See also:

• LEPIDOPTERA (Gr. ?emir, a scale or husk, and 7rrepov, a wing)

LEPIDOPTERA (Gr. ?emir, a See also:

• SCALE
• SCALE (1) A

scale or husk, and 7rrepov, a wing)  , a See also:

• TERM

term used in zoological See also:

• CLASSIFICATION (Lat. classis, a class, probably from the root cal-, cla-, as in Gr. icaMce, clamor)

classification for one of the largest and best-known orders of the class See also:

• HEXAPODA (Gr. 4, six, and gobs, foot)

Hexapoda (q.v.), in See also:

• ORDER
• ORDER (through Fr. ordre, for earlier ordene, from Lat. ordo, ordinis, rank, service, arrangement; the ultimate source is generally taken to be the root seen in Lat. oriri, rise, arise, begin; cf. " origin ")
• ORDER, HOLY

order that comprises the See also:

• INSECTS

insects popularly called butterflies and moths . The term was first used by See also:

• LINNAEUS

Linnaeus (1735) in the sense still accepted by See also:

• MODERN

modern zoologists, and there are few After See also:

• EDWARDS, AMELIA ANN BLANDFORD (1831-1892)
• EDWARDS, BELA BATES (18o2-1852)
• EDWARDS, BRYAN (1743–1800)
• EDWARDS, GEORGE (1693–1773)
• EDWARDS, HENRY THOMAS (1837–1884)
• EDWARDS, JONATHAN (1703—1758)
• EDWARDS, LEWIS (1806–1887 )
• EDWARDS, RICHARD (c. 1523–1566)
• EDWARDS, T
• EDWARDS, THOMAS CHARLES (1837–1900)

Edwards, See also:

• RILEY, JAMES WHITCOMB (1853– )

Riley and See also:

• HOWARD (FAMILY)
• HOWARD, CATHERINE (d. 1542)
• HOWARD, JOHN (1726-1790)
• HOWARD, LORD WILLIAM (1563–1640)
• HOWARD, OLIVER OTIS (1830-19o9)
• HOWARD, SIR ROBERT (1626–1698)

Howard's See also:

• INSECT

Insect See also:

• LIFE

Life, vol . 3 (U.S . Dept . See also:

• AGE (Fr. age, through late Lat. aetaticum, from aetas)

Age.) . Flo . I.—e, Crytophasa unipuctata, Donov., See also:

• AUSTRALIA

Australia. a, Larva; c, pupa, natural See also:

• SIZE

size; b, 2nd and 3rd abdominal segments of larva; d, cremaster of pupa, magnified . See also:

• GROUPS
• GROUPS, THEORY

groups of animals as to whose limits and distinguishing characters less controversy has arisen . Characters.—The name of the order indicates the fact that the wings (and other parts of the See also:

• BODY

body) are clothed with flattened ideas . His daughter, Suzanne See also:

• LOUISE [AUGUSTE WILHELMINE AMALIE LUISE] (1776-1810)

Louise, was "adopted by the cuticular structures—the scales (fig . 7)—that may be regarded able- number of See also:

• LEPIDOPTERA (Gr. ?emir, a scale or husk, and 7rrepov, a wing)

Lepidoptera take no See also:

• FOOD
• FOOD (like the verb " to feed," from a Teutonic root, whence O. Eng. foda; cf. " fodder "; connected with Gr. lrareicOae, to feed)

food in the imaginal See also:

• STATE
• STATE, GREAT OFFICERS OF

state; as modified arthropodan " hairs." Such scales are not See also:

• PECULIAR

peculiar in these the maxillae are reduced" or altogether atrophied . The second maxillae are intimately fused together to See also:

• FORM (Lat. forma)

form the labium, to the Lepidoptera—they are found also on many of the See also:

• APTERA (Greek for " wingless ")

Aptera, which consists only on the Psocidae, a See also:

• FAMILY

family of Corrodentia, on some See also:

• COLEOPTERA

Coleoptera of a reduced men-(beetles) and on the gnats (Culicidae), a family of See also:

• DIPTERA (Sir, double, arepa, wings)

Diptera .

The turn, bearing some-most distinctive structural features of the Lepidoptera are to times vestigial lobes be found in the jaws . The mandibles are See also:

• MERE
• MERE, ADALBERT (1838-1909)

mere vestiges or and palps . Thelways e sepahair ovef entirely absent; the second maxillae are usually reduced to a two or three segnarrow transverse mentum which bears the See also:

• SCALE
• SCALE (1) A

scale-covered ments and are labial palps, between which project the elongate first maxillae, clothed withescales. grooved on their inner faces, so as to form when apposed a The"form arinal tion of the terminal tubular See also:

• PROBOSCIS

proboscis adapted for sucking liquid food. segment of the labial All Lepidoptera are hatched as the cruciform soft-bodied See also:

• PALE (through Fr. pal, from Lat. palms, a stake, for paglus, from the stem pag- of pangere, to fix; " pole " is from the same original source)

pale afford valuable type of larva (fig . 1, a) known as the See also:

• CATERPILLAR

caterpillar, with biting characters in classimandibles, three pairs of thoracic legs and with a variable In the See also:

• THORAX (Gr. BWpaE, breastplate, also the part of the body covered by it)

thorax of number (usually five pairs) of abdominal prolegs, which carry the Lepidoptera the See also:

• COMPLETE

complete or incomplete circles of hooklets . The pupa in a foremost segment or A. single family only is See also:

• FREE

free (i.e. with the appendages free from the prothoraxd isnot very body), and mandibulate . In the vast See also:

• MAJORITY (Fr. majorite; Med. Lat. majoritas; Lat. major, greater)

majority of the order able , small onanthe meso- mov- it is more or less obtect (i.e. with the appendages fixed to the thorax . In many cuticle of the body) and without mandibles (fig . 1, c). families it carries a pair of small erectile Structure.—The See also:

• HEAD (in 0. Eng. heafad; the word is common to Teutonic languages; cf. Dutch hoofd, Ger. Haupt, generally taken to be in origin connected with Lat. caput, Gr. KerbOvi7)
• HEAD, SIR EDMUND WALKER, BART
• HEAD, SIR FRANCIS BOND, BART

head in the Lepidoptera is sub-globular in shape plates—the patagia with the See also:

• COMPOUND
• COMPOUND (from Lat. componere, to combine or put together)

compound eyes exceedingly well See also:

• DEVELOPED

developed, and with a —which have been pair of ocelli or " See also:

• SIMPLE

simple eyes " often See also:

• PRESENT

present on the vertex . It is regarded as serially FIG . 4.—Arrangement of the jaws. in a connected to the thorax by a relatively broad and membranous homologous with the typical See also:

• MOTH

Moth . Somewhat f. the aws. and " See also:

• NECK (O. Eng. hnecca; the word appears in many Teutonic languages; cf. Dutch ride, Ger. Nacken; in O. E. the common word was heals; cf. Ger. Hals)

neck." The feelers are many-jointed, often they are complex, wings . The meso- in See also:

• PART

part after E .

See also:

• BURGESS (Med. Lat. burgensis, from burgus, a borough, a town)
• BURGESS, DANIEL (1645-1713)
• BURGESS, THOMAS (1756–1837)

Burgess and V . L . See also:

• KELLOGG, CLARA LOUISE (1842— )

Kellogg the segments bearing thorax is extensive; processes arranged in its scutum forming (Amer . Nat. xiv. See also:

• XXIX

xxix.) . a See also:

• COMB (a word common in various forms to Teut. languages, cf. Ger. Kamm, the Indo-Europ. origin of which is seen in yoµros, a peg or pin, and Sanskrit, gambhas, a tooth)

comb-like manner most of the dorsal A, Front view of head . and furnished with thoracic See also:

• AREA

area and c, Clypeus . nu me r o us sensory small plates—teg- e, Compound See also:

• EYE
• EYE (O. Eng. edge, Ger. Auge; derived from an Indo-European root also seen in Lat. oc-ulus, the organ of vision (q.v.)

eye . hairs (fig . 2) . The u la a--are often m, Vestigial mandible . complexity of the present at the See also:

• BASE

base 1, See also:

• LABRUM (Lat. for " lip ")

Labrum . feelers is carried to of the forewings, as g, Galeae of 1st maxillae .

" its highest develop- in See also:

• HYMENOPTERA
• HYMENOPTERA (Gr. bµ$v, a membrane, and irrepov, a wing)

Hymenoptera . P, Labial palp . Magnified, B . [head. ment in certain male The tegulae which b, Base of first maxilla dissected out of the moths chat have a are beset with See also:

• LONG, GEORGE (1800-1879)
• LONG, JOHN DAVIS (1838– )

long p, Vestigial pale . wonderful See also:

• POWER [WILLIAM GRATTAN] TYRONE (1797-1841)

power of See also:

• HAIR (a word common to Teutonic languages)

hair-like scales are g, Galea . Further magnified . discovering their often conspicuous: C, Part transverse See also:

• SECTION
• SECTION (Lat. sectio, cutting, secare, to cut)

section showing how the See also:

• FEMALES

females by See also:

• SMELL (connected etymologically with " smoulder " and " smoke ")

smell or The metathorax is channel (A) of the proboscis is formed From Riley and Howard, Insect Life, vol . 7 (U.S . Dept. some analogous sense. smaller than the by the interlocking of the grooved inner Agr.) . Often the feelers are metathorax . The faces of the flexible maxillae . FIG .

2.a, Feeler of Saturniid Moth (Telea excessively complex legs are of the typical t, See also:

• AIR (from an Indo-European root meaning " breathe," " blow ")
• AIR, or ASBEN

Air-See also:

• TUBE (Lat. tuba)

tube: See also:

• POLYPHEMUS

polyphemus). b, c, Tips of branches, highly in male moths whose h e x a p o d a n form n, See also:

• NERVE (Lat. nervus, Gr. vevpov, a bowstring)

Nerve . magnified. maxillae are so re- with five-segmented m, Muscle-See also:

• FIBRES
• FIBRES (or FIBERS, in American spelling; from Lat. fibra, apparently connected either with filum, thread, or findere, to split)

fibres . Highly magnified. duced that they take feet; the shins often no food in the imaginal state . The nature of the jaws has already See also:

• BEAR
• BEAR, BLACK
• BEAR, BROWN
• BEAR, GRIZZLY
• BEAR, ISABELLINE
• BEAR, WHITE

bear terminal and median spurs articulated at their bases and the been briefly described . Functional mandibles of peculiar form entire'limbs are clothed with scales . (fig . 3, A) are present in the remarkable small moths of the genus The wings of theLepidoptera may be said to dominatethe-structure Micropleryx (or Eriocephala), and there are vestiges of these jaws of the insect; only exceptionally, in certain See also:

• FEMALE

female moths, are they in other moths of See also:

• LOW, SETH (1850- )
• LOW, WILL HICOK (1853- )

low type, but the See also:

• MINUTE
• MINUTE (Lat. minutes, small; minuere, to make less)

minute structures in the higher vestigial or absent (fig . 17) . The forewing, with: its prominent See also:

• APEX

apex, Lepidoptera that were formerly described as mandibles are now is longer than the believed to belong to the labrum, the true mandibles being perhaps hindwing, and the represented by rounded prominences, neuration in both not articulated with the head-See also:

• CAPSULE (from the Lat. capsula, a small box)

capsule . (see See also:

• FIGS

figs . 5 and 6) is Throughout the order, as a whole, for the most part the jaws are adapted for sucking See also:

• LONGITUDINAL

longitudinal, only a liquid food, and the suctorial See also:

• PRO

pro- few transverse neeboscis (often erroneously called- a vures, which are, in " See also:

• TONGUE (O. Eng. lunge)

tongue ") is formed as was shown fact, branches of the by J . C .

See also:

• SAVIGNY, FRIEDRICH KARL VON (1779–1861)

Savigny in 1816 by two median See also:

• TRUNK (Fr. tronc, Lat. truncus, cut off, maimed)

trunk, elongated and flexible outgrowths of marking off a disthe first maxillae, usually regarded coidal areolet or as' representing the See also:

• OUTER

outer lobes or "See also:

• CELL (from Lat. cella, probably from an Indo-European kal —seen in Lat. celare, to hide; another suggestion connects the word with Lat. cera, wax, taking the original meaning to refer to the honeycomb)

cell " (fig . 5, a). galeae (fig . 4, A, B, g) . These struc- The five branches of tures are grooved along their inner the radial nervure faces and by means of a See also:

• SERIES (a Latin word from serere, to join)

series of (figs . 5, 6, 3) (see interlocking hair-like bristles can be HEXAPODA) are joined together so as to form a usually present in After A . See also:

• WALTER, HUBERT (d. 1205)
• WALTER, JOHN (1738/9-1812)

Walter (Jen . Zeiss . Jr. tubular sucker (fig . 4, C) . At their the forewing, but Natu,w. vol . 18). extremities they are beset with See also:

• CLUB (connected with " clump ")

club- the hindwing, in Fie . 3.—A, Mandible, and like sense-See also:

• ORGANS

organs, whose apparent most families, has B, 1st maxilla of Micropleryx See also:

• FUNCTION

function is that of See also:

• TASTE (from Lat. taxare, to touch sharply; tangere, to touch)

taste .

The pro- only a single radial (Eriocephala) . Magnified. boscis when in use is stretched out nervure; its anal a, Palp. d, Stipes. in front of the head and inserted area is, however, a, Galea . Cardo of into the corolla of a See also:

• FLOWER (Lat. flos, floris; Fr. fleur)
• FLOWER, SIB

flower or else- often more strongly b Lacinia. e ,, maxilla. where, for the absorption of liquid c, nourishment . When at See also:

• REST (O. Eng. rest, reste, bed, cognate with other Teutonic forms, e.g. Ger. Rast, Riiste, rest, and probably Gothic Rasta, league, i.e. resting or stopping place)

rest, the proboscis is rolled up into a See also:

• CLOSE
• CLOSE (from Lat. clausum, shut)
• CLOSE, MAXWELL HENRY (1822-1903)

close See also:

• SPIRAL

spiral beneath the head and between the labial palps (fig . 4, A, P) . Only in the genus Micropleryx mentioned above is the lacinia of the maxilla (as A . Walter has shown) developed (fig . 3, B, c) . The maxillary palp is usually a mere vestige (fig . 4, B, p) though it is conspicuous in a few families of small moths . A consider- a 2 t ~ si ? S2 See also:

• SIR

sir $3 a After A .

S . Packard, Mem . Nat, Acad . Sci. vol. vii: two wings of a See also:

• SIDE
• SIDE (mod. Eski Adalia)

side are usually kept together during See also:

• FLIGHT

flight by a few stout bristles—the frenulum—(fig . 5, f) projecting from the base of the See also:

• COSTA, GIOVANNI (1826–1903)
• COSTA, LORENZO (146o-r535)
• COSTA, SIR MICHAEL ANDREW AGNUS (1808-1884)

costa of the hindwing and fitting beneath a membranous See also:

• FOLD

fold or a few thickened scales—the retinaculum—on the under See also:

• SURFACE

surface of the forewing . In butterflies there is no frenulum, but a costal outgrowth of the hindwing subserves the same function . In the most See also:

• PRIMITIVE

primitive for example–the testes retain the primitive paired arrangement . These details have been worked out by various students, among whom W . H . See also:

• JACKSON
• JACKSON, ANDREW (1767-1845)
• JACKSON, CYRIL (1746-1819)
• JACKSON, FREDERICK GEORGE (186o– )
• JACKSON, HELEN MARIA (1831–1885)
• JACKSON, MASON (c. 1820-1903)
• JACKSON, THOMAS (1579-1640)
• JACKSON, THOMAS JONATHAN (1824-1863)
• JACKSON, WILLIAM (1730-1803)

Jackson and W . Petersen deserve See also:

• SPECIAL

special mention . Summing up the developmental See also:

• HISTORY

history of the genital ducts, Jackson remarks that there is " an Ephemeridal See also:

• STAGE (Fr. 6/age; from Lat. stare, to stand)

stage, which ends towards the close of larval life, an Orthopteran stage, indicated during the quiescent See also:

• PERIOD
• PERIOD (Gr. irepioSos, a going or way round, circuit, aepi, round, and &Sis, way, road)

period preceding pupation, and a Lepidopteran stage which begins with the commencement of pupal life." Development—Many observations have been made on the See also:

• EMBRYOLOGY

embryology of the Lepidoptera; for some of the more important moths a small lobate outgrowth—the jugum (fig .

6, j.)—from the dorsum of the forewing is present, but it can be of little service in keeping the two wings tlogether . A jugum may be also present on the hindwing . The legs, which are generally used for clinging rather than for walking, have five-segmented feet and are covered with scales . In some families the front pair are reduced and without tarsal segments . Ten abdominal segments are recognizable in many Lepidoptera, but the terminal segments are reduced or modified to form See also:

• EXTERNAL

external organs of See also:

• REPRODUCTION

reproduction . In the male, according to the See also:

• INTERPRETATION (from Lat. interpretari, to expound, explain, inter pres, an agent, go-between, interpreter; inter, between, and the root pret-, possibly connected with that seen either in Greek 4 p4'ew, to speak, or irpa-rrecv, to do)

interpretation of C . Pey- s toureau, the lateral plates belonging to the ninth segment form paired claspers beset with harpes, or series of ridges or See also:

• TEETH (O.E. Eel); plural of tooth, O.E. top)

teeth, while the tergum of the tenth segment forms a dorsal See also:

• HOOK, JAMES CLARKE (1819-1907)
• HOOK, THEODORE EDWARD (1788-1841)
• HOOK, WALTER FARQUHAR (1798-1875)

hook —the uncus—and its sternum a ventral See also:

• PROCESS

process or scaphium . In the female the terminal segments form, in some cases, a protrusible ovipositor, but g the typical hexapodan ovi- After Packard, Men . Nat . Acad . Sci. vol. vii. positor with its three pairs of processes is undeveloped Moth (Hepialid). j, Jugum . Ner- As already mentioned, vures numbered as in fig .

5 . See also:

• NOTE
• NOTE (Lat. nota, mark, sign, from noscere, to know)

Note the characteristic scales on that there are five branches to the the wings, legs and body radial nervure (No . 3) in both fore- of the Lepidoptera are and hindwing, and that the median cuticular structures . A trunk nervures (No . 4) See also:

• TRAVERSE

traverse the complete series of transi- discoidal areolet. tional forms can be traced between the most elaborate flattened scales (fig . 7, B) with numerous longitudinal striae and a simple arthropod " hair." Either a " hair " or a scale owes its origin to a special cell of the ectoderm (hypodermis), a process from which grows through the See also:

• GENERAL
• GENERAL (Lat. generalis, of or relating to a genus, kind or class)

general cuticle and forms around itself the substance of the cuticular appendage . The scales on the wings are arranged in See also:

• REGULAR

regular rows (fig . 7, A), and the general cuticle is See also:

• DRAWN

drawn out into a narrow neck or See also:

• COLLAR

collar around the base of each scale . The scales can be easily rubbed from the surface of the wing, and the series of collars in which the scales rest are then evident (fig . 7, A, c) on the wing-membrane . On the wings of many male butterflies there are specially modified scales—the androconia (fig . 7, C)—which are formed by glandular cells and diffuse a scented secretion .

In some cases, the androconia are mixed among the See also:

• ORDINARY (med. Lat. ordinarius, Fr. ordinaire)

ordinary scales; in others they are associated into conspicuous " brands " (see fig . 66) . The admirable See also:

• COLOURS, MILITARY

colours of the wings of the Lepidoptera are due partly to pigment in the scales—as in the See also:

• CASE
• CASE, JOHN (d. 1600)

case of yellows, browns, reds and blacks—partly to " interference " effects from the See also:

• FINE

fine striae on the scales—as with the blues, purples and greens . A few points of See also:

• INTEREST

interest in the in- ternal structure of the Lepidoptera deserve mention . The mouth opens into a sub-globular, See also:

• MUSCULAR

muscular pharynx which is believed to suck the liquid _ food through the proboscis, and force it along the slender gullet into a See also:

• CROP (a word common. in various forms, such as Germ. Kropf, to many Teutonic languages for a swelling, excrescence, round head or top of anything; it appears also in Romanic languages derived from Teutonic, in Fr. as troupe, whence the English " crupper "

crop-like enlargement or diverticulum of the B fore-put known as a " food-See also:

• RESERVOIR

reservoir" androconium more highly and gives off sub-oesophageal ganglia rare magnified . closely approximated; there are two or three thoracic and four (rarely five) abdominal ganglia . In the female each ovary has four ovarian tubes, in which the large See also:

• EGG (O.E. aeg, cf. Ger. Ei, Swed. aegg, and prob. Gr. u,ov, Lat. ovum)
• EGG, AUGUSTUS LEOPOLD (1816-1863)

egg-cells are enclosed in follicles and associated with nutritive cells . There is a special bursa which in the Hepialidae opens with the vagina on the eighth abdominal sternum . In the Micropterygidae, Eriocraniidae and the See also:

• LOWER

lower Tineides, the duct of the bursa leads into the vagina, which still opens on the eighth sternum . But in most Lepidoptera, the bursa opens by a See also:

• VESTIBULE (from Lat. vestibulum)

vestibule on the eighth sternum, distinct from the vagina, whose opening shifts back to the ninth, the duct of the bursa being connected with the vagina by a See also:

• CANAL
• CANAL (from Lat. canalis, " channel " and " kennel " being doublets of the word)

canal which opens opposite to the spermatheca . In the male, the two testes are usually fused into a single See also:

• MASS (O.E. maesse; Fr. messe; Ger. Messe; Ital. messa; from eccl. Lat. missa)
• MASS, IN

mass, and a pair of tubular See also:

• ACCESSORY

accessory glands open into the See also:

• VASA, or NIKOLAISTAD

vasa deferentia or into the ejaculatory duct . In a few families—the Hepialidae and Saturniidae results of these see HEXAPODA .

The See also:

• POST

post-embryonic development of Lepidoptera is more See also:

• FAMILIAR (through the Fr. familier, from Lat. familiaris, of or belonging to the familia, family)

familiar, perhaps, than that of any other See also:

• GROUP

group of animals . The egg shows See also:

• GREAT

great variation in its outward form, the outer envelope or chorion being in some families globular, in others flattened, in others again erect and sub-conical or cylindrical; while its surface often exhibits a beautifully regular series of ribs and furrows . Throughout the order the larva is of the form known as the caterpillar (fig . I, a, b, fig . 8 B) characterized by the presence of three pairs of jointed and clawed legs on the thorax and a variable number of pairs of abdominal " prolegs "—sub-cylindrical outgrowths of the abdominal segments, provided with a complete or incomplete circle of hooklets at the extremity . There are ten abdominal segments—the ninth often small and concealed; prolegs are usually present on the third, See also:

• FOURTH

fourth, fifth, See also:

• SIXTH

sixth and tenth of these segments . The head of the caterpillar (fig . 9) is large with firmly chitinized cuticle ; it carries usually twelve simple eyes or ocelli, a pair of See also:

• SHORT, FRANCIS JOB (1857– )

short feelers (fig . 9 At) and a pair of strong mandibles (fig . 9, Mn), for the caterpillar feeds by biting leaves or other plant-tissues . The first maxillae, so highly developed in the imago, are in the larva small and inconspicuous appendages, each bearing two short jointed processes,—the galea and the palp (fig . 9, Mx) .

The second maxillae form a See also:

• PLATE

plate-like labium on whose surface projects the Lm Mx spinneret which is usually regarded as a modified hypopharynx (fig . 9, FIG . 9.—Head of See also:

• GOAT (a common Teut. word; O. Eng. gat, Goth. gaits, Mod. Ger. Geiss, cognate with Lat. haedus, a kid)

Goat Moth Lm) . The See also:

• SILK

silk-glands whose ducts Caterpillar (Cossus) from be-open on this spinneret are paired See also:

• HIND

hind . Magnified . (From See also:

• MIALL, EDWARD (1809-1881)

Miall convoluted tubes lying alongside and Denny after Lyonnet.) the elongate cylindrical See also:

• STOMACH (Gr. vrbsaxos from arbga, a mouth)

stomach . At, Feeler . In the See also:

• COMMON

common " silkworm " these Mn, mandible . Elands are five times as long as the Mx, First maxilla. bony of the caterpillar . They are re- Lm, Second maxillae (Labgarded as modified salivary glands, 'um) with spinneret. though the See also:

• CORRESPONDENCE
• CORRESPONDENCE (from med. scholastic Lat. correspondentia, corrcspondere, compounded of Lat. cum, with, and respond ere, to answer; cf. Fr. correspondance)

correspondence has been doubted by some students . The body of the caterpillar is usually cylindrical and wormlike, with the 2 segmentation well marked and the cuticle feebly chitinized and 1 flexible . See also:

• FIRM

Firm chitinous plates are, however, not seldom present on the prothorax and on the hindmost abdominal segment .

The Legments are mostly provided with bristle or spine-bearing tubercles, whose arrangement has lately been shown by H . G . Dyar to give partially trustworthy indications of relationship . On either side of the median See also:

• LINE

line we find two dorsal or trapezoidal tubercles (Nos . I and 2), while around the spiracle are grouped (Nos . 3, 4 and 5) supra-, post-, and pre-spiracular tubercles; below are the subspiraculars, of which there may be two (Nos . 6, 7) . The last-named is situated on the base of the abdominal proleg, and yet another tubercle (No . 8) may be present on the inner aspect of the proleg . The spiracles are very conspicuous on the body of a caterpillar, occurring on the prothorax and on the first eight abdominal segments . Various tubercles may become coalesced or aborted (fig. to, B); often, in See also:

• CONJUNCTION (from Lat. conjungere, to join together)

conjunction with the spines that they bear, the tubercles serve as a valuable protective See also:

• ARMATURE (from Lat. armatura, armour)

armature for the caterpillar . Much discussion has taken See also:

• PLACE (through Fr. from Lat. platea, street; Gr. IrAar6s, wide)

place as to whether the abdominal prolegs are or are not developed directly from the embryonic abdominal appendages .

In the more lowly families of Lepidoptera, these organs are provided at the extremity with a complete circle of hooklets, but in the more highly organized familie:, only the inner See also:

• HALF

half of this circle is retained . The typical Lepidopteran pupa, or " chrysalis," as shown in the higher families, is an obtect pupa (fig . II) with no trace of mandibles, the appendages being glued to the body by an exudation, and A B B, after See also:

• GROTE, GEORGE (1794–1871)

Grote, Mitt. aus dem See also:

• ROEMER, FRIEDRICH ADOLPH (1809-1869)
• ROEMER, OLE (Latinized OLAUS) (1644—1710)

Roemer Museum, No . 6 . is explained in the See also:

• TEXT (Lat. textum, woven fabric, from texere, to weave)

text . Note that in FIG . 11.—Pupa B No . 2 is much reduced and disappears of a Butterfly after the first See also:

• MOULT

moult . 4 and g are (Amathusia phi- coalesced, and 6 is absent. dippus) . See also:

• MOTION (Lat. motio, from movere, to move)
• MOTION, LAWS OF

motion being possible only at three of the abdominal intersegmental regions, the fifth and sixth abdominal segments at most being " free." A flattened or pointed process—the cremaster—often prominent at the tail-end, may carry one or several hooks (fig . I, d) which serve to See also:

• ANCHOR (from the Greek ayrcvpa, which Vossius considers is from 6yi17 , a crook or hook)

anchor the pupa to its cocoon or to suspend butterfly-pupae from their See also:

• PAD

pad of silk (fig . II) .

In the lower families the pupa (fig . I, c) is only incompletely obtect, and a greater number of abdominal segments can move on one another . The seventh abdominal segment is, in all female lepidopterous pupae, fused with those behind it; in the male " incomplete " pupa this becomes " free " and so may the segments anterior to it, in both sexes, for-See also:

• WARD
• WARD, ADOLPHUS WILLIAM (1837- )
• WARD, ARTEMUS
• WARD, EDWARD MATTHEW (1816-1879)
• WARD, ELIZABETH STUART PHELPS (1844-1911)
• WARD, JAMES (1769--1859)
• WARD, JAMES (1843– )
• WARD, JOHN QUINCY ADAMS (1830-1910)
• WARD, LESTER FRANK (1841– )
• WARD, MARY AUGUSTA [MRS HUMPHRY WARD]
• WARD, WILLIAM (1766-1826)
• WARD, WILLIAM GEORGE (1812-1882)

ward to and including the third . The presence of circles of spines on the abdominal segments enables the " incomplete " pupa as a whole to See also:

• WORK

work its way partly out of the cocoon when the See also:

• TIME (0. Eng. Lima, cf. Icel. timi, Swed. timme, hour, Dan. time; from the root also seen in " tide," properly the time of between the flow and ebb of the sea, cf. O. Eng. getidan, to happen, " even-tide," &c.; it is not directly related to Lat. tempus)
• TIME, MEASUREMENT OF
• TIME, STANDARD

time for the emergence of the imago draws near . In the family of the Eriocraniidae (often called the Micropterygidae) the pupa resembles that of a caddis-See also:

• FLY (formed on the root of the supposed original Tent. fleugan, to fly)

fly (Trichopteron) being active before the emergence of the imago and provided with strong mandibles by means of which it bites its way out of the cocoon . The importance of the pupa in the phylogeny and classification of the Lepidoptera has lately been demonstrated by T . A . See also:

• CHAPMAN (from O. Eng. ceap, and Mid. Eng. ,heap, to barter, cf. " Cheapside " in London, and Ger. Kaufmann)
• CHAPMAN, GEORGE (? 1559–1634)

Chapman in a valuable series of papers . Sometimes organs are present in the pupa which are undeveloped in the imago, such as the maxillary palps of the Sesiidae (clearwing moths) and the pectination on the feelers of female Saturniids . E . B . Poulton has drawn See also:

• ATTENTION (from Lat. ad-tendo, await, expect; the condition of being " stretched " or " tense ")

attention to the ancestral value of such characters .

Habits and Life-Relations.—The attractiveness of the Lepidoptera and the conspicuous See also:

• APPEARANCE (from Lat. apparere, to appear)

appearance of many of them have led to numerous observations on their habits . The method of feeding of the imago by the suction of liquids has already been mentioned in connexion with the structure of the maxillae and the food-canal . See also:

• NECTAR

Nectar from See also:

• FLOWERS, ARTIFICIAL

flowers is the usual food of moths and butterflies, most of which alight on a blossom before thrusting the proboscis into the corolla of the flower, while others —the See also:

• HAWK (O. Eng. hafoc or heafoc, a common Teutonic word, cf. Dutch havik, Ger. Habicht; the root is hab-, haf-, to hold, cf. Lat. accipiter, from capere)

hawk moths (Sphingidae) for example—remain poised in theair in front of the flower by means of excessively rapid vibration of the wings, and quickly unrolling the proboscis sip the nectar . Certain flowers with remarkably long tubular corollas seem to be specially adapted for the visits of hawk moths . Some Lepidoptera have other See also:

• SOURCES

sources of food-See also:

• SUPPLY (through Fr. from Lat. supplere, to fill up)

supply . The juices of See also:

• FRUIT (through the French from the Lat. fructus; frui, to enjoy)

fruit are often sought for, and certain moths can See also:

• PIERCE, FRANKLIN (1804—1869)

pierce the envelope of a succulent fruit with the rough cuticular outgrowths at the tips of the maxillae, so as to reach the soft See also:

• TISSUE (Fr. tissu, tissue, participle of tisser, Lat. texere, to weave)

tissue within . See also:

• ANIMAL
• ANIMAL (Lat. animalis, from anima, breath, soul)

Animal juices attract other Lepidoptera, which have been observed to suck See also:

• BLOOD

blood from a wounded mammal; while putrid See also:

• MEAT

meat is a familiar " lure " for the gorgeous " See also:

• PURPLE

purple See also:

• EMPEROR (Fr. empereur, from the Lat. imperator)

emperor " butterfly (A pat ura See also:

• IRIS

iris) . The See also:

• WATER

water of streams or the See also:

• DEW

dew on leaves may be frequently sought by Lepidoptera desirous of quenching their thirst, possibly with fatal results, the insects being sometimes drowned in See also:

• RIVERS
• RIVERS, ANTHONY WOODVILLE, or WYDEVILLE, 2ND EARL (c. 1442—1483)
• RIVERS, EARL
• RIVERS, RICHARD SAVAGE, 4TH EARL (c. 1660—1712)

rivers in large See also:

• NUMBERS, BOOK OF
• NUMBERS, PARTITION OF

numbers . Members of several families of the Lepidoptera—the Hepialidae, Lasiocampidae and Saturniidae, for example—have the maxillae vestigial or aborted, and take no food at all after attaining the winged See also:

• CONDITION (Lat. condicio, from condicere, to agree upon, arrange; not connected with conditio, from condere, conditum, to put together)

condition . In such insects there is a complete " See also:

• DIVISION (from Lat. dividere, to break up into parts, separate)

division of labour " between the larval and the imaginal instars, the former being entirely devoted to nutritive, the latter to reproductive functions . Of much interest is the variety displayed among the Lepidoptera in the See also:

• SEASON (0. Fr. seson, seison, mod. saison, Lat. satio, sowing time, the spring, from serere, to sow; in Late Lat. the word is found with its present meaning, the spring being considered as particularly the season of the year)

season and the duration of the various instars . The brightly coloured vanessid butterflies, for example, emerge from the pupa in the See also:

• LATE

late summer and live through the See also:

• WINTER, JOHN STRANGE
• WINTER, PETER (c. 1755-1825)

winter in sheltered situations, reappearing to See also:

• LAY

lay their eggs in the succeeding See also:

• SPRING (from " to spring," " to leap or jump up," " burst out," O. Eng., springau, a common Teut. word, cf. Ger. springer, possibly allied to Gr. QnrFpxecOac, to move rapidly)

spring .

Many See also:

• SPECIES

species, such as the vapourer moths (Orgyia), lay eggs in the autumn, which remain unhatched through the winter . The eggs of the well-known See also:

• MAGPIE

magpie moths (See also:

• ABRAXAS, or ABRASAX

Abraxas) See also:

• HATCH
• HATCH, EDWIN (1835-1889)

hatch in autumn and the caterpillar hibernates while still quite small, awaiting for its growth the abundant food-supply to be afforded by the next See also:

• YEAR

year's foliage . The codlin moths (Carpocapsa) pass the winter as resting full-grown larvae, which seek shelter and spin cocoons in autumn, but do not pupate until the succeeding spring . Lastly, many of the Lepidoptera hibernate in the pupal stage; the See also:

• DEATH

death's head moth (Acherontia) and the See also:

• CABBAGE

cabbage-See also:

• WHITE
• WHITE, ANDREW DICKSON (1832– )
• WHITE, GILBERT (1720–1793)
• WHITE, HENRY KIRKE (1785-1806)
• WHITE, HUGH LAWSON (1773-1840)
• WHITE, JOSEPH BLANCO (1775-1841)
• WHITE, RICHARD GRANT (1822-1885)
• WHITE, ROBERT (1645-1704)
• WHITE, SIR GEORGE STUART (1835– )
• WHITE, SIR THOMAS (1492-1567)
• WHITE, SIR WILLIAM ARTHUR (1824--1891)
• WHITE, SIR WILLIAM HENRY (1845– )
• WHITE, THOMAS (1628-1698)
• WHITE, THOMAS (c. 1550-1624)

white butterflies (Pieris) are familiar examples of such . The last-named insects afford instances of the " See also:

• DOUBLE
• DOUBLE (from the Mid. Eng. duble, the form which gives the present pronunciation, through the Old Er. duble, from Lat. duplus, twice as much)

double-brooded " condition, two complete life-cycles being passed through in the year . The See also:

• FLOUR

flour moth (Ephestia kiihniella) is said to have five successive generations in a twelvemonth . On the other See also:

• HAND
• HAND (a word common to Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Hand, Goth. handus)
• HAND, FERDINAND GOTTHELF (1786-185r)

hand, certain species whose larvae feed in See also:

• WOOD, ANTHONY A2 (1632-1695)
• WOOD, JOHN GEORGE (1827—1889)
• WOOD, MRS HENRY [ELLEN] (1814—1887)
• WOOD, SEARLES VALENTINE (1798—188o)

wood or on roots take two or three years to reach the adult stage . The See also:

• RATE

rate of growth of the larva depends to a great extent on the nature of its food, and the feeding-habits of caterpillars afford much of interest and variety to the student . The contrast among the Lepidoptera between the suctorial mouth of the imago and the biting jaws of the caterpillar is very striking (cf. figs . 4 and q), and the profound transformation in structure which takes place is necessarily accompanied by the See also:

• CHANGE (derived through the Fr. from the Late Lat. cambium, cambiare, to barter; the ultimate derivation is probably from the root which appears in the Gr. «a urmu', to bend)

change from solid to liquid food . The first See also:

• MEAL

meal of a See also:

• YOUNG
• YOUNG, A
• YOUNG, ARTHUR (1741-1820)
• YOUNG, BRIGHAM (1801-1877)
• YOUNG, CHARLES MAYNE (1777–1856)
• YOUNG, EDWARD (1683–1765)
• YOUNG, JAMES (1811-1883)
• YOUNG, THOMAS (1773-1829)

young caterpillar is well known to be often its empty egg-See also:

• SHELL
• SHELL (O. Eng. scell, scyll, cf. Du. sceel, shell, Goth. skalja, tile; the word means originally a thin flake,. cf. Swed. skalja, to peel off; it is allied to " scale " and " skill," from a root meaning to cleave, divide, separate)

shell; from this it turns to feed upon the leaves whereon its provident See also:

• PARENT, SIMON NAPOLEON (1855– )

parent has laid her eggs . But in a few cases hatching takes place in winter or See also:

• EARLY
• EARLY, JUBAL ANDERSON (1816-1894)

early spring, and the young larvae have then to find a temporary food until their own special plant is available .

For example, the cater-pillars of some species of Xanthia and other noctuid moths feed at first upon See also:

• WILLOW (Salix)

willow-catkins . On the other hand, the caterpillars of the See also:

• PITH (O.E. pitca, cognate with Du. pit, kernel of a nut)

pith moth (Blastodacna) hatched at midsummer, feed on leaves when young, and burrow into woody shoots in autumn . All who have tried to See also:

• REAR

rear caterpillars know that, while those of some species will feed only on one particular species of plant, others will eat several species of the same genus or family, while others again are still less particular, some being able to feed on almost any See also:

• GREEN, A
• GREEN, ALEXANDER HENRY (1832—1896)
• GREEN, DUFF (1791—1875)
• GREEN, JOHN RICHARD (1837—1883)
• GREEN, MATTHEW (1696-1737)
• GREEN, THOMAS HILL (1836-1882)
• GREEN, VALENTINE (1739–1813)
• GREEN, WILLIAM HENRY (.1825–1900)

green See also:

• HERB (Lat. herba, grass, food for cattle, generally taken to represent the Old Lat. forbea, Gr. 4op(3i1, pasture, <0p/3Ew, to feed, Sans. bharb, to eat)

herb . It is curious to note how certain species change their food in different localities, a caterpillar confined to one plant in some localities being less particular elsewhere . Individual aberrations in food are of special interest in suggesting the starting-point for a change in the See also:

• RACE

race . When we consider the vast numbers of the Lepidoptera and the structural modifications which they have undergone, their generally faithful adherence to a See also:

• VEGETABLE

vegetable See also:

• DIET

diet is remarkable . The vast majority the smut-covered bark of the See also:

• TREE (0. Eng. treo, treow, cf. Dan. tree, Swed. Odd, tree, trd, timber; allied forms are found in Russ. drevo, Gr. opus, oak, and 36pv, spear, Welsh derw, Irish darog, oak, and Skr. dare, wood)
• TREE, SIR HERBERT BEERBOHM (1853- )

tree, it roams about during its later stages, devouring several coccids every See also:

• DAY (O. Eng. dreg, Ger. Tag; according to the New English Dictionary, " in no way related to the Lat. dies")
• DAY, JOHN (1574-1640?)
• DAY, THOMAS (1748-1789)

day . So nutritious is the food, that four or five successive broods follow each other through the summer . The See also:

• HABIT (through the French from Lat. habitus, from habere, to have, hold, or, in a reflective sense, to be in a certain condition; in many of the English senses the French use habitude, not habit)

habit just mentioned of forming some See also:

• KIND (O. E. ge-cynde, from the same root as is seen in " kin," supra)

kind of protective covering out of See also:

• FOREIGN

foreign substances spun together by silk is practised by caterpillars of different families . The clothes moth larvae (Tinea, fig . 14), for example, make a tubular dwelling out of caterpillars eat leaves, usually devouring them openly, and, if of large size, quickly reducing the amount of foliage on the plant . But many small caterpillars keep, apparently for the See also:

• SAKE

sake of concealment, to the under surface of the See also:

• LEAF (O. Eng. leaf, cf. Dutch loof, Ger. Laub, Swed. lof, &c.; possibly to be referred to the root seen in Gr. Ma-eta, to peel, strip)

leaf, while others burrow into the green tissue, forming a characteristic sinuous " mine " between the two leaf-skins .

In several families we find the habit of burrowing in woody stems,—the " goat " (Cossus, fig . 8) and the cicarwings (Sesiidae), for example, while others, like the larvae of the See also:

• SWIFT
• SWIFT, JONATHAN (1667—1745)

swift moths (Hepialidae) live underground devouring roots (fig .12) . The richer See also:

• NUTRITION

nutrition in the green food is usually shown by the quicker growth of the numerous cater-pillars that feed on it, as compared with the slower development of the wood and See also:

• ROOT (late O.E. rot, adopted from Scand., cf. Norw. and Swed. rot, Dan. rod; the true O.E. word was wyrt, plant, represented in Ger. Wurz or Wurzel; the ultimate root is the same in both words, and is seen in Lat. radix)
• ROOT, ELIHU (1845– )

root-feeding species . Aquatic larvae are very rare among the Lepidoptera The caterpillars of the pyralid " See also:

• CHINA

china-See also:

• MARK
• MARK, CARL (1858– )
• MARK, GOSPEL OF ST
• MARK, ST

mark " moths (Hydrocampa, fig . 13), however, live under water, feeding on See also:

• DUCKWEED

duckweed (Lonna) and breathing atmospheric air, a film of which is enclosed in a spun-up shelter beneath the leaves, while the larvae of Paraponyx, which feed on Stratiotes, have closed spiracles and breathe dissolved air by means of branchial filaments along the sides of the body: campa aquatilis (water moth) . We may now turn to instances of more anomalous modes of feeding . The clothes moths (Tineids) have invaded our dwellings and found a congenial food-stuff for their larvae in our garments . A few small species of the same group are reared in meal and other human food-stores; so are the caterpillars of some pyralid moths (Ephestia), while others (Asopia, Aglossa) feed upon See also:

• KITCHEN (O.E. cycene; this and other cognate forms, such as Dutch keuken, Ger. Kiuche, Dan. kokken, Fr. cuisine, are formed from the Low Lat. cucina, Lat. coquina, coquere, to cook)

kitchen refuse . Two species of crambid moths (Aphomia sociella and Galleria melonella) find a See also:

• HOME
• HOME, DANIEL DUNGLAS (1833-1886)
• HOME, EARLS OF

home in See also:

• BEE (Sanskrit blza, AS. ben, Lat. apis)

bee-hives, where their caterpillars feed upon the See also:

• WAX

wax, while the waxy secretion from the body of the great See also:

• AMERICAN

American See also:

• LANTERN (an adaptation of the Fr. lanterne from Lat. lanterna or laterna, supposed to be from Gr. Aa urritp, a torch or lamp, Aaµaew, to shine, cf. " lamp "; the 16th- and 17th-century form " lanthorn " is due to a mistaken derivation from " horn," as a m

lantern-fly (Fulgora candelaria) serves both as shelter and food for the caterpillar of the moth Epipyrops anomala . Very few caterpillars have developed a thoroughly carnivorous habit . That of Cosmia trapezina feeds on See also:

• OAK (O. Eng., (lc)

oak and other leaves, but devours smaller caterpillars which happen to get in its way, and if shaken from the tree, eats other larvae while climbing the trunk . Xylina ornithopus and a few other species are said to be always carnivorous when opportunity offers; the small looping caterpillar of a " pug " moth (Eupithecia coronata) has been observed to eat a larva three times as big as itself .

The caterpillars of Orthosia pistacina live together in See also:

• PEACE
• PEACE, BREACH OF THE

peace while their food is moist, but devour each other when it dries up; this is true See also:

• CANNIBALISM

cannibalism—a term which should not be applied to the habit of preying on another species . A few carnivorous caterpillars do not attack other caterpillars, but See also:

• PREY (0. Fr. preie, mod. proie, Lat. praeda, booty, from prae and the root hed—seen in prehendere, prendere, to grasp)

prey upon insects of another order; among these Fenescia tarquinius, which eats See also:

• APHIDES (pl. of Aphis)

aphides, and Erastria scitula, which feeds upon scale insects, must be reckoned as benefactors to mankind . The life-history of the latter moth has been worked out by H . Rouzaud . It inhabits the shores of the Mediterranean, and its caterpillar devours the coccids upon various fruit-trees, especially the See also:

• BLACK
• BLACK, ADAM (1784-1874)
• BLACK, JEREMIAH SULLIVAN (1810–1883)
• BLACK, WILLIAM (1841-1898)

black-scale (Lecanium oleae) of the See also:

• OLIVE (Olea europaea)

olive . The moth, which is a small noctuid, the white markings on whose wings give it the appearance of a See also:

• BIRD

bird-dropping when at rest in the daytime, appears in May, and See also:

• LAYS

lays her eggs, singly and far apart, upon the trees infested by the coccids . When hatched, the young caterpillar selects a large female coccid, eats its way through the scale, and devours the insect beneath; having done this it makes its way to a fresh victim . As it increases in size it forms a case for itself made of the scales of its victims, excrement, &c., See also:

• BOUND, or BOUNDARY (from O. Fr. bonde, Med. Lat. bodena or butina, a frontier line)

bound together by silk which it spins, and, protected by this covering, which closely resembles After Marlatt (after Riley), See also:

• BULL
• BULL, GEORGE (1634–1710)
• BULL, JOHN (c. 1562–1628)
• BULL, OLE BORNEMANN (18ro-188o)

Bull . 4, Div . Ent . U.S . Dept .

Agr . of its case . Magnified . of the pellets of See also:

• WOOL, WORSTED AND WOOLLEN MANUFACTURES

wool passed from their own intestines, while the allied Tortricid caterpillars See also:

• ROLL (O. Fr. rolle, roulle, mod. role, Lat. rotulus, dim. of rota, wheel)
• ROLL, ALFRED PHILIPPE (1846– )

roll up leaves and spin for themselves cylindrical shelters . The habit of See also:

• SPINNING (from O. Eng. spinnen, to spin, cf. Ger. spinnen, &c., the Teut. root is seen, to draw out, cf. span, spider)

spinning over the food plant a protective mass of See also:

• WEB (a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Du. webbe, Dan. vaev, Ger. Gewebe, all from the Teutonic wabh—to weave)

web, whereon the caterpillars of a family can live together socially is not uncommon . In the case of the small See also:

• ERMINE

ermine moths (Hyponomeuta) the caterpillars remain associated throughout their lives and pupate in cocoons on the mass of web produced by their common labour . But the larger, spiny caterpillars of the vanessid butterflies usually scatter away from the See also:

• NEST

nest of their See also:

• INFANCY

infancy when they have attained a certain size . Spines and hairs seem to be often effective protections for caterpillars; the experiments of E . B . Poulton and others tend to show that hairy caterpillars (fig . 15) are distasteful to birds . Many caterpillars are protected by the See also:

• HARMONY (Gr. dpµovia, a concord of musical sounds, dpA'ew to join; &plan midi (sc. TeXvil)

harmony of their general green coloration with their surroundings .

When the insect attains a large size—as in the case of the hawk moth (Sphingid) caterpillars—the extensive green surface becomes broken up by See also:

• DIAGONAL (Gr. &a, through, ywvia, a corner)

diagonal dark markings (fig . 46b), thus simulating the effect of See also:

• LIGHT

light and shade among the foliage . A remarkable result of Poulton's experiments has been the See also:

• ESTABLISHMENT (0. Fr. establissement, Fr. etablissement, late Norm. Fr. establishement, from O. Fr. establir, Fr. etablir, Lat. stabilire, to make stable)

establishment of a reflex effect through the skin on the See also:

• COLOUR (Lat. color, connected with celare, to hide, the root meaning, therefore, being that of a covering)

colour of a caterpillar . Some species of " loopers " (Geometridae, fig . 43) for example, if placed when young among surroundings of a certain colour, become closely assimilated thereto—dark See also:

• BROWN
• BROWN, CHARLES BROCKDEN (1771-181o)
• BROWN, FORD MADOX (1821-1893)
• BROWN, FRANCIS (1849- )
• BROWN, GEORGE (1818-188o)
• BROWN, HENRY KIRKE (1814-1886)
• BROWN, JACOB (1775–1828)
• BROWN, JOHN (1715–1766)
• BROWN, JOHN (1722-1787)
• BROWN, JOHN (1735–1788)
• BROWN, JOHN (1784–1858)
• BROWN, JOHN (1800-1859)
• BROWN, JOHN (1810—1882)
• BROWN, JOHN GEORGE (1831— )
• BROWN, ROBERT (1773-1858)
• BROWN, SAMUEL MORISON (1817—1856)
• BROWN, SIR GEORGE (1790-1865)
• BROWN, SIR JOHN (1816-1896)
• BROWN, SIR WILLIAM, BART
• BROWN, THOMAS (1663-1704)
• BROWN, THOMAS (1778-1820)
• BROWN, THOMAS EDWARD (1830-1897)
• BROWN, WILLIAM LAURENCE (1755–1830)

brown among dark twigs, green among green leaves . These colour-reflexes in conjunction with the elongate twig-like shape of the caterpillars and their habit of stretching themselves straight out from a See also:

• BRANCH (from the Fr. branche, late Lat. branca, an animal's paw)

branch, afford some of the best and most familiar examples of " protective resemblance." The " terrifying attitude " of caterpillars, and the supposed resemblance See also:

• BORNE, KARL LUDWIG (1786–1837)

borne by some of them to serpents and 'other formidable vertebrates or arthropods, are discussed in the See also:

• ARTICLE (from Lat. articulus, a joint)

article See also:

• MIMICRY

MIMICRY . The silk produced by a caterpillar is, as we have seen, often advantageous in its own life-relations, but its great use is in connexion with the pupal stage . In the life-history of many Lepidoptera, the last See also:

• ACT (Lat. actus, actum)

act of the caterpillar is to spin a cocoon which may afford See also:

• PROTECTION

protection to the pupa . In some cases this is formed entirely of the silk produced by the spinning-glands, and may vary from the loose meshwork that clothes the pupa of the See also:

• EUROPE

Europe . See also:

• DIAMOND

diamond-back moth (Plutella cruciferarum) to the densely See also:

• WOVEN

woven cocoon of the silkworms (Boinbycidae and Saturniidae) or the hard shell-like covering of the eggars (Lasiocampidae) . Fre- quently foreign substances are worked up with the silk and serve to strengthen the cocoon, such as hairs from the body of the caterpillar itself, as among the " tigers " (Arctiidae) or chips of wood, as with the See also:

• TIMBER

timber-burrowing larva of the " goat " (Cossus) . In many families of Lepidoptera we can trace a degeneration of the cocoon .

Thus, the pupae of most See also:

• OWL (O. Eng. Ule, Swed. Uggla, Ger. Eule—all allied to Lat. Ulula, and evidently of imitative origin)

owl moths (Noctuidae) and hawk moths (Sphingidae) See also:

• LIE, JONAS LAURITZ EDEMIL (1833—1908)
• LIE, MARIUS SOPHUS (1842–1899)

lie buried in an earthen cell . Among the butterflies we find that the cocoon is reduced to a pad of silk which gives See also:

• ATTACHMENT

attachment to the cremaster; in the Pieridae there is in addition a See also:

• GIRDLE (O. Eng. gyrdel, from gyrdan, to gird; cf. Ger. Gurtel, Dutch gordel, from giirten and gorden; "gird" and its doublet " girth " together with the other Teutonic cognates have been referred by some to the root ghar—to seize, enclose, seen in Gr. )(s

girdle of silk around the See also:

• WAIST

waist-region of the pupa, but the pupae of the Nym,phalidae (figs . 1 r, 65) simply hang from the supporting pad by the tail-end . Poulton has shown that the colours of some exposed pupae vary with the nature of the surroundings of the larva during the final stage . When the pupal stage is complete the insect has to make its way out of the cocoon . In the lower families of moths it is the pupa which comes out at least partially, working itself onwards by the spines on its abdominal segments; the pupa of the primitive Micropteryx has functional mandibles with which it bites through the cocoon . In the higher Lepidoptera the pupa is immovable, and the imago, after the ecdysis of the pupal cuticle, must emerge . This emergence is in some cases facilitated by the secretion of an See also:

• ACID (from the Lat. root ac-, sharp; acere, to be sour)

acid or alkaline solvent discharged from the mouth or from the hind-gut, which weakens the cocoon—so that the delicate moth can break through without injury . As might be expected, the conditions to which larva and pupa are subjected have often a marked See also:

• INFLUENCE (Late Lat. influentia, from influere, to flow in)

influence on the nature of the imago . An indifferent food-supply for the larva leads to a dwarfing of the moth or butterfly . Many converging lines of experiment and observation tend to show that cool conditions during the pupal stage frequently induce darkening of pigment in the imago, while a warm temperature brightens the colours of the perfect insect . For example, in many species of butterfly that are double-brooded, the spring brood emerging from the wintering pupae are more darkly coloured than the summer brood, but if the pupae producing the latter be subjected artificially to See also:

• COLD (in O. Eng. cald and ceald, a word coming ultimately from a root cognate with the Lat. gelu, gelidus, and common in the Teutonic languages, which usually have two distinct forms for the substantive and the adjective, cf. Ger. Kolte, kalt, Dutch koude

cold conditions, the winter form of imago results .

It is usually impossible, however, to produce the summer form of the species from wintering pupae by artificial See also:

• HEAT (0. E. haktu, which like " hot," Old Eng. hat, is from the Teutonic type haita, hit, to be hot; cf. Ger. hitze, heiss; Dutch, hitte, heet, &c.)

heat . From this A . See also:

• WEISMANN, AUGUST (1834– )

Weismann argued that the more See also:

• STABLE

stable winter form must be regarded as representing the ancestral race of the species . Further examples of this " seasonal dimorphism " are afforded by many tropical butterflies which possess a darker " wet-season " and a brighter " dry-season " See also:

• GENERATION (from Lat. generare, to beget, procreate; genus, stock, race)

generation . So different in appearance are often these two seasonal forms that before their true relationship was worked out they had been naturally regarded as See also:

• INDEPENDENT

independent species . The darkening of wing-patterns in many species of Lepidoptera has been carefully studied in our own See also:

• BRITISH

British See also:

• FAUNA

fauna . Melanic or melanochroic varieties are specially characteristic of western and hilly regions, and some remarkable dark races (fig . 43) of certain geometrid moths have arisen and become perpetuated in the manufacturing districts of the See also:

• NORTH
• NORTH, BARONS
• NORTH, MARIANNE (1830—1890)
• NORTH, ROGER (1653-1734)
• NORTH, SIR THOMAS (1535?-16o1?)

north of See also:

• ENGLAND
• ENGLAND, THE CHURCH OF

England . The See also:

• PRODUCTION (Lat. productionem, from producere, to pro-duce)

production of these melanic forms is explained by J . W . Tutt and others as largely due to the See also:

• ACTION

action of natural selection, the See also:

• DAMP

damp and sooty conditions of the districts where they occur rendering unusually dark the surfaces—such as rocks, tree-trunks and palings—on which moths habitually rest and so favouring the survival of dark, and the elimination of pale varieties, as the latterwould be conspicuous to their enemies . Breeding experiments have shown that these melanic races are sometimes " dominant " to their parent-stock .

An evidently adaptive connexion can be frequently traced between the resting situation and attitude of the insect and the colour and See also:

• PATTERN

pattern of its wings . Moths that rest with the hindwings concealed beneath the forewings (fig . 34, f) often have the latter dull and mottled, while the former are sometimes highly coloured . Butterflies whose normal resting attitude is with the wings closed vertically over the back (fig . 63) so that the under surface is exposed to view, often have this under surface mottled and inconspicuous although the upper surface may be See also:

• BRIGHT, JOHN (1811-188g)
• BRIGHT, SIR CHARLES TILSTON

bright with flashing colours . Various degrees of such " protective resemblance " can be traced, culminating in the wonderful " See also:

• IMITATION (Lat. imitatio, from intitari, to imitate)

imitation " of its surroundings shown by the tropical " leaf-butterflies " (Kallima), the under surfaces of whose wings, though varying greatly, yet form in every case a perfect See also:

• REPRESENTATION

representation of a leaf in some stage or other of decay, the butterfly at the same time disposing of the rest of its body so as to bear out the deception . How this is effected is best told by A . R . See also:

• WALLACE, ALFRED RUSSEL (1823— )
• WALLACE, LEWIS [LEW] (1827—1905)
• WALLACE, SIR RICHARD
• WALLACE, SIR WILLIAM (c. 1270-1305)
• WALLACE, WILLIAM (1768-1843)
• WALLACE, WILLIAM (1844-1897)
• WALLACE, WILLIAM VINCENT (1814-1865)

Wallace, who was the first to observe it, in his work The See also:

• MALAY

Malay See also:

• ARCHIPELAGO

Archipelago: " The habit of the species is always to rest on a twig and among dead or dried leaves, and in this position, witli the wings closely pressed together, their outline is exactly that of a moderately sized leaf slightly curved or shrivelled . The tail of the hindwings forms a perfect stalk and touches the stick, while the insect is supported by the See also:

• MIDDLE

middle pair of legs, which are not noticed among the twigs and fibres that surround it . The head and antennae are drawn back between the wings so as to be quite concealed, and there is a little notch hollowed out at the very base of the wings, which allows the head to be retracted sufficiently." But the British Vanessids often rest on a See also:

• BARE

bare patch of ground with the brightly coloured upper surface of their wings fully exposed to view, and even make themselves still more conspicuous by fanning their wings up and down . Some genera and families of Lepidoptera, believed to secrete noxious juices that render them distasteful, are adorned with the staring contrasts of colour usually regarded as " warning," while other genera, belonging to harmless families sought for as food by birds and lizards, are believed to obtain complete or partial See also:

• IMMUNITY (from Lat. immunis, not subject to a munus or public service)

immunity by their likeness to the conspicuous noxious groups .