LIGHTING  . Artificial See also:

• LIGHT

light is generally produced by raisingbut which See also:

• ACT (Lat. actus, actum)

act strongly on certain chemical substances; these may be called ultra-See also:

• VIOLET

violet rays . Thus a very hot See also:

• BODY

body in See also:

• GENERAL
• GENERAL (Lat. generalis, of or relating to a genus, kind or class)

general throws out rays of various See also:

• WAVE

wave-length; the hotter the body the more of every See also:

• KIND (O. E. ge-cynde, from the same root as is seen in " kin," supra)

kind of See also:

• RADIATION, THEORY OF

radiation will it throw out, but the proportion of See also:

• SHORT, FRANCIS JOB (1857– )

short waves to See also:

• LONG, GEORGE (1800-1879)
• LONG, JOHN DAVIS (1838– )

long waves becomes vastly greater as the temperature is increased . Our eyes are only sensitive to certain of these waves, viz. those not very long and not very short . The problem of the artificial See also:

• PRODUCTION (Lat. productionem, from producere, to pro-duce)

production of light with See also:

• ECONOMY

economy of See also:

• ENERGY (from the Gr. ivipyela; iv, in, ipyov, work)

energy is the same as that of raising some body to such a temperature that it shall give as large a proportion as possible of those rays which the See also:

• EYE
• EYE (O. Eng. edge, Ger. Auge; derived from an Indo-European root also seen in Lat. oc-ulus, the organ of vision (q.v.)

eye is capable of feeling . For See also:

• PRACTICAL

practical purposes this temperature is the highest temperature we can produce . As all. See also:

• ILLUSTRATION

illustration of the luminous effect of the high temperature produced by converting other forms of energy into See also:

• HEAT (0. E. haktu, which like " hot," Old Eng. hat, is from the Teutonic type haita, hit, to be hot; cf. Ger. hitze, heiss; Dutch, hitte, heet, &c.)

heat within a small space, consider the following statements . If burned in See also:

• ORDINARY (med. Lat. ordinarius, Fr. ordinaire)

ordinary See also:

• GAS

gas burners, 120 cub. ft. of 15 See also:

• CANDLE (Lat. candela, from candere, to glow)

candle gas will give a light of 36o See also:

• STANDARD
• STANDARD, BATTLE OF THE

standard candles for one See also:

• HOUR

hour . The heat produced by the See also:

• COMBUSTION (from the Lat. comburere, to burn up)

combustion is See also:

• EQUIVALENT

equivalent to about 6o million See also:

• FOOT

foot-pounds . If this gas be burned in a See also:

• MODERN

modern gas-See also:

• ENGINE
• ENGINE (Lat. ingenium)

engine, about 8 million foot-pounds of useful See also:

• WORK

work will be done outside the engine, or about 4 See also:

• HORSE (a word common to Teutonic languages in such forms as hors, hros, ros; cf. the Ger. ross)

horse-See also:

• POWER [WILLIAM GRATTAN] TYRONE (1797-1841)

power for one hour . If this be used to drive a See also:

• DYNAMO (a shortened form of " dynamo-electric machine," from Gr. Sbvaµis, power)

dynamo for one hour, even if the See also:

• MACHINE
• MACHINE (through Fr. from Lat. form machina of Gr. µnxavil)

machine has an efficiency of only 8o%, the energy of the current will be about 6,400,000 foot-pounds per hour, about See also:

• HALF

half of which, or only 3,200,000 foot-pounds, is converted into radiant energy in the electric arc . But this electric arc will radiate a light of 2000 candles when viewed horizontally, and two or three times as much when viewed from below .

Hence 3 million foot-pounds changed to heat in the electric arc may be said roughly to affect our eyes six times as much as 6o million foot-pounds changed to heat in an ordinary gas burner . Owing to the high temperature at which it remains solid, and to its See also:

• GREAT

great emissive power, the radiant body used for artificial See also:

• ILLUMINATION

illumination is usually some See also:

• FORM (Lat. forma)

form of See also:

• CARBON (symbol C, atomic weight 12)

carbon . In an oil or ordinary See also:

• COAL

coal-gas See also:

• FLAME (Lat. flamma; the root flag- appears in flagrare, to burn, blaze, and Gr. d, XEryew)

flame this carbon is See also:

• PRESENT

present in See also:

• MINUTE
• MINUTE (Lat. minutes, small; minuere, to make less)

minute particles derived from the organic substances with which the flame is supplied and heated to incandescence by the heat liberated in their decomposition, while in the electric light the incandescence is the effect of the heat See also:

• DEVELOPED

developed by the electric current passed through a resisting See also:

• ROD (O.E. rodd, probably related to Norw. rudda, stick, rodda, stake)
• ROD, EDOUARD (1857-1910)

rod or filament of carbon . In some cases, however, other substances replace carbon as the radiating body; in the incandescent gas light certain earthy oxides are utilized, and in metallic filament electric lamps such metals as See also:

• TUNGSTEN [symbol W, atomic weight 184.o (0=16)]

tungsten or See also:

• TANTALUM [symbol Ta, atomic weight 181•o (0=16)]

tantalum . 1 . OIL LIGHTING From the earliest times the burning of oil has been a source of light, but until the See also:

• MIDDLE

middle of the 19th See also:

• CENTURY (from Lat. centuria, a division of a hundred men)

century only See also:

• OILS (adopted from the Fr. oile, mod. huile, Lat. oleum, olive oil)

oils of See also:

• VEGETABLE

vegetable and See also:

• ANIMAL
• ANIMAL (Lat. animalis, from anima, breath, soul)

animal origin were employed in indoor lamps for this purpose . Although many kinds were vegetabmleal used locally, only colza and sperm oils had any very oils . dani extended use, and they have been practically supplanted by See also:

• MINERAL

mineral oil, which was introduced as an illuminant in 1853 . Up to the latter half of the 18th century the lamps were shallow vessels into which a short length of See also:

• WICK

wick dipped; the flame was smoky and discharged acrid vapours, giving the minimum of light with the maximum of See also:

• SMELL (connected etymologically with " smoulder " and " smoke ")

smell . The first notable improvement was made by Ami Argand in 1784 . His burner consisted of two concentric tubes between which the tubular wick was placed; the open inner See also:

• TUBE (Lat. tuba)

tube led a current of See also:

• AIR (from an Indo-European root meaning " breathe," " blow ")
• AIR, or ASBEN

air to See also:

• PLAY

play upon the inner See also:

• SURFACE

surface of the circular flame, whilst the combustion was materially improved by placing around the flame a See also:

• CHIMNEY (through the Fr. cheminee, from caminata, sc. camera, a Lat. derivative of caminus, an oven or furnace)

chimney which rested on a perforated See also:

• GALLERY (through Ital. galleria, from Med. Lat. galeria, of which the origin is unknown)

gallery a short distance below the burner . Argand's See also:

• ORIGINAL

original burner is the See also:

• PARENT, SIMON NAPOLEON (1855– )

parent form of innumerable modifications, all more or less complex, such as the Carcel and the See also:

• MODERATOR (from Lat. moderare, to impose a modus, limit)

moderator .

A typical example of the Argand burlier and chimney is represented in fig . 1, in which the burner is composed of three tubes, d, f, g . The tube g is soldered to the bottom of the tube d, just above o, and the See also:

• INTERVAL

interval between the See also:

• OUTER

outer surface of the tube g and the inner surface of the tube d is an See also:

• ANNULAR, ANNULATE

annular cylindrical cavity closed at the bottom, containing the cylindrical See also:

• COTTON
• COTTON (Fr. coton; from Arab. qutun)
• COTTON, CHARLES (163o–1687)
• COTTON, GEORGE EDWARD LYNCH (1813–1866)
• COTTON, JOHN (1585–1652)
• COTTON, SIR ROBERT BRUCE

cotton wick immersed in oil . The wick is fixed to the wick tube ki, which is capable some body to a high temperature . If the temperature of a solid body be greater than that of surrounding bodies it parts with some of its energy in the form of radiation . Whilst the temperature is See also:

• LOW, SETH (1850- )
• LOW, WILL HICOK (1853- )

low these radiations are not of a kind to which the eye is sensitive; they are exclusively radiations less refrangible and of greater wave-length than red light, and may be called infra-red . As the temperature is increased the infra-red radiations increase, but presently there are added radiations which the eye perceives as red light . As the temperature is further increased, the red light increases, and yellow, See also:

• GREEN, A
• GREEN, ALEXANDER HENRY (1832—1896)
• GREEN, DUFF (1791—1875)
• GREEN, JOHN RICHARD (1837—1883)
• GREEN, MATTHEW (1696-1737)
• GREEN, THOMAS HILL (1836-1882)
• GREEN, VALENTINE (1739–1813)
• GREEN, WILLIAM HENRY (.1825–1900)

green and See also:

• BLUE (common in different forms to most European languages)

blue rays are successively thrown off . On raising the temperature to a still higher point, radiations of a wave-length shorter even than violet light are produced, to which the eye is insensitive, of being moved spirally; within the annular cavity is also the tube f, which can be moved See also:

• ROUND (O. Fr. rond, Lat. rotundus, the Fr. is the source also of Du. rond; Ger., Swed., Dan. and Nor. rond)

round, and serves to elevate and depress the wick . P is a See also:

• CUP (in O.E. cuppe; generally taken to be from Late Lat. cuppa, a variant of Lat. cupa, a cask, cf. Gr. KuaeXXov)

cup that screws on the bottom of the tube d, and re- ceives the superfluous oil that drops down from the wick along the inner surface of the tube g . The air 'O`er'^ enters through the holes a, o, and passes up through the tube g to maintain the combustion in the interior of the circular flame . The air which maintains the combustion on the exterior See also:

• PART

part of the wick enters through the holes m, with which rn is perforated .

When the air in the chimney is rarefied by the heat of the flame, the surrounding heavier air, entering the See also:

• LOWER

lower part of the chimney, passes up-See also:

• WARD
• WARD, ADOLPHUS WILLIAM (1837- )
• WARD, ARTEMUS
• WARD, EDWARD MATTHEW (1816-1879)
• WARD, ELIZABETH STUART PHELPS (1844-1911)
• WARD, JAMES (1769--1859)
• WARD, JAMES (1843– )
• WARD, JOHN QUINCY ADAMS (1830-1910)
• WARD, LESTER FRANK (1841– )
• WARD, MARY AUGUSTA [MRS HUMPHRY WARD]
• WARD, WILLIAM (1766-1826)
• WARD, WILLIAM GEORGE (1812-1882)

ward with a rapid current, to restore the See also:

• EQUILIBRIUM (from the Lat. aequus, equal, and libra, a balance)

equilibrium . RG is the cylindrical See also:

• GLASS
• GLASS (O.E. glees, cf. Ger. Glas, perhaps derived from an old Teutonic root gla-, a variant of glo-, having the general sense of shining, cf. " glare," " glow ")
• GLASS, STAINED

glass chimney with a See also:

• SHOULDER (in O.E. sculder, cognate with Ger. Schulter, Dutch schouder, Swed. skuldra, &c; the root is unknown)

shoulder or constriction at R, G . The oil flows from a See also:

• SIDE
• SIDE (mod. Eski Adalia)

side See also:

• RESERVOIR

reservoir, and occupies the , cavity between the tubes g and d . The part ki is a short tube, which receives the circular wick, and slides spirally on the tube g, by means of a See also:

• PIN (a doublet with " pen " from Lat. pinna, feather, pinnacle, which is said to contain the same root as irirvs, pine tree, and properly to mean a sharp point or end)

pin working in the hollow See also:

• SPIRAL

spiral groove on the exterior surface of g . The wick-tube has also a catch, which See also:

• WORKS

works in a perpendicular slit in the tube f; and, by turning the tube f, the wick-tube will be raised or lowered, for which purpose a See also:

• RING (O.E. hring; a word common to Teutonic languages; and probably cognate with the Lat. circus, Gr. KtpKOS or KpLKOS, Skt'. chakra, wheel, circle, cf. also " harangue "); in art, a band of circular shape of varying sizes, made of any material and used f

ring, or gallery, rn, fits on the tube d, and receives the glass chimney RG; a See also:

• WIRE (A.S. wir, a wire; cf. Swed. vire, to twist, M.H.G. wiere, a gold ornament, Lat. viriae, armlets, ultimately from the root wi, to twist, bind)

wire S is attached to the tube f, and, bending over, descends along the out-side of d . The part rn, that supports the glass chimney, is connected by four other wires with the ring q, which surrounds the tube d, and can be moved round . When rn is turned round, it carries with it the ring q, the wire S, and the tube f, thus raising or depressing the wick . A See also:

• DEVICE

device in the form of a small metallic disk or See also:

• BUTTON (Fr. bouton, O. Fr. boton, apparently from the same root as bouter, to push)

button, known as the See also:

• LIVERPOOL
• LIVERPOOL, EARLS
• LIVERPOOL, EARLS OF

Liverpool button from having been first adopted in the so-called Liverpool See also:

• LAMP (from Gr. Xag ras, a torch, Xaµaav, to shine)

lamp, effects for the current of air passing up the interior of the Argand burner the same See also:

• OBJECT

object as the constriction of the chimney RG secures in the See also:

• CASE
• CASE, JOHN (d. 1600)

case of the See also:

• EXTERNAL

external tube . The button fixed on the end of a wire is placed right above the burner tube g, and throws out equally all round against the flame the current of air which passes up through g . The result of these expedients, when properly applied, is the production of an exceedingly solid . brilliant See also:

• WHITE
• WHITE, ANDREW DICKSON (1832– )
• WHITE, GILBERT (1720–1793)
• WHITE, HENRY KIRKE (1785-1806)
• WHITE, HUGH LAWSON (1773-1840)
• WHITE, JOSEPH BLANCO (1775-1841)
• WHITE, RICHARD GRANT (1822-1885)
• WHITE, ROBERT (1645-1704)
• WHITE, SIR GEORGE STUART (1835– )
• WHITE, SIR THOMAS (1492-1567)
• WHITE, SIR WILLIAM ARTHUR (1824--1891)
• WHITE, SIR WILLIAM HENRY (1845– )
• WHITE, THOMAS (1628-1698)
• WHITE, THOMAS (c. 1550-1624)

white light, absolutely smokeless, this showing that the combustion of the oil is perfectly accomplished . The means by which a uniformly regulated See also:

• SUPPLY (through Fr. from Lat. supplere, to fill up)

supply of oil is brought to the burner varies with the position of the oil reservoir . In some lamps, not now in use, by ring-formed reservoirs and other ex- pedients, the whole of the oil was kept as nearly as possible at the level of the burner .

In what are termed See also:

• FOUNTAIN (Late Lat. fontana, from ions, a spring)

fountain See also:

• READING

reading, or study lamps, the See also:

• PRINCIPAL

principal reservoir is above the burner level, and various means are adopted for maintaining a supply from them at the level of the burner . But the most See also:

• CON

con- venient position for the oil reservoir in lamps for general use is directly under the burner, and in this case the stand of the lamp itself is utilized as the oil See also:

• VESSEL (O. Fr. vaissel, from a rare Lat. vascellum, dim. of vas, vase, urn)

vessel . In the case of fixed oils, as the oils of animal and vegetable origin used to be called, it is necessary with such lamps to introduce some appli- ance for forcing a supply of oil to the burner, and many methods cf effecting this were devised, most of which were ultimately superseded by the moderator lamp . The Cartel Lamp . G . Carcel in 1800, is still to some extent used in See also:

• FRANCE
• FRANCE, ANATOLE (1844– )

France . It consists of a See also:

• DOUBLE
• DOUBLE (from the Mid. Eng. duble, the form which gives the present pronunciation, through the Old Er. duble, from Lat. duplus, twice as much)

double See also:

• PISTON (through Fr. from Ital. pistone or pestone, a great pestle, from Late Lat. pistare, to pound, a frequentative form of classical Lat. pinsere)

piston or See also:

• PUMP

pump, forcing the oil through a tube to the burner, worked by clockwork . A form of reading lamp still in use is seen in See also:

• SECTION
• SECTION (Lat. sectio, cutting, secare, to cut)

section in fig . 2 . The lamp is mounted on a standard on which it can be raised or lowered at will, and fixed by a thumb See also:

• SCREW (O.E. scrue, from O. Fr. escroue, mod. ecrou; ultimate origin uncertain; the word, or a similar one, appears in Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Schraube, Dan. skrue, but Skeat, following Diaz, finds the origin in Lat. scrobs, a ditch, hole, particularl

screw . The oil reservoir is in two parts, the upper ac being an inverted See also:

• FLASK

flask which fits into bb, from which the burner is directly fed through the tube d; h is an overflow cup for any oil that escapes at the burner, and it is piercedwith air-holes for admitting the current of air to the centre tube of the Argand burner . The lamp is filled with oil by withdrawing the flask ac, filling it, and inverting it into its See also:

• PLACE (through Fr. from Lat. platea, street; Gr. IrAar6s, wide)

place .

The under reservoir bb fills from it to the burner level ee, on a See also:

• LINE

line with the mouth of ac . So soon as that level falls below the mouth of ac, a bubble of air gets See also:

• ACCESS (Lat. accessus)

access to the upper reservoir, and oil again fills up bb to the level ee . The moderator lamp (fig . 3), invented by Franchot about 1836, from the simplicity and efficiency of its arrangements rapidly superseded almost all other forms of See also:

• MECHANICAL

mechanical lamp for use with animal and vegetable oils . The two essential features of the moderator lamp are (I) the strong spiral See also:

• SPRING (from " to spring," " to leap or jump up," " burst out," O. Eng., springau, a common Teut. word, cf. Ger. springer, possibly allied to Gr. QnrFpxecOac, to move rapidly)

spring which, acting on a piston within the cylindrical reservoir of the lamp; serves to propel the oil to the burner, and (2) the ascending tube C through which the oil passes upwards to the burner . The latter consist of two sections, the lower fixed to and passing through the piston A into the oil reservoir, and the upper attached to the burner . The lower or piston section moves within the upper, which forms a sheath enclosing nearly its whole length when the spring is fully See also:

• WOUND (O. Eng. wund,connected with a Teutonic verb, meaning to strive, fight, suffer, seen in O. Eng. winnan, whence Eng. " win ")

wound up . Down the centre of the upper tube ..==a passes a wire, " the moderator," G, and it is by this wire that the supply of oil to the burner is regulated . The spring exerts its greatest force on the oil in the reservoir when it is fully wound up, and in proportion as it expands and descends its power decreases . But when the apparatus is wound up the wire passing down the upper tube extends throughout the whole length of the lower and narrower piston tube, obstructing to a certain extent the See also:

• FREE

free flow of the oil . In proportion as the spring uncoils, the length of the wire within the lower tube is decreased ; the upward flow of oil is facilitated in the same ratio as the force urging it upwards is weakened . In all mechanical lamps the flow is in excess of the consuming capacity of the burner, and in the moderator the surplus oil, flowing over the wick, falls back into the reservoir above the piston, whence FIG .

3.-Section of Moderator Lamp. along with new supply oil it descends into the lower side by means of See also:

• LEATHER (a word which appears in all Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Leder, Dutch leer or leder, Swed. leder, and in such Celtic forms as Welsh llader)
• LEATHER, ARTIFICIAL

leather valves a, a . B represents the See also:

• RACK

rack which, with the pinion D, winds up the spiral spring hard against E when the lamp is prepared for use . The moderator wire is seen separately in GG; and FGC illustrates the arrangement of the sheathing tubes, in the upper section of which the moderator is fixed . As See also:

• EARLY
• EARLY, JUBAL ANDERSON (1816-1894)

early as 1781 the See also:

• IDEA (Gr. Ibia, connected with i&eiv, to see; cf. Lat. species from specere, to look at)

idea was mooted of burning See also:

• NAPHTHA

naphtha, obtained by the See also:

• DISTILLATION (from the Lat. distillare, more correctly destillare, to drop or trickle down)

distillation of coal at low temperatures, for See also:

• ILLUMINATING

illuminating purposes, and in 1820, when coal gas was struggling into prominence, light oils obtained by the distillation of coal See also:

• TAR

tar were employed in the Holliday lamp, which is still the See also:

• CHIEF (from Fr. chef, head, Lat. caput)

chief See also:

• FACTOR (from Lat. facere, to make or do)

factor in illuminating the See also:

• STREET
• STREET, GEORGE EDMUND (1824-1881)

street See also:

• BARROW
• BARROW (from A.S. beorh, a mount or hillock)
• BARROW, ISAAC (1630-1677)
• BARROW, SIR JOHN (1764-1848)

barrow of the costermonger . In this lamp the coal naphtha is in a conical reservoir, from the See also:

• APEX

apex of which it flows slowly down through a long See also:

• METAL
• METAL (through Fr. from Lat. metallum, mine, quarry, adapted from Gr. µATaXAov, in the same sense, probably connected with ,ueraAAdv, to search after, explore, µeTa, after, aAAos, other)

metal capillary to a See also:

• ROSE
• ROSE (Rosa)
• ROSE, GEORGE (1744-1818)
• ROSE, HUGH JAMES (1795—1838)
• ROSE, WILLIAM STEWART (1775-1843)

rose burner, which, heated up by the flame, vaporizes the naphtha, and thus feeds the ring of small jets of flame escaping from its circumference . It was in 1847 that See also:

• JAMES
• JAMES (Gr. 'IlrKw,l3or, the Heb. Ya`akob or Jacob)
• JAMES (JAMES FRANCIS EDWARD STUART) (1688-1766)
• JAMES, 2ND EARL OF DOUGLAS AND MAR(c. 1358–1388)
• JAMES, DAVID (1839-1893)
• JAMES, EPISTLE OF
• JAMES, GEORGE PAYNE RAINSFOP
• JAMES, HENRY (1843— )
• JAMES, JOHN ANGELL (1785-1859)
• JAMES, THOMAS (c. 1573–1629)
• JAMES, WILLIAM (1842–1910)
• JAMES, WILLIAM (d. 1827)

James See also:

• YOUNG
• YOUNG, A
• YOUNG, ARTHUR (1741-1820)
• YOUNG, BRIGHAM (1801-1877)
• YOUNG, CHARLES MAYNE (1777–1856)
• YOUNG, EDWARD (1683–1765)
• YOUNG, JAMES (1811-1883)
• YOUNG, THOMAS (1773-1829)

Young had his See also:

• ATTENTION (from Lat. ad-tendo, await, expect; the condition of being " stretched " or " tense ")

attention See also:

• DRAWN

drawn See also:

• TOWN

town exudation of See also:

• PETROLEUM (Lat. Petra, rock, and oleuin, oil)

petroleum in the Riddings Colliery at See also:

• ALFRETON

Alfreton, in See also:

• DERBYSHIRE

Derbyshire, and found that he could by distillation obtain from it a lubricant of considerable value . The commercial success of this material was accompanied by a failure of the supply, and, rightly imagining that as the oil had apparently come from the Coal See also:

• MEASURES

Measures, it might be obtained by distillation from material of the same See also:

• CHARACTER (Gr. xapareri7p, from xap&crew, to scratch)

character, Young began investigations in this direction, and in 185o started distilling oils from a shale known as the " See also:

• BATHGATE

Bathgate mineral," in this way See also:

• FOUNDING (from Lat. fundere, to pour)

founding the Scotch oil See also:

• INDUSTRY (Lat. industria, from indu-, a form of the pre, position in, and either stare, to stand, or struere, to pile up)

industry . At first little attention was paid to the fitness of the oil for burning purposes, although in the early days at Alfreton Young attempted to See also:

• BURN, RICHARD (1709-1785)

burn some of the lighter distillates in an Argand lamp, and later in a lamp made many years before for the See also:

• CONSUMPTION (Lat. consumere)

consumption of See also:

• TURPENTINE (in M. Eng. turbentine, adapted through the O. Fr. turbentine or terebentine from Lat. terebinthina, sc. resina, resin of the terebinth, Gr. eepiOtvOos or eippavOos)

turpentine . About 1853, Mineral oils . however, it was noticed that the lighter distillates were being shipped to See also:

• GERMANY
• GERMANY (Ger. Deutschland)

Germany, where lamps fitted for the consumption of the grades of oil now known as lamp oil were being made by Stohwasser of See also:

• BERLIN
• BERLIN, CONGRESS AND TREATY OF
• BERLIN, ISAIAH (1725–1799)

Berlin; some of these lamps were imported, and similar lamps were afterwards manufactured by See also:

• LAIDLAW, WILLIAM (1780-1845)

Laidlaw in See also:

• EDINBURGH

Edinburgh . In See also:

• PENNSYLVANIA
• PENNSYLVANIA, UNIVERSITY OF

Pennsylvania in 1859 See also:

• COLONEL (derived either from Lat. column, Fr. colonne, column, or Lat. corona, a crown)

Colonel E . L .

See also:

• DRAKE, NATHAN (1766-1836)
• DRAKE, SIR FRANCIS (c. 1545-1595)

Drake's successful See also:

• BORING

boring for petroleum resulted in the flooding of the See also:

• MARKET (Lat. mercatus, trade or place of trade)

market with oil at prices never before deemed possible, and led to the introduction of lamps from Germany for its consumption . Although the first See also:

• AMERICAN

American patent for a petroleum lamp is dated 1859, that See also:

• YEAR

year saw See also:

• FORTY

forty other applications, and for the next twenty years they averaged about eighty a year . See also:

• ENGLISH

English lamp-makers were not behind in their attempts to improve on the methods in use for producing the highest results from the various grades of oil, and in 1865 Hinks introduced the duplex burner, while later improvements made in various directions, by Hinks, Silber, and Defries led to the high degree of perfection to be found in the lamps of to-See also:

• DAY (O. Eng. dreg, Ger. Tag; according to the New English Dictionary, " in no way related to the Lat. dies")
• DAY, JOHN (1574-1640?)
• DAY, THOMAS (1748-1789)

day . Mineral oil for lamps as used in See also:

• ENGLAND
• ENGLAND, THE CHURCH OF

England at the present See also:

• TIME (0. Eng. Lima, cf. Icel. timi, Swed. timme, hour, Dan. time; from the root also seen in " tide," properly the time of between the flow and ebb of the sea, cf. O. Eng. getidan, to happen, " even-tide," &c.; it is not directly related to Lat. tempus)
• TIME, MEASUREMENT OF
• TIME, STANDARD

time may be defined as consisting of those portions of the distillate from shale oil or crude petroleum which have their flash-point above 73° F., and which are See also:

• MOBILE

mobile enough to be fed by capillarity in sufficient quantity to the flame . The oil placed in the lamp reservoir is drawn up by the capillarity of the wick to the flame, and being there volatilized, is converted by the heat of the burning flame into a gaseous mixture of See also:

• HYDROGEN [symbol H, atomic weight x-oo8 (0=16)]

hydrogen and See also:

• HYDROCARBONS

hydrocarbons, which is ultimately consumed by the See also:

• OXYGEN (symbol 0, atomic weight 16)

oxygen of the air and converted into carbon dioxide and See also:

• WATER

water vapour, the products of See also:

• COMPLETE

complete combustion . To secure high illuminating power, together with a smokeless flame and only products of complete combustion, strict attention must be paid to several important factors . In the first place, the wick must be so arranged as to supply the right quantity of oil for gasification at the burner-See also:

• HEAD (in 0. Eng. heafad; the word is common to Teutonic languages; cf. Dutch hoofd, Ger. Haupt, generally taken to be in origin connected with Lat. caput, Gr. KerbOvi7)
• HEAD, SIR EDMUND WALKER, BART
• HEAD, SIR FRANCIS BOND, BART

head-the flame must be neither starved nor overfed: if the former is the case great loss of light is occasioned, while an excess of oil, by providing more hydrocarbons than the air-supply to the flame can completely burn, gives rise to See also:

• SMOKE (from O. Eng. smeocan, to smoke, reek, cf. Dutch meek, Ger. Schmauch, probably allied to Gr. vol9caiv)

smoke and products of incomplete combustion . The See also:

• ACTION

action of the wick depending on the capillary action of the microscopic tubes forming the cotton fibre, nothing but long-See also:

• STAPLE

staple cotton of See also:

• GOOD, JOHN MASON (1764-1827)

good quality should be employed; this should be spun into a coarse loose See also:

• THREAD (0. Eng. praed, literally, that which is twisted, prawan, to twist, to throw, cf. " throwster," a silk-winder, Ger. drehen, to twist, turn, Du. draad, Ger. Draht, thread, wire)

thread with as little twist in it as possible, and from this the wick is built up . Having obtained a wick of soft texture and loose See also:

• PLAIT (through O. Fr. pleit, from Lat. plicitum, folded, plicare, to fold)

plait, it should be well dried before the See also:

• FIRE (in O. Eng. f j'r; the word is common to West German languages, cf. Dutch vuur, Ger. Feuer; the pre-Teutonic form is seen in Sanskrit pu, pavaka, and Gr. irup; the ultimate origin is usually taken to be a root meaning to purify, cf. Lat. purus)

fire, and when put in position in the lamp must fill the wick-holder without being compressed . It should be of sufficient length to reach to the bottom of the oil reservoir and leave an See also:

• INCH (O. Eng. ynce from Lat. uncia, a twelfthpart; cf. " ounce," and see As)

inch or two on the bottom . Such a wick will suck up the oil in a See also:

• REGULAR

regular and See also:

• UNIFORM

uniform way, provided that the level of the oil is not allowed to fall too low in the lamp, but it must be remembered that the wick acts as a See also:

• FILTER (a word common in various forms to most European languages, adapted from the medieval Lat. fi-ltrum, felt, a material used as a filtering agent)

filter for the oil, and that if any sediment be present it will be retained by and choke the capillaries upon which the action of the wick depends, so that a wick should not be used for too long a time . A good See also:

• RULE

rule is that the wick should, when new, trail for 2 in. on the bottom of the oil vessel, and should be discarded when these 2 in. have been burnt off .

When the lamp is lighted the oil See also:

• BURNS, JOHN (1858– )
• BURNS, ROBERT (1759-1796)
• BURNS, SIR GEORGE

burns with a heavy, smoky flame, because it is not able to obtain sufficient oxygen to complete the combustion, and not only are See also:

• SOOT (0. Eng. sot, cf. Icel. sot, Dan. sod; possibly from root sed, to sit)

soot flakes produced, but products of incomplete combustion, such as carbon monoxide and even petroleum vapour, See also:

• ESCAPE (in mid. Eng. eschape or escape, from the O. Fr. eschapper, modern echapper, and escaper, low Lat. escapium, from ex, out of, and cappa, cape, cloak; cf. for the sense development the Gr. iichueoOat, literally to put off one's clothes, hence to sli

escape-the first named highly injurious to See also:

• HEALTH

health, and the second of an offensive odour . To supply the necessary amount of air to the flame, an artificial See also:

• DRAUGHT (from the common Teutonic word " to draw "; cf. Ger. 7'racht, load; the pronunciation led to the variant form " draft," now confined to certain specific meanings)

draught has to be created which shall impinge upon the bottom of the flame and sweep up-wards over its surface, giving it rigidity, and by completing the combustion in a shorter See also:

• PERIOD
• PERIOD (Gr. irepioSos, a going or way round, circuit, aepi, round, and &Sis, way, road)

period of time than could be done otherwise, increasing the calorific intensity and thus raising the carbon particlesin the flame to a far higher incandescence so as to secure a greater illuminating power . This in practice has been done in two ways, first by See also:

• DRAWING

drawing in the air by the up-suck of the heated and See also:

• EXPANDED

expanded products of combustion in a chimney fitted over the flame, and secondly by creating a draught from a small clockwork See also:

• FAN (Lat. vannus; Fr. eventail)

fan in the See also:

• BASE

base of the lamp . It is necessary to break the initial See also:

• RUSH
• RUSH, BENJAMIN (1745–1813)
• RUSH, RICHARD (1780–1859)

rush of the draught: this is mostly effected by disks of perforated metal in the base of the burner, called diffusers, while the metal See also:

• DOME (Lat domus, house; Ital. duomo, cathedral)

dome which surrounds and rises slightly above the wick-holder serves to deflect the air on to the flame, as in the Wanzer lamp . These arrangements also act to a certain extent as regenerators, the air passing over the heated metal surfaces being warmed before reaching the flame, whilst disks, cones, buttons, perforated tubes, inner air-tubes, &c., have been introduced to increase the illuminating power and complete the combustion . According to See also:

• SIR

Sir Boverton Redwood, duplex burners which give a flame of 28 candle-power have an See also:

• AVERAGE

average oil consumption of 50 grains per candle per hour, while Argand flames of 38 candle-power consume about 45 grains of oil per candle per hour . These figures were obtained from lamps of the best types, and to obtain See also:

• INFORMATION (from Lat. informare, to give shape or form to, to represent, describe)

information as to the efficiency of the lamps used in daily practice, a number of the most popular types were examined, using both American and See also:

• RUSSIAN

Russian oil . The results obtained are embodied in Table I . The first noteworthy point in this table is the apparent superiority of the American over Russian oil in the See also:

• MAJORITY (Fr. majorite; Med. Lat. majoritas; Lat. major, greater)

majority of the lamps employed, and there is no doubt that the bulk of the Illuminant . Cubic Feet per Candle . Carbon Dioxide . Water Vapour .

Sperm candle 0.41 0.41 Oil lamp 0.24 0.18 Gas-See also:

• FLAT (a modification of O. Eng. flet, an obsolete word of Teutonic origin, meaning the ground beneath the feet)

Flat flame . o•26 0.67 Argand 0.17 0.45 Regenerative 0.07 0.19 Incandescent 0.03 o.o8 From these data it appears that if the sanitary See also:

• CONDITION (Lat. condicio, from condicere, to agree upon, arrange; not connected with conditio, from condere, conditum, to put together)

condition of the air of a dwelling-See also:

• ROOM

room be measured by the amount of carbon dioxide present, as is usually done, candles are the most prejudicial to health and comfort, oil lamps less so, and gas least, an See also:

• ASSUMPTION, FEAST OF

assumption Type . Name . Grains of Oil per See also:

• TOTAL

Total Candle-power . candle-power per hour . American . Russian . American . Russian . Veritas, 6o-line 64.5 I12.5 122.5 78 30 42.5 50 . 6o 60 20 . 43'75 58'5 40 35 Circular wick Ariel, 12-line centre draught 52.8 70.9 18 18 Reading, 14-line . . 97.9 85.4 12 12 Kosmos, to-line .

. 63.9 97.2 9 9 Wizard, 15-line . . 56.9 51.3 t8 19 Wanzer, no glass 42.6 48.3 17 17 Flat wick, single Solid slip, See also:

• GAUZE

gauze and See also:

• CONE (Gr. Kwvos)

cone 84'4 84'4 8 8 Old slip, fixed gauze 60.9 89.3 7 7 Feeder wick 56.2 55'7 20 22 „ duplex .{ Ordinary 51.2 46.6 20 22 American oil-Sp. gr . 0.7904; flash-point, to° F . Russian oil-Sp. gr . 0.823; flash-point, 83 ° F . lamps on the market are constructed to burn American or shale oil . A second interesting point is that with the flat-flame lamps the Russian oil is as good as the American . We have Redwood's authority, moreover, for the fact that after prolonged burning the Russian oil, even in lamps least suited to it, gives highly improved results . Although the average consumption with these lamps is See also:

• CLOSE
• CLOSE (from Lat. clausum, shut)
• CLOSE, MAXWELL HENRY (1822-1903)

close upon 6o grains per candle with American oil, yet some of the burners are so manifestly wasteful that 50 grains per candle-power per hour is the fairest basis to take for any calculation as to cost . The dangers of the mineral oil lamp, which were a See also:

• GRAVE

grave draw-back in the past, have been very much reduced by improvements in construction and quality, and if it were possible to abolish the cheap and dangerous rubbish sold in poor neighbourhoods, and to prevent the use of side-fillers and glass reservoirs in lamps of better quality, a still larger reduction in the number of accidents would take place . In the use of the lamp for domestic purposes only soft well-fitting wicks should be employed, and the lamp should be filled with oil each day so as never to allow it to burn too low and so leave a large space above the surface of the oil in the reservoir . The lamp should never be moved whilst alight, and it should only be put out by means of a proper extinguisher or by blowing across the See also:

• TOP (cf. Dan. top, Ger. Topf, also meaning pot)

top instead of down the chimney .

By these means the See also:

• RISK

risk of See also:

• ACCIDENT
• ACCIDENT (from Lat. accidere, to happen)

accident would be so reduced as to compare favourably with other illuminants . Candles, oil and coal gas all emit the same products of complete combustion, viz. carbon dioxide and water vapour . The quantities of these compounds emitted from different illuminants for every candle of light per hour will be seen from the following table: which practical experience does not See also:

• BEAR
• BEAR, BLACK
• BEAR, BROWN
• BEAR, GRIZZLY
• BEAR, ISABELLINE
• BEAR, WHITE

bear out . The explanation of tnis is to be found in these facts: First, where we illuminate a room with candles or oil we are contented with a less intense and more See also:

• LOCAL

local light than when we are using gas, and in a room of ordinary See also:

• SIZE

size would be more likely to use a lamp or two candles than the See also:

• FAT (O.E. fdett; the word is common to Teutonic languages, cf. Dutch vet, Ger. Fett, &c., and may be ultimately related to Greek Irian, and =apos, and Sanskrit pivan)

fat higher illumination we should demand if gas were employed . Secondly, the amount of water vapour given off during the combustion of gas is greater than in the case of the other illuminants, and water vapour absorbing radiant heat from the burning gas becomes heated, and, diffusing itself about the room, causes great oppression . Also the air, being highly charged with moisture, is unable to take up so rapidly the water vapour which is always evaporating from the surface of our skin, and in this way the functions of the body receive a slight check, resulting in a feeling of depression . A very successful type of oil lamp for use in See also:

• ENGINEERING

engineering is represented by the Lucigen, Doty, and See also:

• WELLS
• WELLS, CHARLES JEREMIAH (1798?–1879)
• WELLS, DAVID AMES (1828—1898)
• WELLS, HERBERT GEORGE (1866— )
• WELLS, SIR THOMAS SPENCER, 1ST BART

Wells See also:

• LIGHTS, CEREMONIAL USE OF

lights, in which the 011-spray oil is forced from a reservoir by air-pressure through lamps. a spiral heated by the flame of the lamp, and the heated oil, being then ejected partly as vapour and partly as spray, burns with a large and highly luminous flame . The great See also:

• DRAWBACK

drawback to these devices is that a certain proportion of the oil spray escapes combustion and is deposited in the vicinity of the light . This form of lamp is often used for See also:

• HEATING

heating as well as lighting; the rivets needed for the Forth See also:

• BRIDGE

Bridge were heated in trays by lamps of this type at the spot where they were required . The great See also:

• ADVANTAGE

advantage of these lamps was that oils of little value could be employed, and the light obtained approximated to 750 candles per See also:

• GALLON

gallon of oil consumed . They may to a certain extent be looked upon as the forerunners of perhaps the most successful form oi: incandescent oil-burner . As early as 1885 See also:

• ARTHUR (Fr. Arius)
• ARTHUR, CHESTER ALAN (1830 – 1886)

Arthur Kitson attempted to make a burner for heating purposes on the foregoing principle, i.e. by injecting Oil applied oil under pressure from a See also:

• FINE

fine tube into a chamber to moan- where it would be heated by the See also:

• WASTE (O. Fr. wast, guast, gast, gaste; Lat. vastus, vast, desolate)

waste heat escaping descent from the flame below, the vapour so produced being lighting. made to issue from a small See also:

• JET (Fr. jais, Ger. Gagat)

jet under the pressure caused by the initial air-pressure and the expansion in the gasifying tube .

This jet of gas was then led into what was practically an atmospheric burner, and See also:

• DREW
• DREW, SAMUEL (1765-1833)

drew in with it sufficient air to cause its combustion with a non-luminous blue flame of great heating power . At the time when this was first done the Welsbach See also:

• MANTLE

mantle had not yet reached the period of commercial utility, and attempts were made to use this flame for the See also:

• GENERATION (from Lat. generare, to beget, procreate; genus, stock, race)

generation of light by consuming it in a mantle of fine See also:

• PLATINUM [symbol Pt, atomic weight 145.0 (0=16)]

platinum gauze, which, although giving a very fine illuminating effect during the first few See also:

• HOURS, CANONICAL

hours, very soon shared the See also:

• FATE

fate of all platinum mantles—that is, carbonization of the platinum surface took place, and destroyed its power of light emissivity . It was not until 1893 that the perfecting of the Welsbach mantle enabled this method of consuming the oil to be employed . The Kitson lamp, and also the See also:

• EMPIRE

Empire lamp on a similar principle, have given results which ought to ensure their future success, the only drawback being that they need a certain amount of intelligent care to keep them in good working See also:

• ORDER
• ORDER (through Fr. ordre, for earlier ordene, from Lat. ordo, ordinis, rank, service, arrangement; the ultimate source is generally taken to be the root seen in Lat. oriri, rise, arise, begin; cf. " origin ")
• ORDER, HOLY

order . Oil gas and oil vapours differ from coal gas merely in the larger proportion and greater complexity of the See also:

• HYDROCARBON

hydrocarbon Inca"- molecules present, and to render the oil flame avail- descent able for incandescent lighting it is only necessary to table- cause the oil gas or vapour to become mixed with a lamps. sufficient proportion of air before it arrives at the point of combustion . But with gases so See also:

• RICH, BARNABE (c. 1540-1617)
• RICH, CLAUDIUS JAMES (1787-1821)
• RICH, JOHN (1692-1761)
• RICH, PENELOPE, LADY (c. 1562–1607)
• RICH, RICHARD, 1ST BARON RICH (1490?-1567)

rich in hydrocarbons as those developed from oil it is excessively difficult to get the necessary air intimately and evenly mixed with the gas in sufficient proportion to bring about the desired result . If even coal gas be taken and mixed with 2.27 volumes of air, its luminosity is destroyed, but such a flame would be useless with the incandescent mantle, as if the non-luminous flame be superheated a certain proportion of its luminosity will re-appear . When such a flame is used with a mantle the super-heating effect of the mantle itself very quickly leads to the decomposition of the hydrocarbons and blackening of the mantle, which not only robs it of its light-giving See also:

• POWERS, HIRAM (1805-1873)

powers, but also rapidly ends its See also:

• LIFE

life . If,' however, the proportion of air be increased, the See also:

• APPEARANCE (from Lat. apparere, to appear)

appearance of the flame becomes considerably altered, and the hydrocarbon molecules being burnt up before impact with the heated surface of the mantle, all See also:

• CHANCE (through the O. Fr. cheance, from the Late Lat. cadentia, things happening, from cadere, to fall out, happen; cf. " case ")

chance of blackening is avoided . On the first attempts to construct a satisfactory oil lamp which could be used with the incandescent mantle, this trouble showed itself to be a most serious one, as although it was comparatively easy so to regulate a circular-wicked flame fed by an excess of air as to make it non-luminous, the moment the mantle was put upon this, blackening quickly appeared, while when methods for obtaining a further air supply were devised, the difficulty of producing a flame which would burn for a considerable time without See also:

• CONSTANT, BENJAMIN (1845-1902)

constant See also:

• NECESSITY (Lat. necessitas)

necessity for regulation proved a serious drawback . This trouble has militated against most of the incandescent oil lamps placed upon the market . It soon became evident that if a wick were employed the difficulty of getting it perfectly symmetrical was a serious See also:

• MATTER

matter, and that it could only be utilized in drawing the oil up to a heating chamber where it could be volatilized to produce the oil gas, which on then being mixed with air would give the non-luminous flame .

In the earlier forms of incandescent oil lamps the general idea was to suck the oil up by the capillarity of a circular wick to a point a short distance below the opening of the burner at which the flame was formed, and here the oil was vaporized or gasified by the heat of the head of the burner . An air supply was then drawn up through a tube passing through the centre of the wick-tube, while a second air current was so arranged as to See also:

• DISCHARGE (adapted from the O. Fr. discharge, modern decharge, from a med. Lat. discargare, to unload, dis- and earn care, to load, cf. " charge ")

discharge itself almost horizontally upon the burning gas below the cap, in this way giving a non-luminous and very hot flame, which if kept very carefully adjusted afforded excellent results with an incandescent mantle . It was an arrangement somewhat of this character that was introduced by the Welsbach See also:

• COMPANY

Company . The lamps, however, required such careful attention, and were moreover so irregular in their performance, that they never proved very successful . Many other forms have reached a certain degree of perfection, but have not so far attained sufficient regularity of action to make them commercial successes . One of the most successful was devised by F . Altmann, in which an ingenious arrangement caused the See also:

• VAPORIZATION

vaporization of oil and water by the heat of a little oil lamp in a lower and See also:

• SEPARATE

separate chamber, and the mixture of oil gas and See also:

• STEAM
• STEAM (0. Eng. steam, vapour, smoke, cf. Du. steam; the origin is unknown)

steam was then burnt in a burner-head with a See also:

• SPECIAL

special arrangement of air supply, heating a mantle suspended above the burner-head . The perfect petroleum incandescent lamp has not yet been made, but the results thus obtained show that when the right See also:

• SYSTEM

system has been found a very great increase in the amount of light developed from the petroleum may be expected . In one lamp experimented with for some time it was easy to obtain 3500 candle hours per gallon of oil, or three times the amount of light obtainable from the oil when burnt under ordinary conditions . Before the manufacture of coal-gas had become so universal as it is at present, a favourite illuminant for See also:

• COUNTRY (from the Mid. Eng. contre or contrie, and O. Fr. cuntree; Late Lat. contrata, showing the derivation from contra, opposite, over against, thus the tract of land which fronts the sight, cf. Ger. Gegend, neighbourhood)

country mansions and even villages where no coal-gas was available Air-gas. was a mixture of air with the vapour of very volatile hydrocarbons, which is generally known as " air-gas." This was produced by passing a current of dry air through or over petroleum spirit or the light hydrocarbons distilled from tar, when sufficient of the hydrocarbon was taken up to give a luminous flame in flat flame and Argand burners in the same way as coal-gas, the trouble being that it was difficult to regulate the amount of hydrocarbon held in suspension by the air, as this varied very widely with the temperature . As coal-gas spread to the smaller villages and electric lighting became utilized in large houses, the use of air-gas died out, but with the general introduction of the incandescent mantle it again came to the front . In the .earlier days of this revival, air-gas rich in hydrocarbon vapour was made and was further aerated to give a non-luminous flame by burning it in an atmospheric burner .

One of the best illustrations of this system was the Aerogene gas introduced by A . I. See also:

• VAN

van Vriesland, which was utilized for lighting a number of villages and railway stations on the See also:

• CONTINENT (from Lat. continere, "to hold together "; hence " connected," " continuous ")

continent of See also:

• EUROPE

Europe . In this arrangement a revolving coil of pipes continually dips into petroleum spirit contained in a See also:

• CYLINDER (Gr. KvAwSpos, from KvXivaety, to roll)

cylinder, and the air passed into the cylinder through the coil of pipes becomes highly carburetted by the time it reaches the outlet at the far end of the cylinder . The resulting gas when burnt in an ordinary burnergives a luminous flame; it can be used in atmospheric burners differing little from those of the ordinary type . With an ordinary Welsbach " C " burner it gives a See also:

• DUTY (from " due," that which is owing, O. Fr. deu, dil, past participle of devoir; Lat. debere, debitum; cf. " debt ")

duty of about 30 candles per foot of gas consumed, the high illuminating power being due to the fact that the gas is under a pressure of from 6 to 8 in . With such a gas, containing a considerable percentage of hydrocarbon vapour, any leakage into the air of a room would give rise to an explosive mixture, in the same way that coal-gas would do, but inasmuch as mixtures of the vapour of petroleum spirit and air are only explosive for a very short range, that is, from 1.25 to 5.3 %, some systems have been introduced in which by keeping the amount of petroleum vapour at 2 % and burning the gas under pressure in a specially constructed non-aerating mantle burner, not only has it been found possible to produce a very large See also:

• VOLUME

volume of gas per gallon of spirit employed, but the gas is itself non-explosive, increase in the amount of air taking it farther away from the explosive limit . The See also:

• HOOKER, JOSEPH (1814–1879)
• HOOKER, RICHARD (1553-1600)
• HOOKER, SIR JOSEPH DALTON (1817— English botanist and traveller, second son of the famous botanist Sir W.J.Hooker, was born on the 3oth of June 1817, at Halesworth, Suffolk. He was educated at Glasgow University, and almost immediately after taking his M.
• HOOKER, SIR WILLIAM JACKSON (1785–1865)
• HOOKER, THOMAS (1586–1647)

Hooker, De Laitte and several other systems have been based upon this principle . 2 . GAS LIGHTING In all measurements of illuminating value the standard of comparison used in England is the light yielded by a sperm candle of the size known as " sixes," i.e. six to the See also:

• POUND
• POUND (2)—(a)

pound, consuming 120 grains of sperm per hour, and although in photo-metric work slight inequalities in burning have led to the candle being discarded in practice, the standard lamps burning pentane vapour which have replaced them are arranged to yield a light of ten candles, and the photometric results are expressed as before in terms of candles . When See also:

• WILLIAM
• WILLIAM (1143-1214)
• WILLIAM (1227-1256)
• WILLIAM (1J33-1584)
• WILLIAM (A.S. Wilhelm, O. Norse Vilhidlmr; O. H. Ger. Willahelm, Willahalm, M. H. Ger. Willehelm, Willehalm, Mod.Ger. Wilhelm; Du. Willem; O. Fr. Villalme, Mod. Fr. Guillaume; from " will," Goth. vilja, and " helm," Goth. hilms, Old Norse hidlmr, meaning
• WILLIAM (c. 1130-C. 1190)
• WILLIAM, 13TH

William Murdoch first used coal-gas at his See also:

• REDRUTH

Redruth See also:

• HOME
• HOME, DANIEL DUNGLAS (1833-1886)
• HOME, EARLS OF

home in 1779, he burnt the gas as it escaped from the open end of a small See also:

• IRON [symbol Fe, atomic weight 55.85 (0=16)]

iron tube, but soon realizing that this See also:

• PLAN
• PLAN (from Lat. planes, flat)

plan en-tailed very large consumption of gas and gave a very small amount of light, he welded up the end of his tube and bored three small holes in it, so arranged that they formed three divergent jets of flame . From the shape of the flame so produced this burner received the name of the " cockspur " burner, and it was the one used by Murdoch when in 1807 he fitted up an See also:

• INSTALLATION

installation of gas lighting at See also:

• PHILLIPS
• PHILLIPS, ADELAIDE (1833-1882)
• PHILLIPS, EDWARD (163o-1696)
• PHILLIPS, JOHN (1800—1874)
• PHILLIPS, SAMUEL (1814—1854)
• PHILLIPS, STEPHEN (1868– )
• PHILLIPS, THOMAS (1770-1845)
• PHILLIPS, WENDELL (1811-1884)

Phillips & See also:

• LEE
• LEE (or LEGIT) ROWLAND (d. 1543)
• LEE, ANN (1736–1784)
• LEE, ARTHUR (1740–1792)
• LEE, FITZHUGH (1835–1905)
• LEE, GEORGE ALEXANDER (1802-1851)
• LEE, HENRY (1756-1818)
• LEE, JAMES PRINCE (1804-1869)
• LEE, NATHANIEL (c. 1653-16g2)
• LEE, RICHARD HENRY (1732-1794)
• LEE, ROBERT EDWARD (1807–1870)
• LEE, SIDNEY (1859– )
• LEE, SOPHIA (1950-1824)
• LEE, STEPHEN DILL (1833-1908)

Lee's works in See also:

• MANCHESTER
• MANCHESTER (popularly Manchester-by-the-Sea)
• MANCHESTER, EARLS AND DUKES OF

Manchester . This—the earliest form of gas burner—gave an illuminating value of a little under one candle per cubic foot of gas consumed, and this duty was slightly increased when the burner was improved by flattening up the welded end of the tube and making a See also:

• SERIES (a Latin word from serere, to join)

series of small holes in line and close together, the jets of flame from which gave the burner the name of the " cockscomb." It did not need much inventive See also:

• FACULTY (through the French, from the Lat. facultas, ability to do anything, from facilis, easy, facere, to do; another form of the word in Lat. facilitas, facility, ease, keeps the original meaning)

faculty to replace the line of holes by a saw-cut, the gas issuing from which burnt in a See also:

• SHEET

sheet, the shape of which led to the burner being called the " batswing." This was followed in 1829 by the See also:

• DISCOVERY

discovery of J .

B . See also:

• NEILSON, ADELAIDE (1846—188o)

Neilson, of See also:

• GLASGOW

Glasgow, whose name is remembered in connexion with the use of the hot-air blast in iron-smelting, that, by allowing two flames to impinge upon one another so as to form a flat flame, a slight increase in luminosity was obtained, and after several preliminary stages the See also:

• UNION
• UNION (known locally as Union Hill and officially as Town of Union)

union jet or " fishtail " burner was produced . In this form of burner two holes, bored at the necessary See also:

• ANGLE (from the Lat. angulus, a corner, a diminutive, of which the primitive form, angus, does not occur in Latin; cognate are the Lat. angere, to compress into a bend or to strangle, and the Gr. ayKOS, a bend; both connected with the Aryan root ank-, to

angle in the same nipple, caused two streams of gas to impinge upon each other so that they flattened themselves out into a sheet of flame . The flames given by the batswing and fishtail burners differed in shape, the former being wide and of but little height, whilst the latter was much higher and more narrow . This factor ensured for the fishtail a greater amount of popularity than the batswing burner had obtained, as the flame was less affected by See also:

• DRAUGHTS (from AS. dragan, to draw)

draughts and could be used with a globe, although the illuminating efficiency of the two burners differed little . In a lecture at the Royal Institution on the 29th of May 1853, Sir See also:

• EDWARD

Edward See also:

• FRANKLAND, SIR EDWARD (1825-1899)

Frankland showed a burner he had devised forutilizingtheheat of the flame,to raise the See also:

• TEMPERA (the Italian term), or DISTEMPER

tempera- Regenera- See also:

• TURE

ture of the air supply necessary for the combustion See also:

• TIRE

tire burner. of the gas . The burner was an Argand of the type then in use, consisting of a metal ring pierced with holes so as to give a circle of small jets, the ring of flame being surrounded by a chimney . But in addition to this chimney, Frankland added a second external one, extending some distance below the first and closed at the bottom by a glass See also:

• PLATE

plate fitted air-tight to the See also:

• PILLAR (0. Fr. piler, Mod. pilier, Late Lat. pilare, from pila, column)

pillar carrying the burner . In this way the air needed for the combustion of the gas had to pass down the space between the two chimneys, and in so doing became highly heated, partly by contact with the hot glass, and partly by radiation . Sir Edward Frankland estimated that the temperature of the air reaching the flame was about 500°F . In 1854 a very similar arrangement was brought forward by the Rev . W .

R . See also:

• BOWDITCH, NATHANIEL (1773-1838)

Bowditch, and, as a large amount of publicity was given to it, the inception of the regenerative burner was generally ascribed to Bowditch, although undoubtedly due to Frankland . The principle of regeneration was adopted in a number of lamps, the best of which was brought out by See also:

• FRIEDRICH, JOHANN (1836— )