LIGURIA  , a

modern territorial division of Italy, lying between the Ligurian Alps and the Apennines on the N., and the Mediterranean on the S. and extending from the frontier of France on the W. to the Gulf of Spezia on the E . Its northern limits touch Piedmont and Lombardy, while Emilia and Tuscany fringe its eastern borders, the dividing line following as a rule the summits of the mountains . Its area is 2037 sq. m . The railway from Pisa skirts the entire coast of the territory, throwing off lines to Parma from Sarzana and Spezia, to Milan and Turin from Genoa, and to Turin from Savona, and there is a line from Ventimiglia to Cuneo and Turin by the Col di Tenda . Liguria embraces the two provinces of Genoa and Porto Maurizio (Imperia), which once formed the republic of Genoa . Its sparsely-peopled mountains slope gently northward towards the Po, descending, however, abruptly into the sea at several points; the narrow coast district, famous under the name of the Riviera (q.v.), is divided at Genoa into the Riviera di Ponente towards France, and the Riviera di Levante towards the east . Its principal products are wheat, maize, wine, oranges, lemons, fruits, olives and potatoes, though the olive groves are being rapidly supplanted by flower-gardens, which grow flowers for export . Copper and iron pyrites are mined . The principal industries are iron-works, foundries, iron shipbuilding, engineering, and boiler works (Genoa, Spezia, Sampierdarena, Sestri Ponente, &c.), the production of cocoons, and the manufactureof cottons and woollens . Owing to the ssh~,eltered situation and the mildness of their climate, many of 't[e coast towns are chosen by thousands of foreigners for winter residence, while the Italians frequent them in summer for sea-bathing . The inhabitants have always been adventurous seamen—Columbus and Amerigo Vespucci were Genoese,—and the coast has several good harbours, Genoa, Spezia and Savona being the best . In educational and general development, Liguria stands high among the regions of Italy .

The populations of the respective provinces and their

chief towns are, according to the census of 19or (popolazione residente or legale)—province of Genoa, pop . 931,156; number of communes 197; chief towns—Genoa (219,507), Spezia (66,263), Savona (38,648), Sampierdarena (34,084), Sestri Ponente (17,225)., Province of Porto Maurizio, pop . 144,604, number of communes io6; chief towns—Porto Maurizio (7207), S . Remo (20,027), Ventimiglia (11,468), Oneglia (8252), Total for Liguria, 1,075,760 . The Ligurian coast became gradually subject to the Romans, and the road along it must have been correspondingly prolonged: up to the end of the Hannibalic war the regular starting-point for Spain by sea was Pisae, in 195 B.C. it was the harbour of Luna (Gulf of Spezia),' though Genua must have become Roman a little before this time, while, in 137 B.C., C . Hostilius Mancinus marched as far as Portus Herculis (Villafranca), and in 121 B.C. the province of Gallia Narbonensis was formed and the coast-road prolonged to the Pyrenees . In 14 B.C . Augustus restored the whole road from Placentia to Dertona (Via Postumia), and thence to Vada Sabatia (Via Aemilia [2]) and the River Varus (Vat), so that it thenceforth took the name of Via Julia Augusta (see AEMILIA, VIA [2]) . The other chief roads of Liguria were the portion of the Via Postumia from Dertona to Genua, a road from above Vada through Augusta Bagiennorum and Pollentia to Augusta Taurinorum, and another from Augusta Taurinorum to Hasta and Valentia . The names of the villages—Quarto, Quinto, &c.—on the south-east side and Pontedecimo on the north of Genoa allude to their distance along the Roman roads . The Roman Liguria, forming the ninth region of Augustus, was thus far more extensive than the modern, including the country on the north slopes of the Apennines and Maritime Alps between the Trebia and the Po, and extending a little beyond Albintimilium . On the west Augustus formed the provinces of the Alpes Maritimae and the Alpes Cottiae .

Towns of importance were few, owing to the nature of the country . Dertona was the only

colony, and Alba Pompeia, Augusta Bagiennorum, Pollentia, Hasta, Aquae Statiellae, and Genua may also be mentioned; but the Ligurians dwelt entirely in villages, and were organized as tribes . The mountainous character of Liguria made the spread of culture difficult; it remained a forest district, producing timber, cattle, ponies, mules, sheep, &c . Oil and wine had to be imported, and when the cultivation of the olive began is not known . The arrangement made by Augustus lasted until the time of Diocletian, when the two Alpine provinces were abolished, and the watershed became the boundary between Italy and Gaul . At this time we find the name Liguria extended as far as Milan, while in the 6th century the old Liguria was separated from it, and under the Lombards formed the fifth Italian province under the name of Alpes Cottiae . In the middle ages the ancient Liguria north of the Apennines fell to Piedmont and Lombardy, while that to the south, with the coast strip, belonged to the republic of Genoa . (T . As.) Archaeology and Philology.—It is clear that in earlier times the Ligurians occupied a much more extensive area than the Augustan region; for instance Strabo (i . 2, 92; iv . 1, 7) gives earlier authorities for their possession of the land on which the Greek colony of Massalia (Marseilles) was founded; and Thucydides (vi . 2) speaks of a settlement of Ligurians in Spain who expelled the Sicani thence .

Southward their domain extended as far as Pisa on the coast of

Etruria and Arretium inland in. the ' The dividing line between Liguria and Etruria was the lower course of the river Macra (Magra), so that, while the harbour of Luna was in the former, Luna itself was in the latter . time of Polybius (ii . 6), and a somewhat vague reference in Lycophron (line 1351) to the Ligurians as enemies of the founders of Agylla (i.e . Caere) suggests that they once occupied even a larger tract to the south . Seneca (Cons ad Helv. vii. g), states that the population of Corsica was partly Ligurian . By combining traditions recorded by Dionysius (i . 22; )(iv . 37) and others (e.g . Serv. ad . Aen. xi . 317) as having been held by Cato the Censor and by Philistus of Syracuse (385 B.C.) respectively, Professor Ridgeway (Who were the Romans ? London, 1908, p .

3) decides in favour of identifying the Ligurians with a tribe called the

Aborigines who occupy a large place in the early traditions of Italy (see Dionysius i. cc. to ff.) ; and who may at all events be regarded with reasonable certainty as constituting an early pre-Roman and pre-Tuscan stratum in the population of Central Italy (see LATIUM) . For a discussion of this question see Volsci . Ridgeway holds that the language of the Ligurians, as well as their antiquities, was identical with that of the early Latins, and with that of the Plebeians of Rome (as contrasted with that of the Patrician or Sabine element), see RoME: History (ad. init.) . The archaeological side of this important question is difficult . Although great progress has been made with the study of the different strata of remains in prehistoric Italy and of those of Liguria itself (see for instance the excellent Introduction d l'histoire romaine by Basile Modestov (Paris, 1907, p . 122 ff.) and W . Ridgeway's Early Age of Greece, p . 240 ff.) no general agreement has been reached among archaeologists as to the particular races who are to be identified as the authors of the early strata, earlier, that is, than that stratum which represents the Etruscans . On the linguistic side some fairly certain conclusions have been reached . D'Arbois de Jubainville (Les Premiers habitants de l'Europe, ed . 2, Paris, 1889–1894) pointed out the great frequency of the suffix -asco- (and -usco-) both in ancient and in modern Ligurian districts, and as far north as Caranusca near Metz, and also in the eastern Alps and in Spain . He pointed out also, what can scarcely be doubted, that the great mass of the Ligurian proper names (e.g. the streams Vinelasca, Porcobera, Comberanea; mons Tuledo; Venascum), have a definite Indo-European character .

Farther Karl Miillenhof in vol. iii. of his Deutsche Alterthumskunde (

Berlin, 1898) made a careful collection of the proper names reserved in Latin inscriptions of the Ligurian districts, such as the Tabula Genuatium (C.I.L. i . 99) of 117 B.C . A complete collection of all Ligurian place and personal names known has been made by S . Elizabeth Jackson, B.A., and the collection is to be combined with the inscriptional remains of the district in The Pre-Italic Dialects, edited by R . S . Conway (see The Proceedings of the British Academy) . Following Kretschmer Kuhn's Zeitschrift (xxxviii . 97), who discussed several inscriptions found near Ornavasso (Lago Maggiore) and concluded that they showed an Indo-European language, Conway, though holding that the inscriptions are more Celtic than Ligurian, pointed out strong evidence in the ancient place names of Liguria that the language spoken there in the period which preceded the Roman conquest was Indo-European, and belonged to a definite group, namely, languages which preserved the original q as Latin did, and did not convert it into p as did the Umbro-Safine tribes . The same is probably true of Venetia (see VENETI), and of an Indo-European language preserved on inscriptions found at Coligny and commonly referred to the Sequani (see Comptes Rendus de l'Ac. d'Insc., Paris, 1897, 703; E . B . Nicholson, Sequanian, London, 1898; Thurneysen, Zeitschr. f . Kelt .

Phil., 1899, 523) . Typically Ligurian names are Quiamelius, which contains the characteristic Ligurian word melo- "

stone " as in mons Blustiemelus (C.I.L. v . 7749), Intimelium and the modern Vintimiglia . The tribal names Soliceli, Stoniceli, clearly contain the same element as Lat. aequi-coli (dwellers on the plain), sati-cola, &c., namely quel-, cf . Lat. in- quil-inus, colo, Gr . 7roMo', siXXesrOat . And it should be added that the Ligurian ethnica show the prevailing use of the two suffixes - co - and - ati-, which there is reason to refer to the pre-Roman stratum of population in Italy (see VoLscI) . Besides the authorities already cited the student may be referred to C . Pauli, Altitalische Studien, vol. i., especially for the alphabet of the inst.; W . Ridgeway, Who were the Romans ? (followed by the abstract of a paper by the present writer) in The Proceedings of the British Academy, vol. iii. p . 42 ; and to W .

H .

Hall's, The Romans on the Riviera and the Rhone (London, 1898) lssel's La Liguria geologica e preistorica (Genoa, 1892) . A further batch of Celto-Ligurian inscriptions from Giubiasco near Bellinzona (Canton Ticino) is published by G . Herbig, in the Anzeiger f . Schweizer . Altertumskunde, vii . (1905–1906), p . 187; and one of the same class by Elia Lattes, Di un' Iscriz. ante-Romana trovata a Carcegna sul Lago d' Arta (Atli d. r . Accad. d . Scienze di Torino, xxxix., Feb, 1904) . (R . S .

C.) LI HUNG CHANG (1823—1901),

Chinese statesman, was born on the 16th of February 1823 at Hofei, in Ngan-hui . From his earliest youth he showed marked ability, and when quite young he took his bachelor degree In 1847 he became a Tsin-shi, or graduate of the highest order, and two years later was admitted into the imperial Hanlin college . Shortly after this the central provinces of the empire were invaded by the Taiping rebels, and in defence of his native district he raised a regiment of militia, with which he did such good service to the imperial cause that he attracted the attention of Tseng Kuo-fan, the generalissimo in command . In 1859 he was transferred to the province of Fu-kien, where he was given the rank of taotai, or intendant of circuit . But Tseng had not forgotten him, and at his request Li was recalled to take part against the rebels . He found his cause supported by the " Ever Victorious Army," which, after having been raised by an American named Ward, was finally placed under the command of Charles George Gordon . With this support Li gained numerous victories leading to the surrender of Suchow and the capture of Nanking . For these exploits he was made governor of Kiangsu, was decorated with a yellow jacket, and was created an earl . An incident connected with the surrender of Suchow, however, left a lasting stain upon his character . By an arrangement with Gordon the rebel wangs, or princes, yielded Nanking on condition that their lives should be spared . In spite of the assurance given them by Gordon, Li ordered their instant execution . This breach of faith so aroused Gordon's indignation that he seized a rifle, intending to shoot the falsifier of his word, and would have done so had not Li saved himself by flight .

On the suppression of the

rebellion (1864) Li took up his duties as governor, but was not long allowed to remain in civil life . On the outbreak of the rebellion of the Nienfei, a remnant of the Taipings, in Ho-nan and Shan-tung (1866) he was ordered again to take the field, and after some misadventures he succeeded in suppressing the movement . A year later he was appointed viceroy of Hukwang, where he remained until 1870, when the Tientsin massacre necessitated his transfer to the scene of the outrage . He was, as a natural consequence, appointed to the viceroyalty of the metropolitan province of Chihli, and justified his appointment by the energy with which he suppressed all attempts to keep alive the anti-foreign sentiment among the people . For his services he was made imperial tutor and member of the grand council of the empire, and was decorated with many-eyed peacocks' feathers . To his duties as viceroy were added those of the superintendent of trade, and from that time until his death, with a few intervals of retirement, he practically conducted the foreign policy of China . He concluded the Chifu convention with Sir Thomas Wade (1876), and thus ended the difficulty caused by the murder of Mr Margary in Yunnan; he arranged treaties with Peru and Japan, and he actively directed the Chinese policy in Korea . On the death of the emperor T'ungchi in 1875 he, by suddenly introducing a large armed force into the capital, effected a coup d'etat by which the emperor Kwang Su was put on the throne under the tutelage of the two dowager empresses; and in 1886, on the conclusion of the Franco-Chinese war, he arranged a treaty with France . Li was always strongly impressed with the necessity of strengthening the empire, and when viceroy of Chihli he raised a large well-drilled and well-armed force, and spent vast sums both in fortifying Port Arthur and the Taku forts and in increasing the navy . For years he had watched the successful reforms effected in Japan and had a well-founded dread of coming into conflict with that empire . But in 1894 events forced his hand, and in consequence of a dispute as to the relative influence of China and Japan in Korea, war broke out . The result proved the wisdom of Li's fears .

Both on land and at sea the Chinese forces were ignominiously routed, and in 1895, on the fall of Wei-

hai-wei, the emperor sued for peace . With characteristic subterfuge his advisers suggested as peace envoys persons whom the mikado very properly and promptly refused to accept, and finally Li was sent to represent his imperial master at the council assembled at Shimonoseki . With great diplomatic skill Li pleaded the cause of his country, but finally had to agree to the cession of Formosa, the Pescadores, and the Liaotung peninsula to the conquerors, and to the' payment of an indemnity of 200,000,000 taels . By a subsequent arrangement the Liaotung peninsula was restored to China, in exchange for an increased indemnity . During the peace discussions at Shimonoseki, as Li was being borne through the narrow streets of the town, a would-be assassin fired a pistol point-blank in his face . The wound inflicted was not serious, and after a few days' rest Li was able to take up again the suspended negotiations . In 1896 he represented the emperor at the coronation of the tsar, and visited Germany, Belgium, France, England, and the United States of America . For some time after his return to China his services were demanded at Peking, where he was virtually constituted minister for foreign affairs; but in 1900 he was transferred to Canton as viceroy of the two Kwangs . The Boxer movement, however, induced the emperor to recall him to the capital, and it was mainly owing to his exertions that, at the conclusion of the outbreak, a protocol of peace was signed in September 1901 . For many months his health had been failing, and he died on the 7th of November 1901 . He left three sons and one daughter . (R .

K .