See also:

• LIVONIA, or LIVLAND (Russian, Liflandia)

LIVONIA, or LIVLAND (See also:

• RUSSIAN

Russian, Liflandia)  , one of the three Baltic provinces of See also:

• RUSSIA
• RUSSIA (Rossiya)

Russia, bounded W. by the Gulf of See also:

• RIGA (Esth. Ria-Lin)

Riga, N. by See also:

• ESTHONIA (Ger. Ehstland and Ehshland, Esthonian Eestimae and Meie-maa, also Viroma and Rahvama; Lettish Iggaun Senna)

Esthonia, E. by the governments of St See also:

• PETERSBURG

Petersburg, See also:

• PSKOV

Pskov and See also:

• VITEBSK

Vitebsk, and S. by See also:

• COURLAND, or KURLAND

Courland . A See also:

• GROUP

group of islands (Inc sq. m.) at the entrance of the Gulf of Riga, of which See also:

• OESEL (in Esthonian Kure-saare or Saare-ma)

Oesel . Mohn, Runo and Paternoster are the largest, belong to this See also:

• GOVERNMENT
• GOVERNMENT (0. Fr. governement, mod. gouvernement, O. Fr. governer, mod. gouverner, from Lat. gubernare, to steer a ship, guide, rule; cf. Gr. xv(3epvav)

government . It covers an See also:

• AREA

area of 18,16o sq. m., but of this the See also:

• PART

part of See also:

• LAKE
• LAKE, GERARD LAKE, 1ST VISCOUNT (1744-1808)

Lake See also:

• PEIPUS, or CHUDSKOYE OZERO

Peipus which belongs to it occupies logo . Its See also:

• SURFACE

surface is diversified by several plateaus, those of Haanhof and of the Livonian Aa having an See also:

• AVERAGE

average See also:

• ELEVATION

elevation of 400 to 700 ft., while several summits reach Boo to loco ft. or more, The edges of the plateaus are gapped by deep valleys; the hilly See also:

• TRACT (from Lat. tractare, to treat of a matter, through Provencal tractat and Ital. trattato)

tract between the See also:

• DVINA

Dvina and its tributary the Livonian Aa has received, from its picturesque narrow valleys, thick forests and numerous lakes, the name of " Livonian See also:

• SWITZERLAND

Switzerland." The See also:

• PLATEAU (a French term, older platel, for a flat piece of wood, metal, &c., from plat, flat)
• PLATEAU, JOSEPH ANTOINE FERDINAND (1801-1883)

plateau of Odenpah, drained by tributaries of the Embach See also:

• RIVER

river, which flows for 93 M. from Lake Virz-yarvi into Lake Peipus, occupies an area of 2830 sq. m., and has an average elevation of 500 ft . More than a thousand lakes are scattered over See also:

• LIVONIA, or LIVLAND (Russian, Liflandia)

Livonia, of which that of Virz-yarvi, having a surface of See also:

• ROD (O.E. rodd, probably related to Norw. rudda, stick, rodda, stake)
• ROD, EDOUARD (1857-1910)

rod sq. m . (115 ft. above See also:

• SEA (in O. Eng. sae, a common Teutonic word; cf. Ger. See, Dutch Zee, &c.; the ultimate source is uncertain)
• SEA, COMMAND OF THE

sea-level), is the largest . Marshes and See also:

• PEAT (possibly connected with Med. Lat. petia, pecia, piece, ultimately of Celtic origin; cf. O. Celt. pet, O. Ir. pit, Welsh peth, portion)

peat-bogs occupy one-tenth of the See also:

• PROVINCE
• PROVINCE (Lat. provincia; perhaps a contraction of providentia)

province . Of the numerous See also:

• RIVERS
• RIVERS, ANTHONY WOODVILLE, or WYDEVILLE, 2ND EARL (c. 1442—1483)
• RIVERS, EARL
• RIVERS, RICHARD SAVAGE, 4TH EARL (c. 1660—1712)

rivers, the Dvina, which flows for 90 m. along its frontier, the See also:

• PERNAU (in Russ. Pernov and in Esthonian Pernolin)

Pernau, Salis, Livonian Aa and Embach are navigable . The See also:

• SILURIAN

Silurian formation which covers Esthonia, appears in the See also:

• NORTHERN

northern part of Livonia, the See also:

• REMAINDER, REVERSION

remainder of the province consisting of Devonian strata . The whole is overlaid with glacial deposits, sometimes 400 ft. thick . The typical bottom mouth of the Dvina .

In 1186 the emissaries of the See also:

• ARCHBISHOP (Lat. archiepiscopus, from Gr. apxceatorcoros)

archbishop of See also:

• MORAINE

moraine, with erratics from See also:

• FINLAND (Finnish, Suomi or Suomenmaa)

Finland, extends all over the See also:

• COUNTRY (from the Mid. Eng. contre or contrie, and O. Fr. cuntree; Late Lat. contrata, showing the derivation from contra, opposite, over against, thus the tract of land which fronts the sight, cf. Ger. Gegend, neighbourhood)

country . Glacial furrows, striae and elongated troughs are met with everywhere, See also:

• RUNNING

running mostly from See also:

• NORTH
• NORTH, BARONS
• NORTH, MARIANNE (1830—1890)
• NORTH, ROGER (1653-1734)
• NORTH, SIR THOMAS (1535?-16o1?)

north-See also:

• WEST
• WEST, BENJAMIN (1738-1820)
• WEST, NICHOLAS (1461-1533)

west to See also:

• SOUTH
• SOUTH, ROBERT (1634–1716)

south-See also:

• EAST
• EAST, ALFRED (1849- )

east, as well as ¢sar or eskers, which have the same direction . See also:

• SAND
• SAND, GEORGE (1804-1876)

Sand-See also:

• DUNES

dunes See also:

• COVER (from the Fr. convert, from couvrir, to cover, Lat. cooperire)

cover large tracts on the shores of the Baltic . No traces of marine deposits are found higher than roo or 15o ft. above the See also:

• PRESENT

present sea-level . The See also:

• SOIL

soil is not very fertile . Forests cover about two-fifths of the surface . The See also:

• CLIMATE

climate is rather severe . The mean temperatures are 430 F. at Riga (See also:

• WINTER, JOHN STRANGE
• WINTER, PETER (c. 1755-1825)

winter 23°, summer 63°) and 400 at See also:

• YURIEV (formerly DORPAT, also Dorpt; Russian, Derpt; Esthonian, Tarto and Tartolin; in Lettish, Tehrbata)

Yuriev . The winds are very variable; the average number of See also:

• RAINY, ROBERT (1826-1906)

rainy and snowy days is 146 at Riga (rainfall 24.1 in.) . Fogs are not uncommon . The See also:

• POPULATION (Lat. populus, people; populare, to populate)

population of Livonia, which was 621,600 in 1816, reached 1,000,876 in 1870, and 1,295,231 in 1897, of whom 43'4 % were Letts, 39.9% Ehsts, 7.6% Germans, 5.4% Russians, 2% See also:

• JEWS
• JEWS (Heb. Y8hudi, man of Judah; Gr. 'Iovbaiot; Lat. Judaei)

Jews and 1.2% Poles . The estimated pop. in 1906 was 1i411,000 .

The Livs, who formerly extended east into the government of Vitebsk, have nearly all passed away . Their native See also:

• LANGUAGE (adapted from the Fr. langage, from langue, tongue, Lat. lingua)

language, of Finnish origin, is rapidly disappearing, their present language being a Lettish See also:

• PATOIS

patois . In 1846 a See also:

• GRAMMAR (from Lat. grammatica, sc. ars; Gr. ypaµ)

grammar and See also:

• DICTIONARY

dictionary of it were made with difficulty from the mouths of old See also:

• PEOPLE

people . The Ehsts, who resemble the Finns of Tavastland, have maintained their ethnic features, their customs, See also:

• NATIONAL

national traditions, songs and See also:

• POETRY

poetry, and their harmonious language . There is a marked revival of national feeling, favoured by " See also:

• YOUNG
• YOUNG, A
• YOUNG, ARTHUR (1741-1820)
• YOUNG, BRIGHAM (1801-1877)
• YOUNG, CHARLES MAYNE (1777–1856)
• YOUNG, EDWARD (1683–1765)
• YOUNG, JAMES (1811-1883)
• YOUNG, THOMAS (1773-1829)

Young Esthonia." The prevailing See also:

• RELIGION
• RELIGION, FOLKLORE, CUSTOM

religion is the Lutheran (79'8%); 14.3% belong to the Orthodox See also:

• GREEK
• GREEK, ETRUSCAN AND

Greek See also:

• CHURCH
• CHURCH (according to most authorities derived from the Gr. Kvpcaxov [&wµa], " the Lord's [house]," and common to many Teutonic, Slavonic and other languages under various forms—Scottish kirk, Ger. Kirche, Swed. kirka, Dan. kirke, Russ. tserkov, Buig. cerk
• CHURCH, FREDERICK EDWIN (1826-1900)
• CHURCH, GEORGE EARL (1835–1910)
• CHURCH, RICHARD WILLIAM (1815–189o)
• CHURCH, SIR RICHARD (1784–1873)

Church; of the Russians, however, a considerable proportion are Raskolniks (Nonconformists) ; the See also:

• ROMAN

Roman Catholics amount to 2'3%, and the Jews to 2% . The See also:

• RUSSIAN

Russian See also:

• CIVIL

civil See also:

• CODE (Lat. codex)

code was introduced in the Baltic provinces in 1835, and the use of Russian, instead of See also:

• GERMAN
• GERMAN, DUTCH AND SCANDINAVIAN

German, in See also:

• OFFICIAL (Late Lat. QJicialis, for class. Lat. apparitor, from officium, office, duty)

official See also:

• CORRESPONDENCE
• CORRESPONDENCE (from med. scholastic Lat. correspondentia, corrcspondere, compounded of Lat. cum, with, and respond ere, to answer; cf. Fr. correspondance)

correspondence and in See also:

• LAW
• LAW (0. Eng. lagu, M. Eng. lawe; from an old Teutonic root lag, " lie," what lies fixed or evenly; cf. Lat. lex, Fr. loi)
• LAW, JOHN (1671—1729)
• LAW, WILLIAM (1686-1761)

law courts was ordered in 1867, but not generally brought into practice . Nearly all the soil belongs to the See also:

• NOBILITY

nobility, the extent of the peasants' estates being only 15% of the entire area of the government . See also:

• SERFDOM (from Fr. serf, Lat. servus, a servant or slave)

Serfdom was abolished in 1819, but the peasants remained under the See also:

• JURISDICTION
• JURISDICTION, CRIMINAL LAW, DIVORCE

jurisdiction of their landlords . The class of See also:

• PEASANT (O. Fr. paysant, Mod. paysan; Lat. pagensis, belonging to the pagus or country; cf. " pagan ")

peasant proprietors being restricted to a small number of wealthy peasants, the bulk have remained tenants at will; they are very miserable, and about one-See also:

• FOURTH

fourth of them are continually wandering in See also:

• SEARCH, or VISIT AND SEARCH

search of See also:

• WORK

work . From See also:

• TIME (0. Eng. Lima, cf. Icel. timi, Swed. timme, hour, Dan. time; from the root also seen in " tide," properly the time of between the flow and ebb of the sea, cf. O. Eng. getidan, to happen, " even-tide," &c.; it is not directly related to Lat. tempus)
• TIME, MEASUREMENT OF
• TIME, STANDARD

time to time the See also:

• EMIGRATION (from Lat. emigrare; e, ex, out of, and migrare, to depart)

emigration takes the shape of a See also:

• MASS (O.E. maesse; Fr. messe; Ger. Messe; Ital. messa; from eccl. Lat. missa)
• MASS, IN

mass See also:

• MOVEMENT

movement, which the government stops by forcible See also:

• MEASURES

measures . The average See also:

• SIZE

size of the landed estates is 9500 to 11,000 acres, far above the See also:

• GENERAL
• GENERAL (Lat. generalis, of or relating to a genus, kind or class)

general average for Russia . See also:

• AGRICULTURE
• AGRICULTURE (from Lat. ages, field, and colere, to cultivate)
• AGRICULTURE, BOARD OF

Agriculture has reached a high degree of perfection on the estates of the landlords .

The See also:

• PRINCIPAL

principal crops are See also:

• RYE

rye, oats, See also:

• BARLEY (Hordeum sativum)

barley, See also:

• FLAX

flax and potatoes; with some See also:

• WHEAT
• WHEAT (Triticum)

wheat, See also:

• HEMP (in O. Eng. henep, cf. Dutch hennep, Ger. Hanf , cognate with Gr. Kavval3er, Lat. cannabis)

hemp and See also:

• BUCKWHEAT

buckwheat . See also:

• DAIRY

Dairy-farming and gardening are on the increase . Fishing in Lake Peipus gives occupation to nearly roo,000 persons, and is also carried on in the Gulf of Riga and in the rivers . Woollen, See also:

• CLOTH

cloth, See also:

• COTTON
• COTTON (Fr. coton; from Arab. qutun)
• COTTON, CHARLES (163o–1687)
• COTTON, GEORGE EDWARD LYNCH (1813–1866)
• COTTON, JOHN (1585–1652)
• COTTON, SIR ROBERT BRUCE

cotton and flax See also:

• MILLS, JOHN (d. 1736)
• MILLS, ROGER QUARLES (1832– )

mills, See also:

• STEAM
• STEAM (0. Eng. steam, vapour, smoke, cf. Du. steam; the origin is unknown)

steam See also:

• FLOUR

flour and saw mills, distilleries and breweries, machinery See also:

• WORKS

works, See also:

• PAPER
• PAPER (Fr. papier, from Lat. papyrus)

paper mills, See also:

• FURNITURE (from " furnish," Fr. fournir)

furniture, See also:

• TOBACCO

tobacco, See also:

• SOAP

soap, See also:

• CANDLE (Lat. candela, from candere, to glow)

candle and hardware works are among the See also:

• CHIEF (from Fr. chef, head, Lat. caput)

chief See also:

• INDUSTRIAL

industrial establishments . Livonia carries on a large export See also:

• TRADE (O. Eng. trod, footstep, from tredan, to tread; in M. Eng. the forms teed, trod and trade appear, the last in the sense of a beaten track)
• TRADE, BOARD OF

trade, especially through Riga and Pernau, in See also:

• PETROLEUM (Lat. Petra, rock, and oleuin, oil)

petroleum, See also:

• WOOL, WORSTED AND WOOLLEN MANUFACTURES

wool, oilcake, flax, See also:

• LINSEED

linseed, hemp, See also:

• GRAIN (derived through the French from Lat. granum, seed, from an Aryan root meaning " to wear down," which also appears in the common Teutonic word " corn ")

grain, See also:

• TIMBER

timber and wooden wares; the Dvina is the chief channel for this trade . See also:

• EDUCATION

Education stands on a much higher level than elsewhere in Russia, no less than 87% of the See also:

• CHILDREN, LAW RELATING TO

children receiving See also:

• REGULAR

regular instruction . The higher educational institutions include Yuriev (Dorpat) University, Riga See also:

• POLYTECHNIC (Gr. aroWus, many, and rEXvn, an art)

polytechnic and a high school for the See also:

• CLERGY (M.E. clergie, O. Fr. clergie, from Low Lat. form clericia [Skean, by assimilation with O. Fr. clergie, Fr. clerge,from Low Lat. clericatus)
• CLERGY, BENEFIT OF

clergy . The government is divided into nine districts, the chief towns of which, with their populations in 1897, are: Riga, See also:

• CAPITAL (i.e. capital stock or fund)
• CAPITAL (Lat. caput, head)

capital of the government (282,943) ; Arensburg, in the See also:

• ISLAND (O.E. ieg =isle, +land')

island of Oesel (4621) ; Yuriev or Dorpat (42,421); Fellin (7659); Pernau (12,856); Walk (10,139) ; See also:

• WENDEN (Lettish Tseziz)

Wenden (6327) ; Werro (4154); and Wolmar (5124) . The capital of the government is Riga . Coins of the time of See also:

• ALEXANDER
• ALEXANDER (1461-1506)
• ALEXANDER (ALEXANDER OF BATTENBERG) (1857-1893)
• ALEXANDER (ALEXANDER OsxENOVici) (1876-1903)
• ALEXANDER, ARCHIBALD (1772—1851)
• ALEXANDER, FRANCIS (1800—1881)
• ALEXANDER, GEORGE (1858— )
• ALEXANDER, JOHN WHITE (1856- )
• ALEXANDER, JOSEPH ADDISON (18o9—186o)
• ALEXANDER, SIR JAMES EDWARD (1803—1885)
• ALEXANDER, WILLIAM (1824— )
• ALEXANDER, WILLIAM LINDSAY (1808—1884)

Alexander the See also:

• GREAT

Great, found on the island of Oesel, show that the coasts of the Baltic were at an See also:

• EARLY
• EARLY, JUBAL ANDERSON (1816-1894)

early See also:

• PERIOD
• PERIOD (Gr. irepioSos, a going or way round, circuit, aepi, round, and &Sis, way, road)

period in commercial relation with the civilized See also:

• WORLD

world . The See also:

• CHRONICLE (from Gr. Xpovos, time)

chronicle of See also:

• NESTOR
• NESTOR (c. 1056-c. 1114)

Nestor mentions as inhabitants of the Baltic See also:

• COAST (from Lat. costa, a rib, side)

coast the Chudes, the Livs, the Narova, Letgola, Semigallians and Kors . It was probably about the 9th See also:

• CENTURY (from Lat. centuria, a division of a hundred men)

century that the Chudes became tributary to the Varangian-Russian states .

As they reacquired their See also:

• INDEPENDENCE
• INDEPENDENCE, DECLARATION OF
• INDEPENDENCE, WAR OF

independence, Yaroslav I. undertook in 1030 a See also:

• CAMPAIGN

campaign against them, and founded Yuriev (Dorpat) . The Germans first penetrated into Livonia in the 11th century, and in 1158 several See also:

• LUBECK

Lubeck and See also:

• VISBY, or WISBY

Visby merchants landed at the See also:

• BREMEN

Bremen began to preach See also:

• CHRISTIANITY

Christianity among the Ehsts and Letts, and in 1201 the See also:

• BISHOP (A.S. bisceop, from Lat. episcopus, Gr. irio-Korros, " overlooker " or " overseer ")
• BISHOP, ISABELLA (1832-1904)
• BISHOP, SIR HENRY ROWLEY (1786-1855)

bishop of Livonia established his See also:

• RESIDENCE (Latin residere, to remain behind, to dwell, reside)

residence at Riga . In 1202 or 1204 See also:

• INNOCENT (INNOCENTIUS)
• INNOCENT (POPES)

Innocent III. recognized the See also:

• ORDER
• ORDER (through Fr. ordre, for earlier ordene, from Lat. ordo, ordinis, rank, service, arrangement; the ultimate source is generally taken to be the root seen in Lat. oriri, rise, arise, begin; cf. " origin ")
• ORDER, HOLY

order of See also:

• BROTHERS, RICHARD (1757-1824)

Brothers of the See also:

• SWORD (0. Eng. sweord; ultimately from an Indo-European root meaning to wound)

Sword, the residence of its See also:

• GRAND

grand See also:

• MASTER (Lat. magister, related to tnagis, more, as the corresponding minister is to minus, less; the English form is due partly to the O. Eng. maegister, and partly to O. Fr. maistre, mod. maitre; cf. Du. meester, Ger. Meister, Ital. maestro)

master being at Wenden; and the order, spreading the See also:

• CHRISTIAN
• CHRISTIAN, WILLIAM (1608-1663)

Christian religion by the sword among the natives, carried on from that time a See also:

• SERIES (a Latin word from serere, to join)

series of uninterrupted See also:

• WARS

wars against the Russian republics and Lithuania, as well as a struggle against the archbishop of Riga, Riga having become a centre for trade, intermediate between the Hanseatic towns and those of See also:

• NOVGOROD
• NOVGOROD (formerly known as V elikiy-Novgorod, Great Novgorod)

Novgorod, Pskov and See also:

• POLOTSK

Polotsk . The first active interference of Lithuania in the affairs of Livonia took See also:

• PLACE (through Fr. from Lat. platea, street; Gr. IrAar6s, wide)

place immediately after the great outbreak of the peasants on Oesel; See also:

• OLGIERD (d. 1377)

Olgierd then devastated all See also:

• SOUTHERN

southern Livonia . The order, having See also:

• PURCHASED

purchased the Danish part of Esthonia, in 1347, began a See also:

• WAR
• WAR (O. Eng. werre, Fr. guerre, of Teutonic origin; cf. O.H.G. werran, to confound)

war against the bishop of Riga, as well as against Lithuania, See also:

• POLAND (Polish Polska, Ger. Polen), (see POLAND, RUSSIAN, below)
• POLAND, RUSSIAN

Poland and Russia . The wars against those See also:

• POWERS, HIRAM (1805-1873)

powers were terminated respectively in 1435, 1466 and 1483 . About the end of the 15th century the master of the order, Plettenberg, acquired a position of great importance, and in 1527 he was recognized as a See also:

• PRINCE
• PRINCE (Lat. princeps, from primus capio, " I am the first to take "; Ital. principe, Fr. prince)

prince of the See also:

• EMPIRE

empire by See also:

• CHARLES
• CHARLES (1270-1325)
• CHARLES (1421-1461)
• CHARLES (1525-1574)
• CHARLES (c. 1319-1364)
• CHARLES (Fr. Charles; Span. Carlos; Ital. Carlo; Ger. Karl; derived from O.H.G. Charal,latinized as Carolus, meaning originally " man ": cf. Mod.Ger., Kerl," fellow," A.S. ceorl, Mod. Eng. " churl ")
• CHARLES (KARL EITEL ZEPHYRIN LUDWIG; in Rum. CAROL)
• CHARLES [KARL ALEXANDER] (1712-1780)
• CHARLES, ELIZABETH (1828-1896)
• CHARLES, JACQUES ALEXANDRE CESAR (1746-1823)
• CHARLES, THOMAS (1755-1814)

Charles V . On the other See also:

• HAND
• HAND (a word common to Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Hand, Goth. handus)
• HAND, FERDINAND GOTTHELF (1786-185r)

hand, the authority of the bishops of Riga was soon completely destroyed (1566) . The war of the order with See also:

• IVAN (JOHN)

Ivan IV. of Russia in 1558 led to a See also:

• DIVISION (from Lat. dividere, to break up into parts, separate)

division of Livonia, its northern part, Dorpat included, being taken by Russia, and the southern part falling under the dominion of Poland . From that time (1560 Livonia formed a subject of dispute between Poland and Russia, the latter only formally abdicating its rights to the country in 1582 . In 1621 it was the See also:

• THEATRE (BEarpov, " a place for seeing," from OeacOae)

theatre of a war between Poland and See also:

• SWEDEN
• SWEDEN [Sverige]
• SWEDEN, NORWAY AND

Sweden, and was conquered by the latter See also:

• POWER [WILLIAM GRATTAN] TYRONE (1797-1841)

power, enjoying thus for twenty-five years a milder See also:

• RULE

rule . In 1654, and again at the beginning of the 18th century, it became the theatre of war between Poland, Russia and Sweden, and was finally conquered by Russia .

The official concession was confirmed by the treaty of Nystad in 1721 . See E . See also:

• SERAPHIM

Seraphim, Geschichte Liv-, Esth-, and Kurlands (2nd ed., Revel, 1897—1904) and Geschichte von Livland (See also:

• GOTHA

Gotha, 1905, &c.) . (P . A . K . ; J . T .