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LONDON . 18.2 15.6 See also:Birmingham . 20.2 16.2 See also:Nottingham . 18.4 16-5 See also:Newcastle 20.9 16.8 See also:Sheffield . . 19.6 17-o See also:Berlin 17.8 17.2 See also:Paris . . 19.2 17.4 See also:Manchester 22.6 18.0 New See also:York . 20.2 18.3 See also:Vienna 20.0 19.0 See also:Liverpool 23.2 19.6 See also:Rome 19.1 20.6 St See also:Petersburg 25'9 25.3 In r9o5 the lowest See also:death-rates among the See also:metropolitan boroughs were returned by See also:Hampstead (9.3), See also:Lewisham (11.7), See also:Wandsworth (12.6), See also:Woolwich (12.8), Stoke Newington (12.9), and the highest by See also:Shoreditch (19.7), See also:Finsbury (19.0), See also:Bermondsey (18.7), Bethnal See also:Green (18.6) and See also:Southwark (18.5) . A return of the percentage of inhabitants dwelling in over-crowded tenements shows 2.7 for See also:Lewis-See also:ham, 4.5 for Wandsworth, 5.5 for Stoke Newington, and 6.4 for Hampstead, against 35.2 for Finsbury and 29.9 for Shoreditch . Sanitation.-As regards sanitation Lcndon is under See also:special regulations . When the statutes See also:relating to public See also:health were consolidated and amended in 1875 London was excluded; and the See also:law applicable to it was specially consolidated and amended in 1891 . The London See also:County See also:Council is a central sanitary authority; the See also:City and metropolitan boroughs are sanitary districts, and the See also:Corporation and See also:borough See also:councils are See also:local sanitary authorities . The County Council deals directly with matters where uniformity of See also:administration is essential, e.g. See also:main drainage, See also:housing of working classes, See also:infant See also:life See also:protection, See also:common lodging-houses and shelters, and contagious diseases of animals . With a further view to uniformity it has certain See also:powers of supervision and See also:control over local authorities, and can make by-See also:laws respecting construction of local sewers, sanitary conveniences, offensive trades, slaughter-houses and dairies, and prevention of nuisances outside the See also:jurisdiction of local authorities . A medical officer of health for the whole county is appointed by the Council, which also pays See also:half the salaries of local medical See also:officers and sanitary inspectors . The Council may also See also:act in cases of See also:default by the local authorities, or may make representations to the Local See also:Government See also:Board respecting such default, whereupon the Board may See also:direct the Council to withhold See also:payment due to the local authority under the Equalization of Rates Act 1894 . The first act providing for a See also:commission of sewers in London See also:dates from 1531 . Various See also:works of a more or less imperfect See also:character Drainage- were carried out, such as the bridging over in 1637 of the See also:river See also:Fleet, which as See also:early as 1307 had become inaccessible to See also:shipping through the See also:accumulation of filth . Scavengers were employed in early times, and sewage was received into See also:wells and pumped into the kennels of the streets . A See also:system of main drainage was inaugurated by the Commissioners of Sewers in 1849, but their See also:work proceeded very slowly . It was carried on more effectively by the Metropolitan Board of Works (1856-1888) which expended over six-and-a-half millions See also:sterling on the work . The London County Council maintained, completed and improved the system . The length of sewers in the main system is about 288 m., and their construction has cost about eight millions . The system covers the county of London, See also:West Ham, Penge, See also:Tottenham, See also:Wood Green, and parts of See also:Beckenham, See also:Hornsey, See also:Croydon, See also:Willesden, See also:East Ham and See also:Acton . There are actually two distinct systems, See also:north and See also:south of the See also:Thames, having See also:separate outfall works on the north and south See also:banks of the river, at See also:Barking and Crossness .
The clear effluent flows into the Thames, and the sludge is taken 5o m. out to See also:sea
.
The See also:annual cost of See also:maintenance of the system exceeds 250,000
.
The sanitary authorities are concerned only with the supervision of See also:house drainage, and the construction and maintenance of local sewers discharging into the main system
.
The Thames and the See also:Lea Conservancies have powers to guard against the pollution of the See also:rivers
.
Hospitals.-The Metropolitan Asylums Board, though established'
in 1867 purely as a poor-law authority for the See also:relief of the sick, insane
and infirm paupers, has become a central See also:hospital
authority for infectious diseases, with See also:power to receive into
its hospitals persons, who are not paupers, suffering from
See also:fever, smallpox or See also:diphtheria
.
Both the Board and the
County Council have certain powers and duties of sanitary
authority for the purpose of epidemic regulations
.
The local sanitary
authorities carry out the provisions of the Infectious Diseases
(Notification and Prevention) Acts, which for London are embodied
in the Public Health (London) Act 1891
.
The Board has asylums
for the insane at Tooting See also:Bee (Wandsworth), See also:Ealing (for See also:children); See also:
(I) King See also:Edward's Hospital Fund (1897) founded- by King Edward VII. as See also:Prince of See also:Wales in See also:commemoration of the See also:Diamond See also:Jubilee of See also:Queen See also:Victoria
.
The See also:League of See also:Mercy, under royal See also:charter, operates in See also:conjunction with the Fund in the collection of small subscriptions
.
The See also:Order of Mercy was instituted by the King as a See also:reward for distinguished See also:personal service
.
(2) The Metropolitan Hospital See also:Sunday Fund, founded in 1873, draws the greater See also:part of its See also:revenue from collections in churches on stated occasions
.
(3) The Metropolitan Hospital Saturday Fund was founded in 1873, and is made up chiefly of small sums collected in places of business, &c
.
The following is a See also:list of the See also:principal London hospitals, with dates of See also:foundation
i
.
See also:General Hospitals with Medical See also:Schools (all of which, with the exception of that of the See also:Seamen's Hospital, are schools of London University) :-
Charing See also:Cross; Agar See also:Street, Strand (1820)
.
See also:Guy's; St See also:
Royal See also:Free; See also: - See also:Poplar Hospital for Accidents (1854) . West London; See also:Hammersmith Road (1856) . 3 . Hospitals for Special Purposes: See also:Brompton See also:Consumption Hospital (1841) . See also:Cancer Hospital; Brompton (1851) . City of London Hospital for diseases of the See also:chest; Bethnal Green (1848) . East London Hospital for Children and Dispensary for Women; See also:Shadwell (1868) . - Hospital for Sick Children; Bloomsbury (1852) . London Fever Hospital; Islington (1802) . - See also:National Hospital for Paralysed and Epileptics; Bloomsbury (1859) . Royal Hospital for Incurables; Putney (1854) . Royal London Ophthalmic Hospital; City Road (1804; on present site, 1899) .
(See also separate articles on boroughs.)
See also:Water See also:Supply.-In the 12th See also:century London was supplied with water from local streams and wells, of which See also:Holy Well, Clerk's Well (See also:Clerkenwell) and St See also:Clement's Well, near St Clement's Inn, were examples
.
In 1236 the magistrates See also:purchased the See also:liberty to convey the See also:waters of the See also:Tyburn from Paddington to the City by leaden pipes, and a great conduit was erected in West Cheap in 1285
.
Other conduits were subsequently built (cf
.
Conduit Street off See also:Bond Street, See also:Lamb's Conduit Street, Bloomsbury); and water was also supplied by the See also:company of water-bearers in leathern panniers See also:borne by horses
.
In 1582 See also:Peter Moris, a Dutchman, erected a " forcier " on an See also:arch of London See also:Bridge, which he rented for los. per annum for 500 years
.
His works succeeded and increased, and continued in his See also:family till 1701, when a company took over the See also:lease
.
Other forciers had been set up, and in 1609, on an act of 1605, See also:Sir See also:Hugh See also:Myddelton undertook the task of supplying reservoirs at Clerkenwell through the New river from springs near See also:Ware, Hertfordshire; and these were opened in 1613
.
In 1630 a See also:scheme to bring water from See also:Hoddesdon on the Lea was promoted by aid of a lottery licensed by See also: This involved impounding the headwaters of the Wye, the Towey and the See also:Usk, and the See also:total cost was estimated to exceed fifteen millions sterling . The capacity of existing See also:sources, however, was deemed sufficient by a Royal Commission under See also:Lord See also:Balfour of Burleigh in 1893, and this See also:opinion was endorsed by a further Commission under Lord See also:Llandaff . The construction of large storage reservoirs was recommended, and this work was put in See also:hand jointly by the New River, West Middlesex and Grand Junction companies at See also:Staines on the Thames . As regards administration ,Lord Llandaff's Commission recommended the creation Metro- of a Water See also:Trust, and in 1902 the See also:Metropolis Water Act Metro- constituted the Metropolitan Water Board to See also:purchase Water and carry on the undertakings of the eight companies, Board. and of certain local authorities . It consists of 66 members appointed by the London County Council (14), the City of London and the City of Westminster (2 each), the other Metropolitan boroughs (I each), the county councils of Middlesex, Hertfordshire, See also:Essex, Kent and Surrey (1 each), borough of West Ham (2), various See also:groups of other boroughs and See also:urban districts, and the Thames and the Lea Conservancies . The first See also:election of the Board took place in 1903 . The 24th of See also:June, 1904, was the date fixed on which control passed to the Board, and in the meantime a See also:Court of See also:Arbitration adjudicated the claims of the companies for See also:compensation for the acquisition of their properties . " Water London " is an irregular area extending from Ware in Hertfordshire to See also:Sevenoaks in Kent, and westward as far as Ealing and See also:Sunbury . A See also:constant supply is maintained generally throughout " Water London," although a suspension between certain See also:hours has been occasionally necessitated, as in 1895 and 1898, when, during summer droughts, the East London supply was so affected . During these periods other companies had a surplus of water, and in 1899 an act was passed providing for the interconnexion of systems . The Thames and Lea are the principal sources of supply, but the Kent and (partially) the New River Company draw supplies from springs . The systems of filtration employed by the different companies varied in efficacy, but both the Royal Commissions decided that water as supplied to the consumer was generally of a very high See also:standard of purity . The See also:expenditure of the Water Board for 1907–1908 amounted to !2,846,265 . See also:Debt charges absorbed £I,512,718 of this amount . Public See also:baths and washhouses are provided by local authorities under various acts between 1846 and 1896, which have been adopted by all the borough councils . See also:Lighting.—From 1416 citizens were obliged to hang out candles between certain hours on dark nights to illuminate the streets . An act of See also:parliament enforced this in 1661; in 1684 Edward Heming, the inventor of oil lamps, obtained See also:licence to supply public See also:lights; and in 1736 the corporation took the See also:matter in hand, levying a See also:rate . See also:Gas-lighting was introduced on one See also:side of See also:Pall Mall in 1807, and in 1810 the Gas See also:Light & See also:Coke Company received a charter, and See also:developed gas-lighting in Westminster . The City of London Gas Company followed in 1817, and seven other companies soon after . Wasteful competition ensued until in 1857 an agreement was made between the companies to restrict their services to separate localities, and the Gas Light & Coke Company, by amalgamating other companies, then gradually acquired all the gas-lighting north of the Thames, while a considerable area in the south was provided for by another great gas company, the South Metropolitan . Various acts from 186o onwards have laid down laws as to the quality and cost of gas . Gas must he supplied at 16-See also:candle See also:illuminating power, and is officially tested by the chemists' See also:department of the London County Council . The amalgamations mentioned were effected subsequently to 1860, and there are now three principal companies within the county, the Gas Light & Coke, South Metropolitan and Commercial, though certain other companies supply some of the outlying districts . As regards street lighting, the extended use of burners with in-candescent mantles has been of See also:good effect . The Metropolitan Board of Works, and the commissioners of sewers in the City, began experiments with electric light . At the See also:close of the 19th and the beginning of the 2oth century a large number of electric light companies came into existence, and some of the metropolitan borough councils, and local authorities within Greater London, also undertook the supply . An extensive use of the light resulted in the principal streets and in shops, offices and private houses . Fire.—In 1832 the fire See also:insurance companies See also:united to maintain a small fire See also:brigade, and continued to do so until 1866 . The brigade was confined to the central part of the metropolis; for the See also:rest, the parochial authorities had See also:charge of protection from fire . The central brigade came undef the control of the Metropolitan Board of Works; and the County Council now manages the Metropolitan Fire Brigade, under a See also:chief officer and a See also:staff numbering about 1300 . The cost of maintenance exceeds £200,000 annually; contributions towards this are made by the See also:Treasury and the fire insurance companies . The Council controls the See also:provision of fire escapes in factories employing over 40 persons, under an act of 1901; it also compels the mainten- entertainments . A See also:Salvage See also:Corps is independently maintained by the Insurance Companies . Cemeteries.—The administrative authorities of cemeteries for the county are the borough councils and the City Corporation and private companies . The large See also:cemetery at Brompton is the See also:property of the government . Kensal Green cemetery, the See also:burial-place of many famous persons, is of great extent, but several large cemeteries outside the metropolis have come into use . Such are that of the London See also:Necropolis Company at Brookwood near See also:Woking, Surrey, and that of the parishes of St Mary Abbots, See also:Kensington, and St . George, See also:Hanover Square, at See also:Hanwell, Middlesex . Crematoria are provided at certain of the companies' cemeteries, and the See also:Cremation Act 1902 enabled borough councils to provide crematoria . V . See also:EDUCATION AND RECREATION Education.—The See also:British and See also:Foreign School Society (1808) and the National Society (1811), together with the Ragged Schools See also:Union . (1844), were the only special organizations providing for See also:Element-the education of the poorer classes until 1870 . To meet ary the demand for elementary education, increasing as it did education. with See also:population, was beyond the powers of these See also:societies, the churches and the various charitable institutions . Thus a return of 1871 showed that the schools were capable of accommodating only 39 % of the children of school-going See also:age . In 187o, however, a School Board had been created in addition, and this See also:body carried out much good work during its See also:thirty-four years of existence . In 1903 the Education (London) Act was passed in pursuance of the general system, put into operation by the Education Act (1902) of bringing education within the See also:scope of municipal government . The County Council was created a local education authority, and given control of See also:secular education in both board and voluntary schools . It appoints an education See also:committee in accordance with a scheme approved by the Board of Education . This scheme must allow of the Council selecting at least a See also:majority of the committee, and must provide for the inclusion of experts and women . Each school or See also:group of schools is under a body of managers, in the See also:appointment of whom the borough council and the County Council See also:share in the following proportions:—(a) Board or provided schools; borough council, two-thirds; county council, one-third: (b) Voluntary or non-provided schools; the foundation, two-thirds; borough council and county council, each one-See also:sixth . The total number of public elementary schools was 963 in 1905, with '752,487 scholars on the See also:register . Other institutions include higher elementary schools for pupils certified to be able to profit by higher instruction; and schools for See also:blind, See also:deaf and defective children . Instruction for teachers is provided in See also:pupil teachers' centres (preparatory), and in residential and See also:day training colleges . There are about 15 such colleges . Previous to the act of 1903 the County Council had educational powers under the hnical Technical Instructions Acts which enabled it to provide Teceducation. technical education through a special board, merged by the act of 1903 in the education committee . The City and Guilds of London See also:Institute, See also:Gresham College, also maintains various technical institutions . The establishment of polytechnics was provided for by the City of London Parochial Charities Act 1883; the charities being administered by trustees . The See also:model institution was that of Mr Quintin See also:Hogg (188o) in See also:Regent Street, where a striking statue by George Frampton (1906) commemorates him . The general scope of the polytechnics is to give instruction both in general knowledge and special crafts or trades by means of classes, lectures and laboratories, instructive entertainments and exhibitions, and facilities for bodily and See also:mental exercise (gymnasia, See also:libraries, &c.) . Other similar institutions exist primarily for special purposes, as the St See also:Bride Foundation Institute, near Fleet Street, in immediate proximity to the great newspaper offices, for the See also:printing See also:trade, and the Herolds' Institute, a See also:branch of the Borough See also:Polytechnic situated in Bermondsey, for the purposes of the See also:leather trade .
The County Council also See also:aids numerous separate schools of See also:art, both general and special, such as the Royal School of Art See also:Needlework and the School of Art Woodcarving; the City and Guilds Institute maintains similar establishments at some of its colleges, and art schools are also generally attached to the polytechnics
.
The London County Council maintains a number of See also:industrial schools and reformatories, both in London and in the See also:country, for children who have shown or are likely to be misled into a phllaa
tendency towards lawlessness
.
The City Corporation has throplca-
l separate responsibilities in the same direction, but has iastitu=
no schools of its own
.
The expenditure of the London tloag
.
County Council on education for 1907–1908 was £4,281,291 for elementary education, and £742,962 for higher education
.
The work of private philanthropists and philanthropical bodies among the poor of East London, Southwark and Bermondsey, and elsewhere, falls to be noticed at this point
.
The labours of the regular See also:clergy here See also:lie largely in the direction of social reform, and churches and See also:missions have been established and are maintained by colleges, such as See also:Christ See also: |