See also:

• JOSEPH
• JOSEPH, COMTE DE (1785-1870)
• JOSEPH, FATHER (FRANCOIS LECLERC DU TREMBLAY) (1577-1638)

JOSEPH See also:

• BARBER (from Lat. barba, beard)

BARBER See also:

• LIGHTFOOT, JOHN (1602-1675)
• JOSEPH BARBER LIGHTFOOT (1828-1889)

LIGHTFOOT (1828-1889)  , See also:

• ENGLISH

English theologian and See also:

• BISHOP (A.S. bisceop, from Lat. episcopus, Gr. irio-Korros, " overlooker " or " overseer ")
• BISHOP, ISABELLA (1832-1904)
• BISHOP, SIR HENRY ROWLEY (1786-1855)

bishop of See also:

• DURHAM
• DURHAM, JOHN GEORGE LAMBTON, 1ST EARL OF (1792–1840)

Durham, was See also:

• BORN, IGNAZ, EDLER VON (1742–1791)

born at See also:

• LIVERPOOL
• LIVERPOOL, EARLS
• LIVERPOOL, EARLS OF

Liverpool on the 13th of See also:

• APRIL

April 1828 . His See also:

• FATHER

father was a Liverpool accountant . He was educated at See also:

• KING
• KING (O. Eng. cyning, abbreviated into cyng, cing; cf. O. H. G. chun- kuning, chun- kunig, M.H.G. kiinic, kiinec, kiinc, Mod. Ger. Konig, O. Norse konungr, kongr, Swed. konung, kung)
• KING [OF OCKHAM], PETER KING, 1ST BARON (1669-1734)
• KING, CHARLES WILLIAM (1818-1888)
• KING, CLARENCE (1842–1901)
• KING, EDWARD (1612–1637)
• KING, EDWARD (1829–1910)
• KING, HENRY (1591-1669)
• KING, RUFUS (1755–1827)
• KING, THOMAS (1730–1805)
• KING, WILLIAM (1650-1729)
• KING, WILLIAM (1663–1712)

King See also:

• EDWARD

Edward's school, See also:

• BIRMINGHAM

Birmingham, under See also:

• JAMES
• JAMES (Gr. 'IlrKw,l3or, the Heb. Ya`akob or Jacob)
• JAMES (JAMES FRANCIS EDWARD STUART) (1688-1766)
• JAMES, 2ND EARL OF DOUGLAS AND MAR(c. 1358–1388)
• JAMES, DAVID (1839-1893)
• JAMES, EPISTLE OF
• JAMES, GEORGE PAYNE RAINSFOP
• JAMES, HENRY (1843— )
• JAMES, JOHN ANGELL (1785-1859)
• JAMES, THOMAS (c. 1573–1629)
• JAMES, WILLIAM (1842–1910)
• JAMES, WILLIAM (d. 1827)

James See also:

• PRINCE
• PRINCE (Lat. princeps, from primus capio, " I am the first to take "; Ital. principe, Fr. prince)

Prince See also:

• LEE
• LEE (or LEGIT) ROWLAND (d. 1543)
• LEE, ANN (1736–1784)
• LEE, ARTHUR (1740–1792)
• LEE, FITZHUGH (1835–1905)
• LEE, GEORGE ALEXANDER (1802-1851)
• LEE, HENRY (1756-1818)
• LEE, JAMES PRINCE (1804-1869)
• LEE, NATHANIEL (c. 1653-16g2)
• LEE, RICHARD HENRY (1732-1794)
• LEE, ROBERT EDWARD (1807–1870)
• LEE, SIDNEY (1859– )
• LEE, SOPHIA (1950-1824)
• LEE, STEPHEN DILL (1833-1908)

Lee, afterwards bishop of See also:

• MANCHESTER
• MANCHESTER (popularly Manchester-by-the-Sea)
• MANCHESTER, EARLS AND DUKES OF

Manchester, and had as contemporaries B . F . See also:

• WESTCOTT, BROOKE FOSS (1825-1901)

Westcott and E . W . See also:

• BENSON, EDWARD WHITE (182g—1896)
• BENSON, FRANCIS ROBERT (1858— )
• BENSON, FRANK WESTON (1862— )
• BENSON, GEORGE (1699–1762)

Benson . In 1847 See also:

• LIGHTFOOT, JOHN (1602-1675)
• LIGHTFOOT, JOSEPH BARBER (1828-1889)

Lightfoot went up to Trinity See also:

• COLLEGE (Collegium)

College, See also:

• CAMBRIDGE
• CAMBRIDGE, EARLS AND DUKES OF
• CAMBRIDGE, RICHARD OWEN (1717-1802)

Cambridge, and there read for his degree with Westcott . He graduated See also:

• SENIOR, NASSAU WILLIAM (1790-1864)

senior classic and 3oth wrangler, and was elected a See also:

• FELLOW

fellow of his college . From 1854 to 1859 he edited the See also:

• JOURNAL
• JOURNAL (through Fr. from late Lat. diurnalis, daily)

Journal of Classical and Sacred See also:

• PHILOLOGY

Philology . In 1857 he became See also:

• TUTOR (Lat. tutor, guardian, tueri, to watch over, protect)

tutor and his fame as a See also:

• SCHOLAR, SCHOLARSHIP

scholar See also:

• GREW, NEHEMIAH (1641-1712)

grew rapidly . He was made Hulsean See also:

• PROFESSOR (the Latin noun formed from the verb profiteri, to declare publicly, to acknowledge, profess)

professor in 1861, and shortly afterwards See also:

• CHAPLAIN

chaplain to the Prince See also:

• CONSORT (Lat. consors, a companion)

Consort and honorary chaplain in See also:

• ORDINARY (med. Lat. ordinarius, Fr. ordinaire)

ordinary to the See also:

• QUEEN
• QUEEN (O.E. cwen, wife, related to "quean," O.E. cwene, a hussy; cf. Gr. yvvi7: from root gan-, to produce; cf. genus, " kin," &c.)

queen .

In 1866 he was See also:

• WHITEHALL

Whitehall preacher, and in 1871 he became See also:

• CANON

canon of St See also:

• PAUL
• PAUL (PAULUS)

Paul's . His sermons were not remarkable for eloquence, but a certain solidity and See also:

• BALANCE (derived through the Fr. from the Late Lat. bilantia, an apparatus for weighing, from bi, two, and lanx, a dish or scale)

balance of See also:

• JUDGMENT

judgment, an See also:

• ABSENCE (Lat. absentia)

absence of partisanship, a sobriety of expression combined with clearness and force of diction, attracted hearers and inspired them with confidence . As was written of him in The Times after his See also:

• DEATH

death, " his See also:

• PERSONAL

personal See also:

• CHARACTER (Gr. xapareri7p, from xap&crew, to scratch)

character carried immense See also:

• WEIGHT

weight, but his See also:

• GREAT

great position depended still more on the universally recognized fact that his belief in See also:

• CHRISTIAN
• CHRISTIAN, WILLIAM (1608-1663)

Christian truth and his See also:

• DEFENCE
• DEFENCE (Lat. defendere, to defend)

defence of it were supported by learning as solid and comprehensive as could be found anywhere in See also:

• EUROPE

Europe, and by a See also:

• TEMPER (from Lat. temperare, to mingle or compound in due proportion, to qualify, rule, regulate, to be moderate, formed from tempos, time, fit or due season)

temper not only of the utmost candour but of the highest scientific capacity . The days in which his university See also:

• INFLUENCE (Late Lat. influentia, from influere, to flow in)

influence was asserted were a See also:

• TIME (0. Eng. Lima, cf. Icel. timi, Swed. timme, hour, Dan. time; from the root also seen in " tide," properly the time of between the flow and ebb of the sea, cf. O. Eng. getidan, to happen, " even-tide," &c.; it is not directly related to Lat. tempus)
• TIME, MEASUREMENT OF
• TIME, STANDARD

time of much shaking of old beliefs . The disintegrating speculations of an influential school of See also:

• CRITICISM
• CRITICISM (from the Gr. KpiTrlS, a judge, Kpivew, to decide, to give an authoritative opinion)

criticism in See also:

• GERMANY
• GERMANY (Ger. Deutschland)

Germany were making their way among English men of culture just about the time, as is usually the See also:

• CASE
• CASE, JOHN (d. 1600)

case, when the See also:

• TIDE (O. Eng. lid, cf. Ger. Zeit, time or season, connected with root of Sanskrit a-diti, endless)

tide was turning against them in their own See also:

• COUNTRY (from the Mid. Eng. contre or contrie, and O. Fr. cuntree; Late Lat. contrata, showing the derivation from contra, opposite, over against, thus the tract of land which fronts the sight, cf. Ger. Gegend, neighbourhood)

country . The See also:

• PECULIAR

peculiar service which was rendered at this juncture by the ` Cambridge School' was that, instead of opposing a See also:

• MERE
• MERE, ADALBERT (1838-1909)

mere dogmatic opposition to the See also:

• TUBINGEN

Tubingen critics, they met them frankly on their own ground; and instead of arguing that their conclusions ought not to be and could not be true, they simply proved that their facts and their premisses were wrong . It was a characteristic of equal importance that Dr Lightfoot, like Dr Westcott, never discussed these subjects in the mere spirit of controversy . It was always patent that what he was chiefly concerned with was the substance and the See also:

• LIFE

life of Christian truth, and that his whole energies were employed in this inquiry because his whole See also:

• HEART
• HEART, LUNG

heart was engaged in the truths and facts which were at stake . He was not diverted by controversy to See also:

• SIDE
• SIDE (mod. Eski Adalia)

side-issues; and his labour was devoted to the See also:

• POSITIVE (or PORTABLE) ORGAN

positive elucidation of the sacred documents in which the Christian truth is enshrined." In 1872 the See also:

• ANONYMOUS

anonymous publication of Supernatural See also:

• RELIGION
• RELIGION, FOLKLORE, CUSTOM

Religion created considerable sensation . In a See also:

• SERIES (a Latin word from serere, to join)

series of masterly papers in the Contemporary See also:

• REVIEW (Fr. revue, from revoir, to see again, Lat. re and videre)

Review, between See also:

• DECEMBER (Lat. decent, ten)

December 1874 and May 1877, Lightfoot successfully undertook the defence of the New Testament canon . The articles were published in collected See also:

• FORM (Lat. forma)

form in 1889 . About the same time he was engaged in contributions to W .

See also:

• SMITH
• SMITH, ADAM (1723–1790)
• SMITH, ALEXANDER (183o-1867)
• SMITH, ANDREW JACKSON (1815-1897)
• SMITH, CHARLES EMORY (1842–1908)
• SMITH, CHARLES FERGUSON (1807–1862)
• SMITH, CHARLOTTE (1749-1806)
• SMITH, COLVIN (1795—1875)
• SMITH, EDMUND KIRBY (1824-1893)
• SMITH, G
• SMITH, GEORGE (1789-1846)
• SMITH, GEORGE (184o-1876)
• SMITH, GEORGE ADAM (1856- )
• SMITH, GERRIT (1797–1874)
• SMITH, GOLDWIN (1823-191o)
• SMITH, HENRY BOYNTON (1815-1877)
• SMITH, HENRY JOHN STEPHEN (1826-1883)
• SMITH, HENRY PRESERVED (1847– )
• SMITH, JAMES (1775–1839)
• SMITH, JOHN (1579-1631)
• SMITH, JOHN RAPHAEL (1752–1812)
• SMITH, JOSEPH, JR
• SMITH, MORGAN LEWIS (1822–1874)
• SMITH, RICHARD BAIRD (1818-1861)
• SMITH, ROBERT (1689-1768)
• SMITH, SIR HENRY GEORGE WAKELYN
• SMITH, SIR THOMAS (1513-1577)
• SMITH, SIR WILLIAM (1813-1893)
• SMITH, SIR WILLIAM SIDNEY (1764-1840)
• SMITH, SYDNEY (1771-1845)
• SMITH, THOMAS SOUTHWOOD (1788-1861)
• SMITH, WILLIAM (1769-1839)
• SMITH, WILLIAM (c. 1730-1819)
• SMITH, WILLIAM (fl. 1596)
• SMITH, WILLIAM FARRAR (1824—1903)
• SMITH, WILLIAM HENRY (1808—1872)
• SMITH, WILLIAM HENRY (1825—1891)
• SMITH, WILLIAM ROBERTSON (1846-'894)

Smith's See also:

• DICTIONARY

Dictionary of Christian See also:

• BIOGRAPHY (from the Gr. (3ios, life, and yp&4 , writing)

Biography and Dictionary of the See also:

• BIBLE
• BIBLE, ENGLISH

Bible, and he also joined the See also:

• COMMITTEE (from commute, an Anglo-Fr. past participle of commettre, Lat. committere, to entrust; the modern Fr. equivalent comite is derived from the Eng.)

committee for revising the See also:

• TRANSLATION

translation of the New Testament . In 1875 he became See also:

• LADY (0. Eng. hlaefdige, Mid. Eng. ldfdi, lavedi; the first part of the word is hldf, loaf, bread, as in the corresponding hldford, lord; the second part is usually taken to be from the root dig-, to knead, seen also in " dough "; the sense development fr

Lady See also:

• MARGARET
• MARGARET (1283–1290)
• MARGARET (1353-1412)
• MARGARET (1489–1541)
• MARGARET, ST (c. 1045–1093)
• MARGARET, ST (SANCTA MARGARITA)

Margaret professor of divinity in See also:

• SUCCESSION (Lat. successio, from succedere, to follow after)

succession to See also:

• WILLIAM
• WILLIAM (1143-1214)
• WILLIAM (1227-1256)
• WILLIAM (1J33-1584)
• WILLIAM (A.S. Wilhelm, O. Norse Vilhidlmr; O. H. Ger. Willahelm, Willahalm, M. H. Ger. Willehelm, Willehalm, Mod.Ger. Wilhelm; Du. Willem; O. Fr. Villalme, Mod. Fr. Guillaume; from " will," Goth. vilja, and " helm," Goth. hilms, Old Norse hidlmr, meaning
• WILLIAM (c. 1130-C. 1190)
• WILLIAM, 13TH

William See also:

• SELWYN, ALFRED RICHARD CECIL (1824-1902)
• SELWYN, GEORGE AUGUSTUS (1719-1791)
• SELWYN, GEORGE AUGUSTUS (1809-1878)

Selwyn . He had previously written his commentaries on the epistles to the See also:

• GALATIANS, EPISTLE TO THE

Galatians (1865), See also:

• PHILIPPIANS, EPISTLE TO THE

Philippians (1868) and See also:

• COLOSSIANS, EPISTLE TO THE

Colossians (1875), the notes to which were distinguished by See also:

• SOUND
• SOUND, THE (Danish Oresund)

sound judgment and enriched from his large See also:

• STORE (from O. Fr. estor or estoire, Late Lat. staurum or instaurum, stock, provisions, supply, from the late use of instaurare, to provide, properly to construct, renew, restore)

store of patristic and classical learning . These commentaries may be described as to a certain extent a new departure in New Testament exegesis . Before Lightfoot's time commentaries, especially on the epistles, had not infrequently consisted either of See also:

• SHORT, FRANCIS JOB (1857– )

short homilies on particular portions of the See also:

• TEXT (Lat. textum, woven fabric, from texere, to weave)

text, or of endeavours to enforce foregone conclusions, or of attempts to decide with See also:

• INFINITE (from Lat. in, not, finis, end or limit; cf. findere, to deave)

infinite See also:

• INDUSTRY (Lat. industria, from indu-, a form of the pre, position in, and either stare, to stand, or struere, to pile up)

industry and ingenuity between the interpretations of former commentators . Lightfoot, on the contrary, endeavoured to make his author interpret himself, and by considering the See also:

• GENERAL
• GENERAL (Lat. generalis, of or relating to a genus, kind or class)

general See also:

• DRIFT (from "drive ")

drift of his See also:

• ARGUMENT

argument to discover his meaning where it appeared doubtful . Thus he was able often to recover the meaning of a passage which had See also:

• LONG, GEORGE (1800-1879)
• LONG, JOHN DAVIS (1838– )

long been buried under a heap of contradictory glosses, and he founded a school in which sobriety and See also:

• COMMON

common sense were added to the industry and ingenuity of former commentators . In 1879 Lightfoot was consecrated bishop of Durham in succession to C . See also:

• BARING

Baring . His moderation, See also:

• GOOD, JOHN MASON (1764-1827)

good sense, See also:

• WISDOM, BOOK OF, or WISDOM OF SOLOMON (Sept. Io4ia IaXwµwvos; Lat. Vulg. Liber sapientiae)

wisdom, temper, firmness and erudition made him as successful in this position as he had been when professor of See also:

• THEOLOGY

theology, and he speedily surrounded himself with a See also:

• BAND

band of scholarly See also:

• YOUNG
• YOUNG, A
• YOUNG, ARTHUR (1741-1820)
• YOUNG, BRIGHAM (1801-1877)
• YOUNG, CHARLES MAYNE (1777–1856)
• YOUNG, EDWARD (1683–1765)
• YOUNG, JAMES (1811-1883)
• YOUNG, THOMAS (1773-1829)

young men . He endeavoured to combine his habits of theological study with the See also:

• PRACTICAL

practical See also:

• WORK

work of See also:

• ADMINISTRATION (Lat. administrare, to serve)

administration . He exercised a large liberality and did much to further the work of See also:

• TEMPERANCE

temperance and purity organizations .

He continued to work at his See also:

• EDITIONS

editions of the Apostolic Fathers, and in 1885 published an edition of the Epistles of See also:

• IGNATIUS ('Iyvfrior)

Ignatius and See also:

• POLYCARP (c. 6g-c. 155)

Polycarp,627 See also:

• COLLECTING

collecting also a large store of valuable materials for a second edition of See also:

• CLEMENT (Lat. Clemens, i.e. merciful; Gr. K)4gs)
• CLEMENT, FRANCOIS (1714-1793)
• CLEMENT, JACQUES (1567-1589)

Clement of See also:

• ROME
• ROME (Roma)

Rome, which was published after his death (1st ed., 1869) . His defence of the authenticity of the Epistles of Ignatius is one of the most important contributions to that very difficult controversy . His unremitting labours impaired his See also:

• HEALTH

health and shortened his splendid career at Durham . He was never married . He died at See also:

• BOURNEMOUTH

Bournemouth on the 21st of December 1889, and was succeeded in the episcopate by Westcott, his schoolfellow and lifelong friend . Four volumes of his Sermons were published in 189o . LIGHTHOUSE, a form of See also:

• BUILDING

building erected to carry a See also:

• LIGHT

light for the purpose of warning or guidance, especially at See also:

• SEA (in O. Eng. sae, a common Teutonic word; cf. Ger. See, Dutch Zee, &c.; the ultimate source is uncertain)
• SEA, COMMAND OF THE

sea . I . See also:

• EARLY
• EARLY, JUBAL ANDERSON (1816-1894)

EARLY See also:

• HISTORY

HISTORY.—The earliest lighthouses, of which records exist, were the towers built by the Libyans and Cushites in See also:

• LOWER

Lower See also:

• EGYPT

Egypt, See also:

• BEACON (from the O. Eng. beacn, a sign, cf. " beckon," another form of the same word)

beacon fires being maintained in some of them by the priests . See also:

• LESCHES (Lescheos in Pausanias x. 25. 5)

Lesches, a See also:

• GREEK
• GREEK, ETRUSCAN AND

Greek poet (c.66o B.C.) mentions a lighthouse at Sigeum (now Cape Incihisari) in the See also:

• TROAD, CERAMICS, PLATE

Troad . This appears to have been the first light regularly maintained for the guidance of mariners . The famous Pharos 1 of See also:

• ALEXANDRIA
• ALEXANDRIA (Arab. Iskenderia)

Alexandria, built by Sostratus of See also:

• CNIDUS (mod. Tekir)

Cnidus in the reign of See also:

• PTOLEMY (CLAUDIUS PTOLEMAEUS)

Ptolemy II .

(283–247 B.C.) was regarded as one of the wonders of the See also:

• WORLD

world . The See also:

• TOWER (Lat. turris; Fr. tour, clocker; Ital. torre; Ger. Thurm)

tower, which took its name from that of the small See also:

• ISLAND (O.E. ieg =isle, +land')

island on which it was built, is said to have been 600 ft. in height, but the See also:

• EVIDENCE (Lat. evidentia, evideri, to appear clearly)

evidence in support of this statement is doubtful . It was destroyed by an See also:

• EARTHQUAKE

earthquake in the 13th See also:

• CENTURY (from Lat. centuria, a division of a hundred men)

century, but remains are said to have been visible as See also:

• LATE

late as 1350 . The name Pharos became the general See also:

• TERM

term for all lighthouses, and the term " pharology " has been used for the See also:

• SCIENCE (Lat. scientia, from scire; to learn, know)

science of lighthouse construction . The tower at See also:

• OSTIA

Ostia was built by the See also:

• EMPEROR (Fr. empereur, from the Lat. imperator)

emperor See also:

• CLAUDIUS
• CLAUDIUS [TIBERIUS CLAUDIUS DRUSUS NERO GERMANICUS]
• CLAUDIUS, MARCUS AURELIUS
• CLAUDIUS, MATTHIAS (174o-1815)

Claudius (A.D . 50) . Other famous See also:

• ROMAN

Roman lighthouses were those at See also:

• RAVENNA
• RAVENNA, EXARCHATE OF

Ravenna, See also:

• POZZUOLI (anc. Puteoli, q.v.)

Pozzuoli and See also:

• MESSINA

Messina . The See also:

• ANCIENT
• ANCIENT (also spelt ANTIENT; derived, through the Fr. ancien, old, from the late Lat. antianum, from ante, before)

ancient Pharos at See also:

• DOVER
• DOVER, GEORGE JAMES WELBORE
• DOVER, HENRY JERMYN, EARL OF (c. 1636-1708)
• DOVER, ROBERT (1575-1641)

Dover and that at See also:

• BOULOGNE, or BOULLONGNE

Boulogne, later known as la Tour d'Ordre, were built by the See also:

• ROMANS
• ROMANS, EPISTLE TO THE

Romans and were probably the earliest lighthouses erected in western Europe . Both are now demolished . The light of Cordouan, on a See also:

• ROCK
• ROCK (O.Fr. rake, Sp. rota, Ital. rocca; possibly from a Lat. form rupica, from rupes, rock)
• ROCK, DANIEL (1799–187t)

rock in the sea at the mouth of the See also:

• GIRONDE

Gironde, is the earliest example now existing of a See also:

• WAVE

wave-swept tower . Earlier towers on the same rock are attributed the first to See also:

• LOUIS
• LOUIS (804–876)
• LOUIS (893–911)
• LOUIS, JOSEPH DOMINIQUE, BARON (1755-1837)
• LOUIS, or LEWIS (from the Frankish Chlodowich, Chlodwig, Latinized as Chlodowius, Lodhuwicus, Lodhuvicus, whence-in the Strassburg oath of 842-0. Fr. Lodhuwigs, then Chlovis, Loys and later Louis, whence Span. Luiz and—through the Angevin kings—Hungarian

Louis le Debonnaire (c . A.D .

805) and the second to Edward the See also:

• BLACK
• BLACK, ADAM (1784-1874)
• BLACK, JEREMIAH SULLIVAN (1810–1883)
• BLACK, WILLIAM (1841-1898)

Black Prince . The existing structure was begun in 1584 during the reign of See also:

• HENRI

Henri II. of See also:

• FRANCE
• FRANCE, ANATOLE (1844– )

France and completed in 1611 . The upper See also:

• PART

part of the beautiful See also:

• RENAISSANCE, THE

Renaissance building was removed towards the end of the 18th century and replaced by a loftier cylindrical structure rising to a height of 207 ft. above the rock and with the See also:

• FOCAL

focal See also:

• PLANE

plane of the light 196 ft. above high See also:

• WATER

water (fig . I) . Until the 18th century the light exhibited from the tower was from an See also:

• OAK (O. Eng., (lc)

oak See also:

• LOG (a word of uncertain etymological origin,possibly onomatopoeic; the New English Dictionary rejects the derivation from Norwegian lag, a fallen tree)

log See also:

• FIRE (in O. Eng. f j'r; the word is common to West German languages, cf. Dutch vuur, Ger. Feuer; the pre-Teutonic form is seen in Sanskrit pu, pavaka, and Gr. irup; the ultimate origin is usually taken to be a root meaning to purify, cf. Lat. purus)

fire, and subsequently a See also:

• COAL

coal fire was in use for many years . The ancient tower at See also:

• CORUNNA
• CORUNNA (Span. La Coruna; Fr. La Corogne; Eng. formerly often The Groyne)

Corunna, known as the See also:

• PILLAR (0. Fr. piler, Mod. pilier, Late Lat. pilare, from pila, column)

Pillar of See also:

• HERCULES
• HERCULES (0. Lat. Hercoles, Hercles)

Hercules, is supposed to have been a Roman Pharos . The Torre del See also:

• CAPO

Capo at See also:

• GENOA (anc. Genua, Ital. Genova, Fr. GPnes)

Genoa originally stood on the promontory of See also:

• SAN

San Berrique . It was built in 1139 and first used as a lighthouse in 1326 . It was rebuilt on its See also:

• PRESENT

present site in 1643 . This beautiful tower rises 236 ft. above the cliff, the light being elevated 384 ft. above sea-level . A See also:

• LENS
• LENS (from Lat. lens, lentil, on account of the similarity of the form of a lens to that of a lentil seed)

lens light was first installed in 1841 . The Pharos of See also:

• MELORIA

Meloria was constructed by the Pisans in 1154 and was several times rebuilt until finally destroyed in 1290 .

On the See also:

• ABANDONMENT (Fr. abandonnement, from abandonner, to abandon, relinquish; abandonner was originally equivalent to mettred banddn, to leave to the jurisdiction, i.e. of another, bandon being from Low Latin bandum, bannum, order, decree, " ban ")

abandonment of Meloria by the Pisans, they erected the still existing tower at See also:

• LEGHORN (Ital. Livorno, Fr. Livourne)

Leghorn in 1304 . In the 17th and 18th centuries numerous towers, on which were erected braziers or grates containing See also:

• WOOD, ANTHONY A2 (1632-1695)
• WOOD, JOHN GEORGE (1827—1889)
• WOOD, MRS HENRY [ELLEN] (1814—1887)
• WOOD, SEARLES VALENTINE (1798—188o)

wood or coal fires, were established in various positions on the coasts of Europe . Among such stations in the See also:

• UNITED

United See also:

• KINGDOM

Kingdom were See also:

• TYNEMOUTH

Tynemouth (c . 16o8), the Isle of May (1636),.St See also:

• AGNES, SAINT

Agnes (168o), St Bees (1718) and the See also:

• LIZARD (Lat. lacertal)

Lizard (1751) . The See also:

• OLDEST

oldest lighthouse in the United States is believed to be the See also:

• BOSTON
• BOSTON, THOMAS (1676-1732)

Boston light situated on Little See also:

• BREWSTER, SIR DAVID (1781–1868)
• BREWSTER, WILLIAM (c. 1566–1644)

Brewster Island on the See also:

• SOUTH
• SOUTH, ROBERT (1634–1716)

south side of the See also:

• MAIN (from the Aryan root which appears in " may " and " might," and Lat. magnus, great)
• MAIN (Lat. Moenus)

main entrance to Boston See also:

• HARBOUR (from M.E. hereberge, here, an army; cf. Ger. Heer and -beorg, protection or shelter. Other early forms in English were herberwe and haiborow, as seen in various place names, such as Market Harborough.. The French auberge, an inn, derived through

Harbour, See also:

• MASS (O.E. maesse; Fr. messe; Ger. Messe; Ital. messa; from eccl. Lat. missa)
• MASS, IN

Mass . It was established in 1716, the present structure dating from 1859 . During the See also:

• AMERICAN

American See also:

• WAR
• WAR (O. Eng. werre, Fr. guerre, of Teutonic origin; cf. O.H.G. werran, to confound)

War of See also:

• INDEPENDENCE
• INDEPENDENCE, DECLARATION OF
• INDEPENDENCE, WAR OF

Independence the lighthouse suffered many vicissitudes and was successively destroyed and rebuilt three times by the American or See also:

• BRITISH

British A full See also:

• ACCOUNT
• ACCOUNT (through O. Fr. acont, Late Lat. comptum, cornputare, to calculate)

account is given in See also:

• HERMANN, JOHANN GOTTFRIED JAKOB (1772–1848)
• HERMANN, KARL FRIEDRICH (1804–1855)

Hermann See also:

• THIERSCH, FRIEDRICH WILHELM (1784-1860)

Thiersch, Pharos Antike, See also:

• ISLAM

Islam and Occident (1909) . See also See also:

• MINARET (from the Arabic mandrat ; manar or miner is Arabic for a lighthouse, a tower on which liar, fire, is lit)

MINARET . forces . At the third rebuilding in 1783 a See also:

• STONE
• STONE (0. Eng. shin; the word is common to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Stein, Du. steen, Dan. and Swed. sten; the root is also seen in Gr. aria, pebble)
• STONE, CHARLES POMEROY (1824-1887)
• STONE, EDWARD JAMES (1831-1897)
• STONE, FRANK (1800-1859)
• STONE, GEORGE (1708—1764)
• STONE, LUCY [BLACKWELL] (1818-1893)
• STONE, MARCUS (184o— )
• STONE, NICHOLAS (1586-1647)

stone tower 68 ft. in height was erected, the illuminant consisting of four oil lamps . Other early lighthouse structures on the New See also:

• ENGLAND
• ENGLAND, THE CHURCH OF

England See also:

• COAST (from Lat. costa, a rib, side)

coast were those at See also:

• BEAVER
• BEAVER (from Fr. baviere, a child's bib, from bane, saliva)

Beaver Tail, near the entrance to See also:

• NEWPORT

Newport Harbour (1740), and the See also:

• BRANT, JOSEPH (1742-1807)
• BRANT, SEBASTIAN (1457-1521)

Brant at the entrance to See also:

• NANTUCKET

Nantucket Harbour (1754) . A See also:

• WATCH (in O. Eng. wcecce, a keeping guard or watching, from wacian, to guard, watch, wacan, to wake)

watch-See also:

• HOUSE
• HOUSE (O. Eng. hiss, a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Dut. huis, Ger. Haus; in Gothic it is only found in gudhiss, a temple; it may be ultimately connected with the root of " hide," conceal)

house and beacon appear to have been erected on Beacon or Lighthouse Island as well as on Point Allerton See also:

• HILL
• HILL (0. Eng. hyll; cf. Low Ger. hull, Mid. Dutch hul, allied to Lat. celsus, high, collis, hill, &c.)
• HILL, A
• HILL, AARON (1685-175o)
• HILL, AMBROSE POWELL
• HILL, DANIEL HARVEY (1821-1889)
• HILL, DAVID BENNETT (1843–1910)
• HILL, GEORGE BIRKBECK NORMAN (1835-1903)
• HILL, JAMES J
• HILL, JOHN (c. 1716-1775)
• HILL, MATTHEW DAVENPORT (1792-1872)
• HILL, OCTAVIA (1838– )
• HILL, ROWLAND (1744–1833)
• HILL, SIR ROWLAND (1795-1879)

Hill near Boston, See also:

• PRIOR (from Lat. prior—former, and hence superior, through O. Fr. priour)
• PRIOR, MATTHEW (1664-1721)

prior to 1673, but these structures would seem to have been in the nature of look-out stations in time of war rather than lighthouses for the guidance of mariners .

2 . LIGHTHOUSE STRUCTURES.—The structures of lighthouses may be divided into two classes, (a) those on rocks, shoals or in other situations exposed to the force of the sea, and (b) the more numerous class of See also:

• LAND

land structures . Wave-swept Towers.—In determining the See also:

• DESIGN (Fr. desiin, drawing; Lat. designare, to mark out)

design of a lighthouse tower to be erected in a wave-swept position See also:

• CONSIDERATION (from Lat. considerare, to look at closely, examine, generally taken to be from con-, and the base seen in sidus, sideris, a star, the word being supposed to be originally an astrological or astronomical term)

consideration must be given to the See also:

• PHYSICAL

physical features of the site and its surroundings . Towers of this description are classified as follows: (i) See also:

• MASONRY

Masonry and See also:

• CONCRETE
• CONCRETE (Lat. concretes, participle of concrescere, to grow together)

concrete structures; (2) Openwork See also:

• STEEL, FLORA ANNIE (1847– )

steel and See also:

• IRON [symbol Fe, atomic weight 55.85 (0=16)]

iron-framed erections on See also:

• PILE

pile or other See also:

• FOUNDATIONS

foundations; (3) See also:

• CAST (from the verb meaning " to throw "; the word is Scand. in origin, cf. Dan. kaste, and Swed. kasta; " cast " in Middle Eng. took the place of the A.S. weor pan, cf. Ger. werf en)

Cast iron plated towers; (4) Structures erected on See also:

• CYLINDER (Gr. KvAwSpos, from KvXivaety, to roll)

cylinder foundations . (I) Masonry Towers.—Masonry or concrete towers are generally preferred for erection on wave-swept rocks affording good See also:

• FOUNDATION (Lat. fundatio, from fundare, to found)

foundation, and have also been constructed in other situations where adequate foundations have been made by sinking caissons into a soft sea See also:

• BED
• BED (a common Teutonic word, cf. German Bett, probably connected with the Indo-European root bhodh, seen in the Lat. fodere, to dig; so " a dug-out place " for safe resting, or in the same sense as a garden " bed ")

bed . See also:

• SMEATON, JOHN (1724–1792)

Smeaton's tower on the Eddystone Rock is the See also:

• MODEL (0. Fr. modelle, mod. modele; It. modello, pattern, mould; from Lat. modus, measure, standard)

model upon which most later designs of masonry towers have been based, although many improvements in detail have since been made . In situations of great exposure the following requirements in design should be observed: (a) The centre of gravity of the tower structure should be as See also:

• LOW, SETH (1850- )
• LOW, WILL HICOK (1853- )

low as possible . (b) The mass of the structure superimposed at any See also:

• HORIZONTAL

horizontal See also:

• SECTION
• SECTION (Lat. sectio, cutting, secare, to cut)

section must be sufficient to prevent its displacement by the combined forces of See also:

• WIND
• WIND (a common Teut. word, cognate with Skt. vats, Lat. ventus, cf. " weather," to be of course distinguished from to " wind," to coil or twist, O.Eng. windan, cf. "wander," "wend," &c.)

wind and waves without dependence on the See also:

• ADHESION (from Lat. adhaerere, to adhere)

adhesion at horizontal See also:

• JOINT (through Fr. from Lat. junctum, jungere, to join)

joint faces or on the dovetailing of stones introduced as an additional safeguard . (c) The structure should be circular in See also:

• PLAN
• PLAN (from Lat. planes, flat)

plan throughout, this form affording the least resistance to wave stroke and wind pressure in any direction.(d) The lower portion of the tower exposed to the See also:

• DIRECT

direct horizontal stroke of the waves should, for preference, be constructed with See also:

• VERTICAL (from Lat. vertex, highest point)

vertical See also:

• FACE (from Lat. fades, derived either from facere, to make, or from a root fa-, meaning " appear "; cf. Gr. cbatvstv)

face . The upper portion to be either straight with See also:

• UNIFORM

uniform See also:

• BATTER

batter or continuously curved in the vertical plane . See also:

• EXTERNAL

External projections from the face of the tower, except in the case of a See also:

• GALLERY (through Ital. galleria, from Med. Lat. galeria, of which the origin is unknown)

gallery under the See also:

• LANTERN (an adaptation of the Fr. lanterne from Lat. lanterna or laterna, supposed to be from Gr. Aa urritp, a torch or lamp, Aaµaew, to shine, cf. " lamp "; the 16th- and 17th-century form " lanthorn " is due to a mistaken derivation from " horn," as a m

lantern, should be avoided, the See also:

• SURFACE

surface throughout being smooth . (e) The height from sea-level to the See also:

• TOP (cf. Dan. top, Ger. Topf, also meaning pot)

top of the tower should be sufficient to avoid the obscuration of the light by broken water or dense spray See also:

• DRIVING (from " to drive," i.e. generally to propel, force along or in, a word common in various forms to the Teutonic languages)

driving over the lantern .

(f) The foundation of the tower should be carried well into the solid rock . (g) The materials of which the tower is built should be of high See also:

• DENSITY (Lat. densus, thick)

density and of resistant nature . (h) The stones used in the construction of the tower, at any See also:

• RATE

rate those on the See also:

• OUTER

outer face, should be dovetailed or joggled one to the other in See also:

• ORDER
• ORDER (through Fr. ordre, for earlier ordene, from Lat. ordo, ordinis, rank, service, arrangement; the ultimate source is generally taken to be the root seen in Lat. oriri, rise, arise, begin; cf. " origin ")
• ORDER, HOLY

order to prevent their being dislodged by the sea during the See also:

• PROCESS

process of construction and as an additional safe-guard of stability . Of late years, See also:

• CEMENT (from Lat. caementum, rough pieces of stone, a shortened form of caedimentum, from caedere, to cut)

cement concrete has been used to a considerable extent for maritime structures, including lighthouses, either alone or faced with masonry . (2) Openwork Structures.—Many examples of openwork steel and iron lighthouses exist . Some typical examples are described hereafter . This form of design is suitable for situations where the tower has to be carried on a foundation of iron or steel piles driven or screwed into an insecure or sandy bottom, such as on shoals, See also:

• CORAL

coral reefs and See also:

• SAND
• SAND, GEORGE (1804-1876)

sand See also:

• BANKS, GEORGE LINNAEUS (1821-1881)
• BANKS, NATHANIEL PRENTISS (1816–1894)
• BANKS, SIR JOSEPH
• BANKS, THOMAS (1735-1805)

banks or in places where other materials of construction are exceptionally costly and where facility of erection is a desideratum . (3) Cast iron Towers.—Cast iron plated towers have been erected in many situations where the cost of stone or scarcity of labour would have made the erection of a masonry tower excessively expensive . (4) See also:

• CAISSON (from the Fr. caisse, the variant form " cassoon " being adapted from the Ital. casone)

Caisson Foundations.—Cylinder or caisson foundations have been used for lighthouse towers in numerous cases where such structures have been erected on sand banks or shoals . A remarkable instance is the Rothersand Tower . Two attempts have been made to sink a caisson in the outer See also:

• DIAMOND

Diamond Shoal off Cape Hatteras on the See also:

• ATLANTIC

Atlantic coast of the United States, but these have proved futile . The following are brief descriptions of the more important wave-swept towers in various parts of the world .

Eddystone (Winstanley's Tower).—The Eddystone rocks, which See also:

• LIE, JONAS LAURITZ EDEMIL (1833—1908)
• LIE, MARIUS SOPHUS (1842–1899)

lie about 14 M. off See also:

• PLYMOUTH
• PLYMOUTH, EARLS OF

Plymouth, are fully exposed to south-See also:

• WEST
• WEST, BENJAMIN (1738-1820)
• WEST, NICHOLAS (1461-1533)

west seas . The See also:

• REEF (1)

reef is submerged at high water of See also:

• SPRING (from " to spring," " to leap or jump up," " burst out," O. Eng., springau, a common Teut. word, cf. Ger. springer, possibly allied to Gr. QnrFpxecOac, to move rapidly)

spring tides . Four towers have been constructed on the reef . The first lighthouse (fig . 2 was polygonal in plan and highly ornamented with galleries and projections which offered considerable resistance to the sea stroke . The work was begun by See also:

• HENRY
• HENRY (1129-1195)
• HENRY (c. 1108-1139)
• HENRY (c. 1174–1216)
• HENRY (Fr. Henri; Span. Enrique; Ger. Heinrich; Mid. H. Ger. Heinrich and Heimrich; O.H.G. Haimi- or Heimirih, i.e. " prince, or chief of the house," from O.H.G. heim, the Eng. home, and rih, Goth. reiks; compare Lat. rex " king "—" rich," therefore " mig
• HENRY, EDWARD LAMSON (1841– )
• HENRY, JAMES (1798-1876)
• HENRY, JOSEPH (1797-1878)
• HENRY, MATTHEW (1662-1714)
• HENRY, PATRICK (1736–1799)
• HENRY, PRINCE OF BATTENBERG (1858-1896)
• HENRY, ROBERT (1718-1790)
• HENRY, VICTOR (1850– )
• HENRY, WILLIAM (1795-1836)

Henry Winstanley, a See also:

• GENTLEMAN (from Lat. gentilis, " belonging to a race or gens," and " man "; Fr. gentilhomme, Span. gentil hombre, Ital. gentil huomo, in its original and strict signification, a term denoting a man of good family, the Lat. generosus (its invariable transl

gentleman of See also:

• ESSEX
• ESSEX, ARTHUR CAPEL
• ESSEX, EARLS OF
• ESSEX, KINGDOM OF
• ESSEX, ROBERT DEVEREUX
• ESSEX, ROBERT DEVEREUX, 2ND2 EARL OF (1566-1601)
• ESSEX, WALTER DEVEREUX, IST2 EARL OF (1541–1576)

Essex, in 1695 . In 1698 it was finished to a height of 8o ft. to the wind See also:

• VANE (formerly spelt " fane," i.e. pennon, flag; cf. Ger. Feline, Du. vaan, Fr. girouette, Ital. banderuola, Ger. Wellerfahne)
• VANE, SIR HENRY (1589-1654)
• VANE, SIR HENRY (1613-1662)

vane and the light exhibited, but in the following See also:

• YEAR

year, in See also:

• CON

con-sequence of damage by storms, the tower was increased in See also:

• DIAMETER (from the Cr. &a, through, µErpov, measure)

diameter from 16 ft. to 24 ft. by the addition of an outer See also:

• RING (O.E. hring; a word common to Teutonic languages; and probably cognate with the Lat. circus, Gr. KtpKOS or KpLKOS, Skt'. chakra, wheel, circle, cf. also " harangue "); in art, a band of circular shape of varying sizes, made of any material and used f

ring of masonry and made solid to a height of 20 ft. above the rock, the tower being raised to nearly 120 ft . The work was completed in the year 1700 . The lower part of the structure appears to have been of stone, the upper part and lantern of See also:

• TIMBER

timber . During the great See also:

• STORM (in O. Eng..storm, and so in Du. and Low Ger.; in O. H. Ger. and mod. Ger. Sturm; the root is probably that seen in " stir," to rouse, move, disturb, cf. Ger. storen)
• STORM, THEODOR WOLDSEN (1817-1888)

storm of the loth of See also:

• NOVEMBER (Lat. novem, nine)

November 1703 the tower was swept away, those in it at the time, including the builder, being drowned . Eddystone (Rudyerd's Tower, fig . 3).—This structure was begun in 1706 and completed in 1709 .

It was a See also:

• FRUSTUM (Latin for a " piece broken off ")

frustum of a See also:

• CONE (Gr. Kwvos)

cone 22 ft . 8 in. in diameter at the See also:

• BASE

base and 14 ft . 3 in. at the top . The tower was 92 ft. in height to the top of the lantern . The work consisted principally of oak timbers securely bolted and cramped together, the lower part being filled in solid with stone to add weight to the structure . The simplicity of the design and the absence of projections from the outer face rendered the tower very suitable to withstand the onslaught of the waves . The lighthouse was destroyed by fire in 1755 . Eddystone (Smeaton's Tower, fig . 4).—This famous work, which consisted entirely of stone, was begun in 1756, the light being first exhibited in 1759 . See also:

• JOHN
• JOHN (1167–1216)
• JOHN (1290-c. 1320)
• JOHN (1296-1346)
• JOHN (1371–1419)
• JOHN (1468-1532)
• JOHN (1801-1873)
• JOHN (Heb. llni')
• JOHN (ZAPOLYA) (1487-1540)
• JOHN, 4TH MARQUESS OF TWEEDDALE (c. 1695-1762)
• JOHN, DON (1545-1578)
• JOHN, DON (1629–1679)
• JOHN, GOSPEL OF ST
• JOHN, or HAYS (1513–1571)
• JOHN, THE APOSTLE
• JOHN, THE EPISTLES OF

John Smeaton was the first engineer to use dovetailed See also:

• JOINTS

joints for the stones in a lighthouse structure . 'The stones, which averaged i ton in weight, were fastened to each other by means of dovetailed vertical joint faces, oak See also:

• KEY
• KEY (in O. Eng. tang; the ultimate origin of the word is unknown; it appears only in Old Frisian kei of other Teutonic languages; until the end of the 17th century the pronunciation was kay, as in other words in O. Eng. ending in aeg; cf. daeg, day; clang
• KEY (the phraseograms being indicated by hyphens)
• KEY, SIR ASTLEY COOPER (1821-1888)
• KEY, THOMAS HEWITT (1799-1875)

key wedges, and by oak See also:

• TREE (0. Eng. treo, treow, cf. Dan. tree, Swed. Odd, tree, trd, timber; allied forms are found in Russ. drevo, Gr. opus, oak, and 36pv, spear, Welsh derw, Irish darog, oak, and Skr. dare, wood)
• TREE, SIR HERBERT BEERBOHM (1853- )

tree-nails wedged top and bottom, extending vertically from every course into the stones beneath it . During the 19th century the tower was strengthened on two occasions by the addition of heavy wrought iron ties, and the overhanging See also:

• CORNICE (Fr. corniche, Ital. cornice)

cornice was reduced in diameter to prevent the waves from lifting the stones from their beds .

In 1877, owing partly to the undermining of the rock on which the tower was built and the insufficient height of the structure, the See also:

• CORPORATION (from Lat. corporare, to form into a body, corpus, corporis)

Corporation of Trinity House determined on the erection of a explosive See also:

• GUN

gun-See also:

• COTTON
• COTTON (Fr. coton; from Arab. qutun)
• COTTON, CHARLES (163o–1687)
• COTTON, GEORGE EDWARD LYNCH (1813–1866)
• COTTON, JOHN (1585–1652)
• COTTON, SIR ROBERT BRUCE

cotton See also:

• FOG

fog See also:

• SIGNAL

signal has been erected, the bells being removed . At a lower level in the tower are installed 2 2I-in. parabolic silvered reflectors with 2-See also:

• WICK

wick burners, throwing a fixed light of 8000 See also:

• CANDLE (Lat. candela, from candere, to glow)

candle-See also:

• POWER [WILLIAM GRATTAN] TYRONE (1797-1841)

power over a danger known as the See also:

• HAND
• HAND (a word common to Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Hand, Goth. handus)
• HAND, FERDINAND GOTTHELF (1786-185r)

Hand Deeps . The work of pre- paring the foundation was begun on the 17th of See also:

• JULY

July 1878, the foundation stone Foe°1 p,a,o being laid by the late See also:

• DUKE (corresponding to Fr. duc, Ital. duca, Ger. Herzog)

duke of See also:

• EDINBURGH

Edinburgh A -on the 19th of See also:

• AUGUST (originally Sextilis)

August 1879 . The last stone was laid on the 1st of See also:

• JUNE

June 1881, i and the light was exhibited for the first time on the 18th of May 1882 . The upper portion of Smeaton's tower, which was removed on completion of the new light-house, was re-erected on Plymouth See also:

• HOE (through Fr. houe from O.H.G. houwd, mod. Ger. Haue; the root is seen in " hew," to cut, cleave; the word must be distinguished from " hoe," promontory, tongue of land, seen in place names, e.g. Morthoe, Luton Hoo, the Hoe at Plymouth, &c. ; this is t
• HOE, RICHARD MARCH (1812-1886)

Hoe, where it replaced the old Trinity House sea See also:

• MARK
• MARK, CARL (1858– )
• MARK, GOSPEL OF ST
• MARK, ST

mark . One of the See also:

• PRINCIPAL

principal features in the design of the new Eddystone lighthouse tower is the solid vertical base . This construction was much criticized at the time, but experience has proved that heavy seas striking the massive cylindrical structure are immediately broken up and See also:

• RUSH
• RUSH, BENJAMIN (1745–1813)
• RUSH, RICHARD (1780–1859)

rush See also:

• ROUND (O. Fr. rond, Lat. rotundus, the Fr. is the source also of Du. rond; Ger., Swed., Dan. and Nor. rond)

round to the opposite side, spray alone ascending to the height of the lantern gallery . On the other hand, the waves striking the old tower at its foundation ran up the surface, which presented a curved face to the waves, and, unimpeded by any See also:

• PROJECTION

projection until arriving at the lantern gallery, were partially broken up by the cornice and w. then spent themselves in heavy spray _- over the lantern . The See also:

• SHOCK, or COLLAPSE

shock to which the cornice of the gallery was exposed was so great that stones were sometimes lifted from their beds . The new Eddy- stone tower presents another point of dissimilarity from Smeaton's structure, that the stones forming the floors consist of single corbels built into the See also:

• WALL (O. Eng. weal, weall, Mid. Eng. wal, wane, adapted from Lat. vallum, rampart; the original O. Eng. word for a wall was wag or tenth)
• WALL, RICHARD (1694-1778)

wall and constituting solid portions thereof . In Smeaton's tower the floors consisted of stone See also:

• ARCHES, COURT OF

arches, the thrust being taken by the walls of the tower itself, which were strengthened for the lRudyerd ,706 Smeaton 2756 'o I o ',o ao 3o w so 6o 70 8o sp ,4o Feet in new lighthouse in See also:

• PLACE (through Fr. from Lat. platea, street; Gr. IrAar6s, wide)

place of Smeaton's tower Eddystone, New Lighthouse (J . N .

See also:

• DOUGLASS, FREDERICK (1817-1895)

Douglass).—The site selected for the new tower is 120 ft . S.S.E. from Smeaton's lighthouse, where a suitable foundation was found, although a considerable section of the lower courses had to be laid below the level of low water . The vertical base is 44 ft. in diameter and 22 ft. in height . The tower (See also:

• FIGS

figs . 5 and 6) is a See also:

• CONCAVE

concave elliptic frustum, and is solid, with the exception of a fresh-water tank, to a height of 25 ft . 6 in. above high-water level . The walls above this level vary in thickness from 8 ft . 6 in. to 2 ft . 3 in. under the gallery, All the stones are Lighthouses on the Eddystone . dovetailed, both horizontally and vertically, on all joint faces, the stones of the foundation course being secured to the rock by Muntz See also:

• METAL
• METAL (through Fr. from Lat. metallum, mine, quarry, adapted from Gr. µATaXAov, in the same sense, probably connected with ,ueraAAdv, to search after, explore, µeTa, after, aAAos, other)

metal bolts . The tower contains 62,133 cub. ft. of See also:

• GRANITE (adapted from the Ital. granite, grained; Lat. granum, grain)

granite, weighing 4668 tons . The height of the structure from low water ordinary spring tides to the mean focal plane is 149 ft. and it stands 133 ft. above high water .

The lantern is a cylindrical helically framed structure with domed roof . The astragals are of gunmetal and the See also:

• PEDESTAL (Fr. piedestal, Ital. piedestallo, foot of a stall)

pedestal of cast iron . The