. dies")
• DAY, JOHN (1574-1640?)
• DAY, THOMAS (1748-1789)

day . By his See also:

• ADVICE (Fr. avis, from Lat. ad, to, and visum, viewed)

advice Leibnitz printed his Nova methodus in 1667, dedicated it to the elector, and, going to Mainz, presented it to him in See also:

• PERSON, OFFENCES AGAINST THE

person . It was thus that Leibnitz entered the service of the elector of Mainz, at first as an assistant in the revision of the See also:

• STATUTE

statute-See also:

• BOOK

book, afterwards on more important See also:

• WORK

work . The policy of the elector, which the See also:

• PEN (Lat. penna, a feather, pen)

pen of Leibnitz was now YCI .

13 called upon to promote, was to maintain the See also:

• SECURITY (Lat. securus, free from care, safe)

security of the German See also:

• EMPIRE

empire, threatened on the See also:

• WEST
• WEST, BENJAMIN (1738-1820)
• WEST, NICHOLAS (1461-1533)

west by the aggressive See also:

• POWER [WILLIAM GRATTAN] TYRONE (1797-1841)

power of See also:

• FRANCE
• FRANCE, ANATOLE (1844– )

France, on the See also:

• EAST
• EAST, ALFRED (1849- )

east by See also:

• TURKEY

Turkey and See also:

• RUSSIA
• RUSSIA (Rossiya)

Russia . Thus when in 1669 the See also:

• CROWN

crown of See also:

• POLAND (Polish Polska, Ger. Polen), (see POLAND, RUSSIAN, below)
• POLAND, RUSSIAN

Poland became vacant, it See also:

• FELL
• FELL, JOHN (1625-1686)

fell to Leibnitz to support the claims of the German See also:

• CANDIDATE

candidate, which he did in his first See also:

• POLITICAL

political writing, Specimen demonstrationum politicarum See also:

• PRO

pro rege Polonorum eligendo, attempting, under the See also:

• GUISE
• GUISE, HOUSE OF

guise of a See also:

• CATHOLIC (Gr. KcaBoXuK6s, general, universal)

Catholic See also:

• POLISH

Polish nobleman, to show by mathematical demonstration that it was necessary in the See also:

• INTEREST

interest of Poland that it should have the See also:

• COUNT (Lat. comes, gen. comitis, Fr. comte, Ital. conte, Span. conde)

count See also:

• PALATINE (from Lat. palatium, a palace,)

palatine of See also:

• NEUBURG

Neuburg as its See also:

• KING
• KING (O. Eng. cyning, abbreviated into cyng, cing; cf. O. H. G. chun- kuning, chun- kunig, M.H.G. kiinic, kiinec, kiinc, Mod. Ger. Konig, O. Norse konungr, kongr, Swed. konung, kung)
• KING [OF OCKHAM], PETER KING, 1ST BARON (1669-1734)
• KING, CHARLES WILLIAM (1818-1888)
• KING, CLARENCE (1842–1901)
• KING, EDWARD (1612–1637)
• KING, EDWARD (1829–1910)
• KING, HENRY (1591-1669)
• KING, RUFUS (1755–1827)
• KING, THOMAS (1730–1805)
• KING, WILLIAM (1650-1729)
• KING, WILLIAM (1663–1712)

king . But neither the See also:

• DIPLOMATIC

diplomatic skill of Boyneburg, who had been sent as plenipotentiary to the See also:

• ELECTION
• ELECTION (from Lat. eligere, to pick out)

election at See also:

• WARSAW
• WARSAW (Polish Warszawa, Ger. Warschau, Fr. Varsovie)

Warsaw, nor the arguments of Leibnitz were successful, and a Polish See also:

• PRINCE
• PRINCE (Lat. princeps, from primus capio, " I am the first to take "; Ital. principe, Fr. prince)

prince was elected to fill the vacant See also:

• THRONE

throne . A greater danger threatened Germany in the aggressions of See also:

• LOUIS
• LOUIS (804–876)
• LOUIS (893–911)
• LOUIS, JOSEPH DOMINIQUE, BARON (1755-1837)
• LOUIS, or LEWIS (from the Frankish Chlodowich, Chlodwig, Latinized as Chlodowius, Lodhuwicus, Lodhuvicus, whence-in the Strassburg oath of 842-0. Fr. Lodhuwigs, then Chlovis, Loys and later Louis, whence Span. Luiz and—through the Angevin kings—Hungarian

Louis XIV . (see FRANCE: History) . Though See also:

• HOLLAND
• HOLLAND, CHARLES (1733–1769)
• HOLLAND, COUNTY AND PROVINCE OF
• HOLLAND, HENRY FOX, 1ST BARON (1705–1774)
• HOLLAND, HENRY RICH, 1ST EARL OF (1S9o-,649)
• HOLLAND, HENRY RICHARD VASSALL FOX, 3RD
• HOLLAND, JOSIAH GILBERT (1819-1881)
• HOLLAND, PHILEMON (1552-1637)
• HOLLAND, RICHARD, or RICHARD DE HOLANDE (fl. 1450)
• HOLLAND, SIR HENRY, BART

Holland was in most immediate danger, the seizure of See also:

• LORRAINE

Lorraine in 167o showed that Germany too was threatened . It was in this See also:

• YEAR

year that Leibnitz wrote his Thoughts on Public Safety,' in which he urged the formation of a new " Rheinbund " for the See also:

• PROTECTION

protection of Germany, and contended that the states of See also:

• EUROPE

Europe should employ their power, not against one another, but in the See also:

• CONQUEST

conquest of the non-Christian See also:

• WORLD

world, in which See also:

• EGYPT

Egypt, " one of the best situated lands in the world," would fall to France . The See also:

• PLAN
• PLAN (from Lat. planes, flat)

plan thus proposed of averting the threatened attack on Germany by a See also:

• FRENCH
• FRENCH, DANIEL CHESTER (1850– )
• FRENCH, NICHOLAS (1604-1678)

French expedition to Egypt was discussed with Boyneburg, and obtained the approval of the elector . French relations with Turkey were at the time so strained as to make a See also:

• BREACH (Mid. Eng. breche, derived from the common Teutonic root brec, which appears in " break," Ger. brechen, &c.)

breach imminent, and at the See also:

• CLOSE
• CLOSE (from Lat. clausum, shut)
• CLOSE, MAXWELL HENRY (1822-1903)

close of 1671, about the time when the See also:

• WAR
• WAR (O. Eng. werre, Fr. guerre, of Teutonic origin; cf. O.H.G. werran, to confound)

war with Holland See also:

• BROKE, or BROOKE, ARTHUR (d. 1563)
• BROKE, SIR PHILIP BOWES VERE, BART

broke out, Louis himself was approached by a See also:

• LETTER (through Fr. lettre from Lat. littera or litera, letter of the alphabet; the origin of the Latin word is obscure; it has probably no connexion with the root of linere, to smear, i.e. with wax, for an inscription with a stilus)

letter from Boyneburg and a See also:

• SHORT, FRANCIS JOB (1857– )

short memorial from the pen of Leibnitz, who attempted to show that Holland itself, as a See also:

• MERCANTILE (or COMMERCIAL) AGENCIES

mercantile power trading with the East, might be best attacked through Egypt, while nothing would be easier for France or would more largely increase her power than the conquest of Egypt . On See also:

• FEBRUARY

February 12, 1672, a See also:

• REQUEST, LETTERS OF

request came from the French secretary of See also:

• STATE
• STATE, GREAT OFFICERS OF

state, See also:

• SIMON, ABRAHAM (1622-1692)
• SIMON, JULES FRANCOIS (1814–1896)
• SIMON, RICHARD (1638–1712)
• SIMON, SIR JOHN (1816–1904)
• SIMON, THOMAS (c. 1623-1665)

Simon See also:

• ARNAULD

Arnauld de Pomponne (1618-1699), that Leibnitz should go to Paris . Louis seems still to have kept the See also:

• MATTER

matter in view, but never granted Leibnitz the See also:

• PERSONAL

personal inter-view he desired, while Pomponne wrote, " I have nothing against the plan of a See also:

• HOLY

holy war, but such plans, you know, since the days of St Louis, have ceased to be the See also:

• FASHION (adapted from Fr. facon, agon, Lat. factio, making, facere, to do or make)

fashion." Not yet discouraged, Leibnitz wrote a full See also:

• ACCOUNT
• ACCOUNT (through O. Fr. acont, Late Lat. comptum, cornputare, to calculate)

account of his project for the king,2 and a See also:

• SUMMARY

summary of the same3 evidently intended for Boyneburg . But Boyneburg died in See also:

• DECEMBER (Lat. decent, ten)

December 1672, before the latter could be sent to him .

Nor did the former ever reach its destination . The French See also:

• QUARREL

quarrel with the See also:

• PORTE, THE SUBLIME (Arab. babi-'ali, the high gate, through the French translation la sublime porte)

Porte was made up, and the plan of a French expedition to Egypt disappeared from See also:

• PRACTICAL

practical politics till the time of See also:

• NAPOLEON

Napoleon . The history of this See also:

• SCHEME (Lat. schema, Gr. oxfjya, figure, form, from the root axe, seen in exeiv, to have, hold, to be of such shape, form, &c.)

scheme, and the See also:

• REASON (Lat. ratio, through French raison)

reason of Leibnitz's journey to Paris, long remained hidden in the archives of the Hanoverian library . It was on his taking See also:

• POSSESSION
• POSSESSION (Lat. possessio, possidere, to possess)

possession of See also:

• HANOVER
• HANOVER (Ger. Hannover)

Hanover in 1803 that N apoleon learned, through the Consilium Aegyptiacum, that the See also:

• IDEA (Gr. Ibia, connected with i&eiv, to see; cf. Lat. species from specere, to look at)

idea of a French conquest of Egypt had been first put forward by a German philosopher . In the same year there was published in See also:

• LONDON

London an account of the Justa dissertatio' of which the See also:

• BRITISH

British Government had procured a copy in 1799 . But it was only with the See also:

• APPEARANCE (from Lat. apparere, to appear)

appearance of the edition of Leibnitz's See also:

• WORKS

works begun by Onno See also:

• KLOPP, ONNO (1822–1903)

Klopp in 1864 that the full history of the scheme was made known . Leibnitz had other than political ends in view in his visit to France . It was as the centre of literature and science that Paris chiefly attracted him . Political duties never made him lose sight of his philosophical and scientific interests . At Mainz he was still busied with the question of the relation between the old and new methods in philosophy . In a letter to Jakob ' Bedenken, welchergestalt securitas publica interna et externa and status praesens jetzigen Umstanden nach See also:

• IM(K2+a2+h2—2 ah cos 0)

im Reich auf festen Fuss zu stellen . 2 De expeditione Aegyptiaca regi Franciae proponenda justa dissertatio .

Consilium Aegyptiacum . ' A Summary Account of Leibnitz's Memoir addressed to See also:

• LEWIS, HENRY CARVILL
• LEWIS, JOHN FREDERICK (180 1876)
• LEWIS, MATTHEW GREGORY (1775-1818)
• LEWIS, MERIWETHER (1774-1809)
• LEWIS, SIR GEORGE CORNEWALL, BART

Lewis the Fourteenth, &c . [edited by See also:

• GRANVILLE
• GRANVILLE, GRANVILLE
• GRANVILLE, JOHN CARTERET, EARL (1690-1763)

Granville See also:

• PENN, WILLIAM (1621–1670)
• PENN, WILLIAM (1644-1718)

Penn], (London, 1803) . rI Thomasius (1669) he contends that the See also:

• MECHANICAL

mechanical explanation made to raise the See also:

• DUKE (corresponding to Fr. duc, Ital. duca, Ger. Herzog)

duke of Hanover to the electorate, he had to show that this did not interfere with the rights of the duke of See also:

• WURTTEMBERG

Wurttemberg . In 1692 the duke of Hanover was made elector . Before, and with a view to this, Leibnitz had been employed by him to write the history of the See also:

• BRUNSWICK
• BRUNSWICK (Ger. Braunschweig)
• BRUNSWICK, KARL WILHELM FERDINAND, DUKE OF (1735-18o6)

Brunswick-See also:

• LUNEBURG

Luneburg See also:

• FAMILY

family, and, to collect material for his history, had undertaken a journey through Germany and See also:

• ITALY
• ITALY (Italia)

Italy in 1687-1690, visiting and examining the records in See also:

• MARBURG
• MARBURG, COLLOQUY OF (Marburger Religionsgesprach)

Marburg, See also:

• FRANKFORT

Frankfort-on-the-See also:

• MAIN (from the Aryan root which appears in " may " and " might," and Lat. magnus, great)
• MAIN (Lat. Moenus)

Main, See also:

• MUNICH (Ger. Munchen)

Munich, See also:

• VIENNA (Ger. Wien; Lat. Vindobona)
• VIENNA, CONGRESS OF (1814-1815)

Vienna (where he remained nine months), See also:

• VENICE
• VENICE (continued)
• VENICE (Venezia)

Venice, See also:

• MODENA (ancient Mutina)

Modena and See also:

• ROME
• ROME (Roma)

Rome . At Rome he was offered the custodianship of the Vatican library on See also:

• CONDITION (Lat. condicio, from condicere, to agree upon, arrange; not connected with conditio, from condere, conditum, to put together)

condition of his joining the Catholic See also:

• CHURCH
• CHURCH (according to most authorities derived from the Gr. Kvpcaxov [&wµa], " the Lord's [house]," and common to many Teutonic, Slavonic and other languages under various forms—Scottish kirk, Ger. Kirche, Swed. kirka, Dan. kirke, Russ. tserkov, Buig. cerk
• CHURCH, FREDERICK EDWIN (1826-1900)
• CHURCH, GEORGE EARL (1835–1910)
• CHURCH, RICHARD WILLIAM (1815–189o)
• CHURCH, SIR RICHARD (1784–1873)

Church . About this time, too, his thoughts and energies were partly taken up with the scheme for the See also:

• REUNION

reunion of the Catholic and Protestant Churches . At Mainz he had joined in an See also:

• ATTEMPT (Lat. adtemptare, attentare, to try)

attempt made by the elector and Boyneburg to bring about a reconciliation, and now, chiefly through the See also:

• ENERGY (from the Gr. ivipyela; iv, in, ipyov, work)

energy and skill of the Catholic Royas de See also:

• SPINOLA, AMBROSE, MARQUIS DE LOS BALBASES (1569-1630)
• SPINOLA, CRISTOVAL ROJAS DE (d. 1695)

Spinola, and from the spirit of moderation which prevailed among the theologians he met with at Hanover in 1683, it almost seemed as if some agreement might be arrived at . In 1686 Leibnitz wrote his Systema theologicum,4 in which he strove to find See also:

• COMMON

common ground for Protestants and Catholics in the details of their See also:

• CREEDS (Lat. credo, I believe), or CONFESSIONS OF FAITH

creeds . But the See also:

• ENGLISH

English revolution of 1688 interfered with the scheme in Hanover, and it was soon found that the religious difficulties were greater than had at one time appeared . In the letters to Leibnitz from See also:

• BOSSUET, JAQUES BENIGNE (1627-1704)

Bossuet, the See also:

• LANDGRAVE (Ger. Landgraf, from Land, " a country" and Graf, "count" )

landgrave of Hessen-Rheinfels, and Madame de Brinon, the aim is obviously to make converts to Catholicism, not to arrive at a See also:

• COMPROMISE (pronounced compromize; through Fr. from Lat. compromittere)

compromise with Protestantism, and when it was found that Leibnitz refused to be converted the See also:

• CORRESPONDENCE
• CORRESPONDENCE (from med. scholastic Lat. correspondentia, corrcspondere, compounded of Lat. cum, with, and respond ere, to answer; cf. Fr. correspondance)

correspondence ceased .

A further scheme of church See also:

• UNION
• UNION (known locally as Union Hill and officially as Town of Union)

union in which Leibnitz was engaged, that between the Reformed and Lutheran Churches, met with no better success . Returning from Italy in 1690, Leibnitz was appointed librarian at See also:

• WOLFENBUTTEL

Wolfenbuttel by Duke Anton of Brunswick-Wolfenbuttel . Some years afterwards began his connexion with See also:

• BERLIN
• BERLIN, CONGRESS AND TREATY OF
• BERLIN, ISAIAH (1725–1799)

Berlin through his friendship with the electress Sophie See also:

• CHARLOTTE

Charlotte of See also:

• BRANDENBURG

Brandenburg and her See also:

• MOTHER

mother the princess Sophie of Hanover . He was invited to Berlin in 1700, and on the 11th July of that year the See also:

• ACADEMY, GREEK
• ACADEMY, ROYAL

academy (Akademie der Wissenschaften) he had planned was founded, with himself as its See also:

• PRESIDENT (Fr. president, from Lat. praesidens, post-Augustan Lat. for praeses, director, ruler, from praesidere, to sit in front of, preside)

president for life . In the same year he was made a privy councillor of See also:

• JUSTICE (Lat. justitia)

justice by the elector of Brandenburg . Four years before he had received a like See also:

• HONOUR (Lat. honos or lwnor, honoris; in English the word was spelled with or without the u indifferently until the 17th century, but during the 18th century it became fashion-able to spell the word " honor "; Johnson's and Webster's Dictionaries stereoty

honour from the elector of Hanover, and twelve years afterwards the same distinction was conferred upon him by See also:

• PETER
• PETER (Lat. Petrus from Gr. irfpos, a rock, Ital. Pietro, Piero, Pier, Fr. Pierre, Span. Pedro, Ger. Peter, Russ. Petr)
• PETER (PEDRO)
• PETER, EPISTLES OF
• PETER, ST

Peter the Great, to whom he gave a plan for an academy at St See also:

• PETERSBURG

Petersburg, carried out after the czar's See also:

• DEATH

death . After the death of his royal See also:

• PUPIL (Lat. pupillus, orphan, minor, dim. of pupus, boy, allied to puer, from root pm- or peu-, to beget, cf. "pupa," Lat. for " doll," the name given to the stage intervening between the larval and imaginal stages in certain insects)

pupil in 1705 his visits to Berlin became less frequent and less welcome, and in 1711 he was there for the last time . In the following year he undertook his fifth and last journey to Vienna, where he stayed till 1714 . An attempt to found an academy of science there was defeated by the opposition of the See also:

• JESUITS

Jesuits, but he now attained the honour he had coveted of an imperial privy councillorship (1712), and, either at this time or on a previous occasion (1709), was made a See also:

• BARON
• BARON (1835-1895)
• BARON, MICHEL (1653—1729)

baron of the empire (Reichsfreiherr) . Leibnitz returned to Hanover in See also:

• SEPTEMBER (Lat. septem, seven)

September 1714, but found the elector See also:

• GEORGE
• GEORGE, 8TH MARQUESS OF TWEEDDALE (1787-1876)
• GEORGE, HENRY (1839—1897)
• GEORGE, LAKE
• GEORGE, SAINT (d. 303)

George Louis had already gone to assume the crown of See also:

• ENGLAND
• ENGLAND, THE CHURCH OF

England . Leibnitz would gladly have followed him to London, but was bidden to remain at Hanover and finish his history of Brunswick . During the last See also:

• THIRTY

thirty years Leibnitz had been busy with many matters .

Mathematics, natural science,' philosophy, See also:

• THEOLOGY

theology, history See also:

• JURISPRUDENCE (Lat. jurisprudenlia, knowledge of law, from jus, right, and prudentia, from providere, to foresee)
• JURISPRUDENCE, COMPARATIVE

jurisprudence, politics (particularly the French See also:

• WARS

wars with Germany, and the question of the See also:

• SPANISH

Spanish See also:

• SUCCESSION (Lat. successio, from succedere, to follow after)

succession), See also:

• ECONOMICS

economics and See also:

• PHILOLOGY

philology, all gained a See also:

• SHARE (O. Eng. scearu, chiefly in compounds, e.g. land-scearu, a share of land, from sceran to cut; cf. " shear" )

share of his See also:

• ATTENTION (from Lat. ad-tendo, await, expect; the condition of being " stretched " or " tense ")

attention; almost all of them he enriched with See also:

• ORIGINAL

original observations . His genealogical researches in Italy—through which he established the common origin of the families of Brunswick and Not published till 1819 . It is on this work- that the assertion has been founded that Leibnitz was at See also:

• HEART
• HEART, LUNG

heart a Catholic—a supposition clearly disproved by his correspondence . In his Protogaea (1691) he See also:

• DEVELOPED

developed the notion of the historical See also:

• GENESIS
• GENESIS (Gr. 'ybeo-es, becoming; the term being used in English as a synonym for origin or process of coming into being)

genesis of the See also:

• PRESENT

present condition of the See also:

• EARTH
• EARTH (a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Erde, Dutch aarde, Swed. and Dan. jord; outside Teutonic it appears only in the Gr. 'pq'e, on the ground; it has been connected by some etymologists with the Aryan root ar-, to plough, which is seen in
• EARTH, FIGURE OF
• EARTH, FIGURE OF THE

earth's See also:

• SURFACE

surface . Cf . O . Peschel, Gesch. d . Erdkunde (Munich, 1865), pp . 615 sq . of nature by magnitude, figure and See also:

• MOTION (Lat. motio, from movere, to move)
• MOTION, LAWS OF

motion alone is not inconsistent with the doctrines of See also:

• ARISTOTLE
• ARISTOTLE (384-322 B.C.)

Aristotle's Physics, in which he finds more truth than in the Meditations of Descartes . Yet these qualities of bodies, he argues in 1668 (in an essay published without his knowledge under the title Confessio naturae contra aiheistas), require an incorporeal principle, or See also:

• GOD

God, for their ultimate explanation . He also wrote at this time a See also:

• DEFENCE
• DEFENCE (Lat. defendere, to defend)

defence of the doctrine of the Trinity against Wissowatius (1669), and an essay on philosophic See also:

• STYLE
• STYLE (from Gr. a-6'1ms, a column; a different word from that used in literature, see below)

style, See also:

• INTRODUCTORY

introductory to an edition of the Antibarbarus of Nizolius (1670) .

Clearness and distinctness alone, he says, are what makes a philosophic style, and no See also:

• LANGUAGE (adapted from the Fr. langage, from langue, tongue, Lat. lingua)

language is better suited for this popular exposition than the German . In 1671 he issued a See also:

• HYPOTHESIS (from Gr. inrorcOivat, to put under; cf. Lat. suppositio, from sub-ponere)

Hypothesis physica nova, in which, agreeing with Descartes that corporeal phenomena should be explained from motion, he carried out the mechanical explanation of nature by contending that the original of this motion is a See also:

• FINE

fine See also:

• AETHER, or ETHER (Gr. deli p, probably from caeca, I burn, though Plato in his Cratylus (410 B)

aether, similar to See also:

• LIGHT

light, or rather constituting it, which, penetrating all bodies in the direction of the earth's See also:

• AXIS (Lat. for " axle ")

axis, produces the phenomena of gravity, See also:

• ELASTICITY

elasticity, &c . The first part of the essay, on See also:

• CONCRETE
• CONCRETE (Lat. concretes, participle of concrescere, to grow together)

concrete motion, was dedicated to the Royal Society of London, the second, on abstract motion, to the French Academy . At Paris Leibnitz met with Arnauld, See also:

• MALEBRANCHE, NICOLAS (1638-1715)

Malebranche and, more important still, with Christian Huygens . This was pre-eminently the See also:

• PERIOD
• PERIOD (Gr. irepioSos, a going or way round, circuit, aepi, round, and &Sis, way, road)

period of his mathematical and See also:

• PHYSICAL

physical activity . Before leaving Mainz he was able to announce ' an imposing See also:

• LIST (O.E. lisle, a Teutonic word, cf. Dut. lust, Ger. Leiste, adapted in Ital. lista and Fr. lisle)
• LIST, FRIEDRICH (1789-1846)

list of discoveries, and plans for discoveries, arrived at by means of his new logical See also:

• ART

art, in natural philosophy, mathematics, See also:

• MECHANICS

mechanics, See also:

• OPTICS

optics, See also:

• HYDROSTATICS (Gr. iibwp, water, and the root Ora-, to cause to stand)

hydrostatics, See also:

• PNEUMATICS (Gr. Irveiiµa, wind, air)

pneumatics and nautical science, not to speak of new ideas in law, theology and politics . See also:

• CHIEF (from Fr. chef, head, Lat. caput)

Chief among these discoveries was that of a calculating See also:

• MACHINE
• MACHINE (through Fr. from Lat. form machina of Gr. µnxavil)

machine for performing more complicated operations than that of See also:

• PASCAL, BLAISE (1623-1662)
• PASCAL, JACQUELINE (1625-T661)

Pascal—multiplying, dividing and extracting roots, as well as adding and subtracting . This machine was exhibited to the Academy of Paris and to the Royal Society of London, and Leibnitz was elected a See also:

• FELLOW

fellow of the latter society in See also:

• APRIL

April 1673.2 In See also:

• JANUARY

January of this year he had gone to London as an attache on a political See also:

• MISSION

mission from the elector of Mainz, returning in See also:

• MARCH
• MARCH (1) (from Fr. marcher, to walk; the earliest sense in French appears to be " to trample," and the origin has usually been found in the Lat. marcus, hammer; Low Lat. marcare, to hammer; hence to beat the road with the regular tread of a soldier: cf.
• MARCH, AUZIAS (c. "1395-1458)
• MARCH, EARLS OF
• MARCH, FRANCIS ANDREW (1825– )

March to Paris, and while in London had become personally acquainted with See also:

• OLDENBURG

Oldenburg, the secretary of the Royal Society, with whom he had already corresponded, with See also:

• BOYLE
• BOYLE, JOHN J
• BOYLE, ROBERT (1627-1691)

Boyle the chemist and See also:

• PELL, JOHN (16so-1685)

Pell the mathematician . It is from this period that we must date ,the impulse that directed him anew to mathematics . By Pell he had been referred to See also:

• MERCATOR, GERARDUS [latinized form of GERHARD KREMER] (1512-1594)

Mercator's Logarithmotechnica as already containing some numerical observations which Leibnitz had thought original on his own part; and, on his return to Paris, he devoted himself to the study of higher See also:

• GEOMETRY

geometry under Huygens, entering almost at once upon the See also:

• SERIES (a Latin word from serere, to join)

series of investigations which culminated in his See also:

• DISCOVERY

discovery of the See also:

• DIFFERENTIAL

differential and integral calculus (see INFINITESIMAL CALCULUS) . Shortly after his return to Paris in 1673, Leibnitz ceased to be in the Mainz service any more than in name, but in the same year entered the employment of Duke See also:

• JOHN
• JOHN (1167–1216)
• JOHN (1290-c. 1320)
• JOHN (1296-1346)
• JOHN (1371–1419)
• JOHN (1468-1532)
• JOHN (1801-1873)
• JOHN (Heb. llni')
• JOHN (ZAPOLYA) (1487-1540)
• JOHN, 4TH MARQUESS OF TWEEDDALE (c. 1695-1762)
• JOHN, DON (1545-1578)
• JOHN, DON (1629–1679)
• JOHN, GOSPEL OF ST
• JOHN, or HAYS (1513–1571)
• JOHN, THE APOSTLE
• JOHN, THE EPISTLES OF

John See also:

• FREDERICK
• FREDERICK (Mod. Ger. Friedrich; Ital. Federigo; Fr. Frederic and Federic; M.H.G. Friderich; O.H.G. Fridurih, " king or lord of peace," from O.H.G. fridu, A.S. frith, " peace," and rfh " rich," " a ruler," for derivation of which see HENRY)

Frederick of Brunswick-Luneburg, with whom he had corresponded for some time . In 1676 he removed at the duke's request to Hanover, travelling thither by way of London and See also:

• AMSTERDAM
• AMSTERDAM (NEw AMSTERDAM)

Amsterdam .

At Amsterdam he saw and conversed with See also:

• SPINOZA, BARUCH (1632-1677)

Spinoza, and carried away with him extracts from the latter's unpublished Ethica . For the next See also:

• FORTY

forty years, and under three successive princes, Leibnitz was in the service of the Brunswick family, and his headquarters were at Hanover, where he had See also:

• CHARGE
• CHARGE (through the Fr. from the Late Lat. carricare, to load in a carrus or wagon; cf. " cargo ")

charge of the ducal library . Leibnitz thus passed into a political See also:

• ATMOSPHERE (Gr. fir µ6r, vapour; orkaipa, a sphere)

atmosphere formed by the dynastic aims of the typical German state (see HANOVER; BRUNSWICK) . He supported the claim of Hanover to appoint an See also:

• AMBASSADOR (also EMBASSADOR, the form sometimes still used in America; from the Fr. ambassadeur, with which compare Ital. ambasciatore and Span. embajador, all variants of the Med. Lat. ambassiator, ambassiator, ambasator, &c., derived from Med. Lat. amba

ambassador at the See also:

• CONGRESS (Lat. congressus, coming together, from congredi; cum, with, and gradus, step)

congress of Nimeguen (1676) to defend the See also:

• ESTABLISHMENT (0. Fr. establissement, Fr. etablissement, late Norm. Fr. establishement, from O. Fr. establir, Fr. etablir, Lat. stabilire, to make stable)

establishment of See also:

• PRIMOGENITURE

primogeniture in the Luneburg See also:

• BRANCH (from the Fr. branche, late Lat. branca, an animal's paw)

branch of the Brunswick family; and, when the proposal was 1 In a letter to the duke of Brunswick-Lineburg (autumn 1671), Werke, ed . Klopp, iii . 253 sq . See also:

• LIE, JONAS LAURITZ EDEMIL (1833—1908)
• LIE, MARIUS SOPHUS (1842–1899)

lie was made a See also:

• FOREIGN

foreign member of the French Academy in 1700 . 3 Caesarini Furstenerii tructatus de :lure supremalus ac legationis principuan Germaniae (Amsterdam, 1677) ; Entreliens de Philarete et d'See also:

• EUGENE

Eugene sur le See also:

• DROIT (Fr. for " right," from Lat. directus, straight)

droit d'ambassade (Duisb., 1677) . See also:

• ESTE
• ESTE (anc. Ateste, q.v.)

Este—were not only preceded by an immense collection of historical See also:

• SOURCES

sources, but enabled him to publish materials for a See also:

• CODE (Lat. codex)

code of See also:

• INTERNATIONAL, THE

international law.' The history of Brunswick itself was the last work of his life, and had covered the period from 768 to 1005 when death ended his labours . But the government, in whose service and at whose See also:

• ORDER
• ORDER (through Fr. ordre, for earlier ordene, from Lat. ordo, ordinis, rank, service, arrangement; the ultimate source is generally taken to be the root seen in Lat. oriri, rise, arise, begin; cf. " origin ")
• ORDER, HOLY

order the work had been carried out, left it in the archives of the Hanover library till it was published by See also:

• PERTZ, GEORG HEINRICH (1795-1876)

Pertz in 1843 . It was in the years between 1690 and 1716 that Leibnitz's chief philosophical works were composed, and during the first ten of these years the accounts of his See also:

• SYSTEM

system were, for the most part, preliminary sketches . Indeed, he never gave a full and systematic account of his doctrines .

His views have to be gathered from letters to See also:

• FRIENDS, SOCIETY
• FRIENDS, SOCIETY OF

friends, from occasional articles in the Acta Eruditorum, the See also:

• JOURNAL
• JOURNAL (through Fr. from late Lat. diurnalis, daily)

Journal See also:

• DES

des Savants, and other See also:

• JOURNALS

journals, and from one or two more extensive works . It is evident, however, that philosophy had not been entirely neglected in the years in which his pen was almost solely occupied with other matters . A letter to the duke of Brunswick, and another to Arnauld, in 1671, show that he had already reached his new notion of substance; but it is in the correspondence with See also:

• ANTOINE, ANDRE (1858- )

Antoine Arnauld, between 1686 and 1690, that his fundamental ideas and the reasons for them are for the first time made clear . The appearance of See also:

• LOCKE, GOTTFRIED CHRISTIAN FRIEDRICH (1791–1855)
• LOCKE, JOHN (1632-1704)
• LOCKE, MATTHEW (c. 1630-1677)

Locke's Essay in 1690 induced him (1696) to See also:

• NOTE
• NOTE (Lat. nota, mark, sign, from noscere, to know)

note down his objections to it, and his own ideas on the same subjects . In 1703–1704 these were worked out in detail and ready for publication, when the death of the author whom they criticized prevented their appearance (first published by See also:

• RASPE, RUDOLF(MOW, (737-1794)

Raspe, 1765) . In 1710 appeared the only See also:

• COMPLETE

complete and systematic philosophical work of his life-time, Essais de Theodicee sur la See also:

• BOTTLE (Fr. bouteille, from a diminutive of the Lat. butta, a flask; cf. Eng. " butt ")

bottle de Dieu, la liberte de l'homme, et l'origine du mal, originally undertaken at the request of the See also:

• LATE

late See also:

• QUEEN
• QUEEN (O.E. cwen, wife, related to "quean," O.E. cwene, a hussy; cf. Gr. yvvi7: from root gan-, to produce; cf. genus, " kin," &c.)

queen of See also:

• PRUSSIA
• PRUSSIA (Ger. Preussen; Lat. Borussia)

Prussia, who had wished a reply to See also:

• BAYLE, PIERRE (1647-1706)

Bayle's opposition of faith and reason . In 1714 he wrote, for Prince Eugene of See also:

• SAVOY, HOUSE
• SAVOY, HOUSE OF

Savoy, a See also:

• SKETCH (directly adapted from Dutch schets, which was taken from Ital. schizzo, a rough draft, Lat. schedium, something hastily made, Gr. oxE&os, sudden, off-hand, axeb6v, near by; Ger. Skizze and Fr. esquisse are from the same source)

sketch of his system under the title of La Monadologie, and in the same year appeared his Principes de la nature 'et de la See also:

• GRACE (Fr. grace, Lat. gratia, from grates, beloved, pleasing; formed from the root cra-, Gr. xav-, cf. xaipw, x6p,ua, Xapts)
• GRACE, WILLIAM GILBERT (1848– )

grace . The last few years of his life were perhaps more occupied with correspondence than any others, and, in a philosophical regard, were chiefly notable for the letters, which, through the See also:

• DESIRE

desire of the new queen of England, he interchanged with See also:

• CLARKE, ADAM (1762?—1832)
• CLARKE, CHARLES COWDEN (1787-1877)
• CLARKE, EDWARD DANIEL (1769–1822)
• CLARKE, JAMES FREEMAN (1810–1888)
• CLARKE, JOHN SLEEPER (1833–1899)
• CLARKE, MARCUS ANDREW HISLOP (1846–1881)
• CLARKE, MARY ANNE (c.1776–1852)
• CLARKE, SAMUEL (1675–1729)
• CLARKE, SIR ANDREW (1824-1902)
• CLARKE, SIR EDWARD GEORGE (1841– )
• CLARKE, THOMAS SHIELDS (1866- )
• CLARKE, WILLIAM BRANWHITE (1798-1878)

Clarke, sur Dieu, l'dme, l'espace, la duree . Leibnitz died on the 14th of November 1716, his closing years enfeebled by disease, harassed by controversy, embittered by neglect; but to the last he preserved the indomitable energy and power of work to which is largely due the position he holds as, more perhaps than any one in modern times, a man of almost universal attainments and almost universal See also:

• GENIUS (from Lat. genere, gignere)

genius . Neither at Berlin, in the academy which he had founded, nor in London, whither his See also:

• SOVEREIGN

sovereign had gone to See also:

• RULE

rule, was any See also:

• NOTICE

notice taken of his death . At Hanover, See also:

• ECKHART

Eckhart, his secretary, was his only mourner; " he was buried," says an eyewitness, " more like a robber than what he really was, the See also:

• ORNAMENT (Lat. ornare, to adorn)

ornament of his See also:

• COUNTRY (from the Mid. Eng. contre or contrie, and O. Fr. cuntree; Late Lat. contrata, showing the derivation from contra, opposite, over against, thus the tract of land which fronts the sight, cf. Ger. Gegend, neighbourhood)

country." 2 Only in the French Academy was the loss recognized, and a worthy eulogium devoted to his memory (November 13, 1717) . The tooth anniversary of his See also:

• BIRTH (a word common in various forms to Teutonic languages from the root of the verb " to bear ")

birth was celebrated in 1846, and in the same year were opened the Koniglichsachsische Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften and the Kaiserliche Akademie der Wissenschaften in Leipzig and Vienna respectively .

In 1883, a statue was erected to him at Leipzig . Leibnitz possessed a wonderful power of rapid and continuous work . Even in travelling his time was employed in solving mathematical problems . He is described as moderate in his habits, See also:

• QUICK

quick of See also:

• TEMPER (from Lat. temperare, to mingle or compound in due proportion, to qualify, rule, regulate, to be moderate, formed from tempos, time, fit or due season)

temper but easily appeased, charitable in his judgments of others, and tolerant of See also:

• DIFFERENCES, CALCULUS OF (Theory of Finite Differences)

differences of See also:

• OPINION (Lat. opinio, from opinari, to think)

opinion, though impatient of See also:

• CONTRADICTION, PRINCIPLE OF (principium contradictionis)

contradiction on small matters . He is also said to have been fond of See also:

• MONEY

money to the point of covetousness; he was certainly desirous of honour, and See also:

• FELT (cognate with Ger. Filz, Du. vilt, Swed. and Dan. fill; the root is unknown; the word has given Med. Lat. filtrum, " filter ")

felt keenly the neglect in which his last years were passed . Philosophy.—Tlie central point in the philosophy of Leibnitz %cs only arrived at after many advances and corrections in his Codex juris genlium diplomaticus (1693) ; Mantissa codicis juri gentium diplomatici (1700) . 2 See also:

• MEMOIRS

Memoirs of John See also:

• KER, JOHN (1673-1726)

Ker of Kersland. by himself (1726), i . 118.X87 opinions . This point is his new doctrine of substance (p . 7o2),' and it is through it that unity is given to the succession of occasional writings, scattered over fifty years, in which he explained his views . More inclined to agree than to differ with what he read (p . 425), and borrowing from almost every philosophical system, his own standpoint is yet most closely related to that of Descartes, partly as consequence, partly by way of opposition .

See also:

• CARTESIANISM

Cartesianism, Leibnitz often asserted, is the ante-See also:

• ROOM

room of truth, but the ante-room only . Descartes's separation of things into two heterogeneous substances only connected by the omnipotence of God, and the more logical absorption of both by Spinoza into. the one divine substance, followed from an erroneous conception of what the true nature of substance is . Substance, the ultimate reality, can only be conceived as force . Hence Leibnitz's metaphysical view of the monads as See also:

• SIMPLE

simple, percipient, self-active beings, the constituent elements of all things, his physical doctrines of the reality and constancy of force at the same time that space, matter and motion are merely phenomenal, and his psychological conception of the continuity and development of consciousness . In the closest connexion with the same stand his logical principles of consistency and sufficient reason, and the method he developed from them, his ethical end of perfection, and his crowning theological conception of the universe as the best possible world, and of God both as its efficient cause and its final See also:

• HARMONY (Gr. dpµovia, a concord of musical sounds, dpA'ew to join; &plan midi (sc. TeXvil)

harmony . The ultimate elements of the universe are, according to Leibnitz, individual centres of force or monads . Why they should be individual, and not manifestations of one world-force, he never clearly proves.' His doctrine of individuality seems to have been arrived at, not by strict See also:

• DEDUCTION (from Lat. deducere, to take or lead from or out of, derive)

deduction from the nature of force, but rather from the empirical observation that it is by the manifestation of its activity that the See also:

• SEPARATE

separate existence of the individual becomes evident; for his system individuality is as fundamental as activity . " The monads," he says, " are the very atoms of nature —in a word, the elements of things," but, as centres of force, they have neither parts, See also:

• EXTENSION (Lat. ex, out ; tendere, to stretch)

extension nor figure (p . 705) . Hence their distinction from the atoms of