ALFONSO MARIA DEI See also:

• ALFONSO MARIA DEI LIGUORI (1696-1787)

LIGUORI (1696-1787)  , See also:

• SAINT (lat. sanctus, " holy ")

saint and See also:

• DOCTOR (Lat. for " teacher ")

doctor of the See also:

• CHURCH
• CHURCH (according to most authorities derived from the Gr. Kvpcaxov [&wµa], " the Lord's [house]," and common to many Teutonic, Slavonic and other languages under various forms—Scottish kirk, Ger. Kirche, Swed. kirka, Dan. kirke, Russ. tserkov, Buig. cerk
• CHURCH, FREDERICK EDWIN (1826-1900)
• CHURCH, GEORGE EARL (1835–1910)
• CHURCH, RICHARD WILLIAM (1815–189o)
• CHURCH, SIR RICHARD (1784–1873)

Church of See also:

• ROME
• ROME (Roma)

Rome, was See also:

• BORN, IGNAZ, EDLER VON (1742–1791)

born at Marianella, near See also:

• NAPLES
• NAPLES (Ital. Napoli, and Lat. Neapolis)
• NAPLES, KINGDOM OF

Naples, on the 27th of See also:

• SEPTEMBER (Lat. septem, seven)

September 1696, being the son of Giuseppe dei See also:

• LIGUORI, ALFONSO MARIA DEI (1696-1787)

Liguori, a Neapolitan See also:

• NOBLE, SIR ANDREW (1832- )

noble . He began See also:

• LIFE

life at the See also:

• BAR
• BAR (0. Fr. barre, Late Lat. barra, origin unknown)
• BAR, CONFEDERATION OF
• BAR, FRANCOIS DE (1538-1606)
• BAR, THE

bar, where he obtained considerable practice; but the loss of an important suit, in which he was counsel for a Neapolitan noble against the See also:

• GRAND

grand See also:

• DUKE (corresponding to Fr. duc, Ital. duca, Ger. Herzog)

duke of See also:

• TUSCANY
• TUSCANY (Toscana)

Tuscany, and in which he had entirely mistaken the force of a leading document, so mortified him that he withdrew from the legal See also:

• WORLD

world . In 1726 he entered the See also:

• CONGREGATION (Lat. congregatio, a gathering together, from cum, with, grex, gregis, a flock, herd)

Congregation of See also:

• MISSIONS (Lat. missio, a sending)

Missions as a novice, and became a See also:

• PRIEST (Ger. Priester, Fr. pretre)

priest in 1726 . In 1732 he founded the " Congregation of the Most See also:

• HOLY

Holy Redeemer " at Scala, near See also:

• SALERNO (anc. Salernum)

Salerno; the headquarters of the See also:

• ORDER
• ORDER (through Fr. ordre, for earlier ordene, from Lat. ordo, ordinis, rank, service, arrangement; the ultimate source is generally taken to be the root seen in Lat. oriri, rise, arise, begin; cf. " origin ")
• ORDER, HOLY

Order were afterwards transferred to Nocera dei Pagani . Its members, popularly called Liguorians or Redemptorists, devote themselves to the religious instruction of the poor, more especially in See also:

• COUNTRY (from the Mid. Eng. contre or contrie, and O. Fr. cuntree; Late Lat. contrata, showing the derivation from contra, opposite, over against, thus the tract of land which fronts the sight, cf. Ger. Gegend, neighbourhood)

country districts; Liguori specially forbade them to undertake See also:

• SECULAR (Lat. saecularis, of or belonging to an age or generation, saeculum)

secular educational See also:

• WORK

work . In 175o appeared his LIGUORI 679 celebrated devotional See also:

• BOOK

book on the Glories of See also:

• MARY
• MARY (1457-1482)
• MARY (1496-1533)
• MARY, QUEEN OF SCOTS

Mary; three years later came his still more celebrated See also:

• TREATISE

treatise on moral See also:

• THEOLOGY

theology . In 1755 this was much enlarged and translated into Latin under the See also:

• TITLE (0. Fr. title, mod. titre, from Lat. titulus)

title of Homo A postolicus . In 1762, at the See also:

• EXPRESS (through the French from the past participle of the Lat. exprimere, to press out, by transference used of representing objects in painting or sculpture, or of thoughts, &c. in words)

express See also:

• DESIRE

desire of the See also:

• POPE (Gr. irarraas, post-classical Lat. papa, father)
• POPE, ALEXANDER (1688–1744)
• POPE, ALEXANDER (1763-1835)
• POPE, JANE (1742-1818)
• POPE, JOHN (1822-1892)
• POPE, SIR THOMAS (c. 1507-1559)

pope, he accepted the bishopric of Sant' Agata dei Goti, a small See also:

• TOWN

town in the See also:

• PROVINCE
• PROVINCE (Lat. provincia; perhaps a contraction of providentia)

province of Benevent; though he had previously refused the archbishopric of See also:

• PALERMO (Greek, Havopuos; Latin, Panhormus, Panormus)

Palermo . Here he worked diligently at See also:

• PRACTICAL

practical reforms, being specially anxious to raise the See also:

• STANDARD
• STANDARD, BATTLE OF THE

standard of clerical life and work . In 1775 he resigned his bishopric on the plea of enfeebled See also:

• HEALTH

health; he retired to his Redemptorists at Nocera, and died there in 1787 . In 1796 See also:

• PIUS

Pius VI. declared him " See also:

• VENERABLE (Lat. venerabilis, worthy of reverence, venerari, to reverence, to worship, allied to Venus, love; the Indo-Germ. root is wen-, to desire, whence Eng. " win, properly to struggle for, hence to gain)

venerable "; he was beatified by Pius VII. in 1816, canonized by See also:

• GREGORY
• GREGORY (Gregorius)
• GREGORY (Grigorii) GRIGORIEVICH ORLOV, COUNT (1734-1783)
• GREGORY, EDWARD JOHN (1850-19o9)
• GREGORY, OLINTHUS GILBERT (1774—1841)
• GREGORY, ST (c. 213-C. 270)
• GREGORY, ST, OF NAZIANZUS (329–389)
• GREGORY, ST, OF NYSSA (c.331—c. 396)
• GREGORY, ST, OF TOURS (538-594)

Gregory XVI. in 1839, and finally declared one of the nineteen " Doctors of the Church " by Pius IX. in 1871 . Liguori is the See also:

• CHIEF (from Fr. chef, head, Lat. caput)

chief representative of a school of See also:

• CASUISTRY (from the Lat. casus, a point of law)

casuistry and devotional theology still abundantly represented within the See also:

• ROMAN

Roman Church .

Not that he was in any sense its founder . He was simply a See also:

• FAIR

fair representative of the See also:

• ITALIAN

Italian piety of his See also:

• DAY (O. Eng. dreg, Ger. Tag; according to the New English Dictionary, " in no way related to the Lat. dies")
• DAY, JOHN (1574-1640?)
• DAY, THOMAS (1748-1789)

day—amiable, ascetic in his See also:

• PERSONAL

personal habits, indefatigable in many forms of activity, and of more than respectable abilities; though the emotional See also:

• SIDE
• SIDE (mod. Eski Adalia)

side of his See also:

• CHARACTER (Gr. xapareri7p, from xap&crew, to scratch)

character had the predominance over his See also:

• INTELLECT (Lat. intellectus, from intelligere, to understand)

intellect . He was learned, as learning was understood among the Italian See also:

• CLERGY (M.E. clergie, O. Fr. clergie, from Low Lat. form clericia [Skean, by assimilation with O. Fr. clergie, Fr. clerge,from Low Lat. clericatus)
• CLERGY, BENEFIT OF

clergy of the 18th See also:

• CENTURY (from Lat. centuria, a division of a hundred men)

century; but he was destitute of See also:

• CRITICAL (in alphabetical order of authors)

critical See also:

• FACULTY (through the French, from the Lat. facultas, ability to do anything, from facilis, easy, facere, to do; another form of the word in Lat. facilitas, facility, ease, keeps the original meaning)

faculty, and the inaccuracy of his quotations is proverbial . In his casuistical See also:

• WORKS

works he was a diligent compiler, whose avowed See also:

• DESIGN (Fr. desiin, drawing; Lat. designare, to mark out)

design was to take a See also:

• MIDDLE

middle course between the two current extremes of severity and laxity . In practice, he leant constantly towards laxity . Eighteenth-century See also:

• ITALY
• ITALY (Italia)

Italy looked on See also:

• RELIGION
• RELIGION, FOLKLORE, CUSTOM

religion with apathetic indifference, and Liguori convinced himself that only the gentlest and most lenient treatment could win back the alienated laity; hence he was always willing to excuse errors on the side of laxity as due to an excess of zeal in winning over penitents . Severity, on the other See also:

• HAND
• HAND (a word common to Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Hand, Goth. handus)
• HAND, FERDINAND GOTTHELF (1786-185r)

hand, seemed to him not only inexpedient, but positively wrong . By making religion hard it made it odious, and thus prepared the way for unbelief . Like all casuists, he took for granted that morality was a recondite See also:

• SCIENCE (Lat. scientia, from scire; to learn, know)

science, beyond the reach of all but the learned . When a layman found himself in doubt, his See also:

• DUTY (from " due," that which is owing, O. Fr. deu, dil, past participle of devoir; Lat. debere, debitum; cf. " debt ")

duty was not to consult his See also:

• CONSCIENCE (Lat. con-scientia, literally " knowledge of a thing shared with another person " or " complete knowledge," and derivatively " consciousness in general)
• CONSCIENCE, HENDRIK (1812-1883)

conscience, but to take the See also:

• ADVICE (Fr. avis, from Lat. ad, to, and visum, viewed)

advice of his See also:

• CONFESSOR

confessor; while the confessor himself was See also:

• BOUND, or BOUNDARY (from O. Fr. bonde, Med. Lat. bodena or butina, a frontier line)

bound to follow the rules laid down by the casuistical experts, who delivered them-selves of a See also:

• KIND (O. E. ge-cynde, from the same root as is seen in " kin," supra)

kind of " counsel's See also:

• OPINION (Lat. opinio, from opinari, to think)

opinion " on all knotty points of practical morality . But experts proverbially differ: what was to be done when they disagreed ? Suppose, for instance, that some casuists held it wrong to See also:

• DANCE
• DANCE (Fr. danse; of obscure origin, connected with Old High Ger. danson, to stretch)

dance on See also:

• SUNDAY

Sunday, while others held it perfectly lawful .

In Liguori's See also:

• TIME (0. Eng. Lima, cf. Icel. timi, Swed. timme, hour, Dan. time; from the root also seen in " tide," properly the time of between the flow and ebb of the sea, cf. O. Eng. getidan, to happen, " even-tide," &c.; it is not directly related to Lat. tempus)
• TIME, MEASUREMENT OF
• TIME, STANDARD

time there were four ways of answering the question . Strict moralists—called egotists, or " tutiorists "—maintained that the austerer opinion ought always to be followed; dancing on Sundays was certainly wrong, if any See also:

• GOOD, JOHN MASON (1764-1827)

good authorities had declared it to be so . Probabiliorists maintained that the more See also:

• GENERAL
• GENERAL (Lat. generalis, of or relating to a genus, kind or class)

general opinion ought to prevail, irrespectively of whether it was the stricter or the laxer; dancing on Sunday was perfectly lawful, if the See also:

• MAJORITY (Fr. majorite; Med. Lat. majoritas; Lat. major, greater)

majority of casuists approved it . Probabilists argued that any opinion might be followed, if it could show good authority on its side, even if there was still better authority against it; dancing on Sunday must be See also:

• INNOCENT (INNOCENTIUS)
• INNOCENT (POPES)

innocent, if it could show a fair sprinkling of eminent names in its favour . The See also:

• FOURTH

fourth and last school—the " laxists " —carried this principle a step farther, and held that a practice must be unobjectionable, if it could prove that any one " See also:

• GRAVE

grave Doctor " had defended it; even if dancing on Sunday had hitherto lain under the See also:

• BAN

ban of the church, a single casuist could legitimate it by one stroke of his See also:

• PEN (Lat. penna, a feather, pen)

pen . Liguori's See also:

• GREAT

great achievement See also:

• LAY

lay in steering a middle course between these various extremes . The gist of his See also:

• SYSTEM

system, which is known as " egtliprobabilism," is that the more indulgent opinion may always be followed, whenever the authorities in its favour are as good, or nearly as good, as those on the other side . In this way he claimed that he had secured Eberty in its rights without allowing it to degenerate into See also:

• LICENCE (through the French from Lat. licentia, licere, to be lawful)

licence . However much they might personally disapprove, zealous priests could not forbid their parishioners to dance on Sunday, if the practice had won wide-spread See also:

• TOLERATION (from Lat. tolerare, to endure)

toleration; on the other hand, they could not relax the usual discipline of the church on the strength of a few unguarded opinions of too indulgent casuists . Thus the Liguorian system surpassed all its predecessors in securing uniformity in the See also:

• CONFESSIONAL (Late Lat. confessionale, neut. adj. from confessionalis, " pertaining to confession," Fr. confessional, Ital. confessionale)

confessional on a basis of established usage, two advantages amply sufficient to ensure its speedy general See also:

• ADOPTION (Lat. adoptio, for adoptalio, from adoptare, to choose for oneself)

adoption within the Church of Rome . Lives by A . M .

Tannoja, a See also:

• PUPIL (Lat. pupillus, orphan, minor, dim. of pupus, boy, allied to puer, from root pm- or peu-, to beget, cf. "pupa," Lat. for " doll," the name given to the stage intervening between the larval and imaginal stages in certain insects)

pupil of Liguori's (.3 vols., Naples, 1798-'802); new ed., See also:

• TURIN

Turin, 1837; See also:

• FRENCH
• FRENCH, DANIEL CHESTER (1850– )
• FRENCH, NICHOLAS (1604-1678)

French trans., See also:

• PARIS
• PARIS (also called ALEXANDROS)
• PARIS, ALEXIS PAULIN (1800-x881)
• PARIS, BRUNO PAULIN GASTON (1839-1903)
• PARIS, FRANCOIS DE (169o-1727)
• PARIS, LOUIS PHILIPPE ALBERT
• PARIS, TREATIES OF (1814-1815)

Paris, 1842) ; P . V . A . Giattini (Rome, 1815: Ger trans., See also:

• VIENNA (Ger. Wien; Lat. Vindobona)
• VIENNA, CONGRESS OF (1814-1815)

Vienna, 1835) ; F . W . See also:

• FABER
• FABER (or LEFEVRE), JOHANN (1478-1541)
• FABER, BASIL (1520-c. 1576)
• FABER, FABRI
• FABER, FREDERICK WILLIAM (1814-1863)

Faber (4 vols., See also:

• LONDON

London, 1848—1849); M . A . See also:

• HUGUES, CLOVIS (1851-1907)

Hugues (See also:

• MUNSTER
• MUNSTER, SEBASTIAN (1489-1552)

Munster, 1857) ; 0 . Gisler (See also:

• EINSIEDELN

Einsiedeln, 1887); K . Dilgskron (2 vols., See also:

• REGENSBURG (RATISBON)

Regensburg, 1887), perhaps the best; A . Capecelatro (2 vols., Rome, 1893); A. See also:

• DES

des Retours (Paris, 1903): A . C .

Berthe (St See also:

• LOUIS
• LOUIS (804–876)
• LOUIS (893–911)
• LOUIS, JOSEPH DOMINIQUE, BARON (1755-1837)
• LOUIS, or LEWIS (from the Frankish Chlodowich, Chlodwig, Latinized as Chlodowius, Lodhuwicus, Lodhuvicus, whence-in the Strassburg oath of 842-0. Fr. Lodhuwigs, then Chlovis, Loys and later Louis, whence Span. Luiz and—through the Angevin kings—Hungarian

Louis, 1906) . Works (a) Collected See also:

• EDITIONS

editions . Italian: (See also:

• MONZA (locally Monscia)

Monza, 1819; 1828; See also:

• VENICE
• VENICE (continued)
• VENICE (Venezia)

Venice, 1830; Naples, 184o ff.; Turin, 1887, ff.) . French: (See also:

• TOURNAI (Flemish Doornik)

Tournai, 1855 if., new ed., 1895 ff.) See also:

• GERMAN
• GERMAN, DUTCH AND SCANDINAVIAN

German: (Regensburg, 1842—1847) . See also:

• ENGLISH

English : (22 vols., New See also:

• YORK
• YORK (HOUSE OF)
• YORK, EDMUND OF LANGLEY, DUKE OF (1341-1402)
• YORK, EDWARD
• YORK, FREDERICK AUGUSTUS, DUKE OF (1763-1827)
• YORK, RICHARD, DUKE

York, 1887—1895) . Editions of the Theologia Moralis and other See also:

• SEPARATE

separate works are very numerous . (b) Letters: (2 vols., Monza, 1831; 3 vols., Rome, 1887 ff.) . See also Meyrick, Moral and Devotional Theology of the Church g Rome, according to the Teaching of S . Alfonso de Liguori (London, 1857), and See also:

• ART

art . CASUISTRY . (ST .