See also:

• RUDOLF (otherwise known as Basso NOROK and Gannon)

RUDOLF See also:

• HERMANN, JOHANN GOTTFRIED JAKOB (1772–1848)
• HERMANN, KARL FRIEDRICH (1804–1855)

HERMANN See also:

• RUDOLF HERMANN LOTZE (1817-1881)

LOTZE (1817-1881)  , See also:

• GERMAN
• GERMAN, DUTCH AND SCANDINAVIAN

German philosopher, was See also:

• BORN, IGNAZ, EDLER VON (1742–1791)

born in See also:

• BAUTZEN (Wendish Budissin, " town ")

Bautzen on the 21st of May 1817, the son of a physician . He received his See also:

• EDUCATION

education in the gymnasium of See also:

• ZITTAU

Zittau under teachers who inspired him with an enduring love of the classical authors, as we see from his See also:

• TRANSLATION

translation of the See also:

• ANTIGONE, (I)

Antigone of See also:

• SOPHOCLES (495-406 B.c.)

Sophocles into Latin See also:

• VERSE (from Lat. versus, literally a line or furrow drawn by turning the plough, from vertere, and afterwards signifying an arrangement of syllables into feet)

verse, published when he had reached See also:

• MIDDLE

middle See also:

• LIFE

life . He went to the university of See also:

• LEIPZIG

Leipzig as a student of See also:

• PHILOSOPHY (Gr. gthos, fond of, and vo4 (a, wisdom)

philosophy and natural sciences, but entered officially as a student of See also:

• MEDICINE

medicine . He was then only seventeen . It appears that thus See also:

• EARLY
• EARLY, JUBAL ANDERSON (1816-1894)

early See also:

• LOTZE, RUDOLF HERMANN (1817-1881)

Lotze's studies were governed by two distinct interests . The first was scientific, based upon mathematical and See also:

• PHYSICAL

physical studies under the guidance of E . H . See also:

• WEBER, CARL MARIA FRIEDRICH ERNEST VON (1786–1826)
• WEBER, WILHELM EDUARD (1804-1891)

Weber, W . Volckmann and G . T . See also:

• FECHNER, GUSTAV THEODOR (1801-1887)

Fechner . The other was his aesthetical and See also:

• ARTISTIC

artistic See also:

• INTEREST

interest, which was See also:

• DEVELOPED

developed under the care of C .

H . See also:

• WEISSE, CHRISTIAN HERMANN (18oi–1866)

Weisse . To the former he owes his appreciation of exact investigation and a See also:

• COMPLETE

complete knowledge of the aims of See also:

• SCIENCE (Lat. scientia, from scire; to learn, know)

science, to the latter an equal admiration for the See also:

• GREAT

great circle of ideas which had been diffused by the teaching of See also:

• FICHTE, IMMANUEL HERMANN (originally HARTMANN) VON (1797-1879)
• FICHTE, JOHANN GOTTLIEB (1762-1814)

Fichte, See also:

• SCHELLING, FRIEDRICH WILHELM JOSEPH VON (1775-1854)
• SCHELLING, KAROLINE (1763-1809)

Schelling and See also:

• HEGEL, GEORG WILHELM FRIEDRICH (1770-1831)

Hegel . Each of these influences, which early in life must have been See also:

• FAMILIAR (through the Fr. familier, from Lat. familiaris, of or belonging to the familia, family)

familiar to him, tempered and modified the other . The true method of science which he possessed forced him to condemn as useless the entire See also:

• FORM (Lat. forma)

form which Schelling's and Hegel's expositions had adopted, especially the See also:

• DIALECTIC, or DIALECTICS

dialectic method of the latter, whilst his love of See also:

• ART

art and beauty, and his appreciation of moral. purposes, revealed to him the existence of a trans-phenomenal See also:

• WORLD

world of values into which no exact science could penetrate . It is evident how this initial position at once defined to him the tasks which philosophy had to perform . First there were the natural sciences, themselves only just emerging from a confused conception of their true method; especially thosewhich studied the borderland of physical and See also:

• MENTAL

mental phenomena, the medical sciences; and pre-eminently that science which has since become so popular, the science of See also:

• BIOLOGY (Gr. Qios, life)

biology . Lotze's first See also:

• ESSAY, ESSAYIST (Fr. essai, Late Lat. exagium, a weighing or balance; exigere, to examine; the term in general meaning any trial or effort)

essay was his dissertation De futurae biologiae principibus philosophicis, with which he gained (1838) the degree of See also:

• DOCTOR (Lat. for " teacher ")

doctor of medicine, after having only four months previously got the degree of doctor of philosophy . Then, secondly, there arose the question whether the methods of exact science sufficed to explain the connexion of phenomena, or whether for the ex-planation of this the thinking mind was forced to resort to some See also:

• HYPOTHESIS (from Gr. inrorcOivat, to put under; cf. Lat. suppositio, from sub-ponere)

hypothesis not immediately verifiable by observation, but dictated by higher aspirations and interests . And, if to satisfy these we were forced to maintain the existence of a world of moral See also:

• STANDARDS

standards, it was, thirdly, necessary to form some See also:

• OPINION (Lat. opinio, from opinari, to think)

opinion as to the relation of these moral standards of value to the forms and facts of phenomenal existence . These different tasks, which philosophy had to fulfil, See also:

• MARK
• MARK, CARL (1858– )
• MARK, GOSPEL OF ST
• MARK, ST

mark See also:

• PRETTY

pretty accurately the aims of Lotze's writings, and the See also:

• ORDER
• ORDER (through Fr. ordre, for earlier ordene, from Lat. ordo, ordinis, rank, service, arrangement; the ultimate source is generally taken to be the root seen in Lat. oriri, rise, arise, begin; cf. " origin ")
• ORDER, HOLY

order in which they were published . He laid the See also:

• FOUNDATION (Lat. fundatio, from fundare, to found)

foundation of his philosophical See also:

• SYSTEM

system very early in his Metaphysik (Leipzig, 1841) and his Logik (1843), See also:

• SHORT, FRANCIS JOB (1857– )

short books published while he was still a junior lecturer at Leipzig, from which university he migrated to See also:

• GOTTINGEN

Gottingen, succeeding See also:

• HERBART, JOHANN FRIEDRICH (1776-1841)

Herbart in the See also:

• CHAIR (in. Mid. Eng. chcere, through O. Fr. chaire or chaiere, from Lat. cathedra, later caledra, Gr. xaOi3pa, seat, cf. "cathedral"; the modern Fr. form chaise, a chair, has been adopted in English with a particular meaning as a form of carriage; chaire

chair of philosophy .

But it was only during the last See also:

• DECADE (from Gr. Oka, ten)

decade of his life that he ventured, with much hesitation, to See also:

• PRESENT

present his ideas in a systematic and final form . The two books mentioned remained unnoticed by the See also:

• READING

reading public, and Lotze first became known to a larger circle through a See also:

• SERIES (a Latin word from serere, to join)

series of See also:

• WORKS

works which aimed at establishing in the study of the physical and mental phenomena of the human organism in its normal and diseased states the same See also:

• GENERAL
• GENERAL (Lat. generalis, of or relating to a genus, kind or class)

general principles which had been adopted in the investigation of in-organic phenomena . These works were his Allgemeine Pathologie and See also:

• THERA

Thera See also:

• PIE

pie als mechanische Naturwissenschaften (Leipzig, 1842, 2nd ed., 1848), the articles " Lebenskraft " (1843) and " Seele and Seelenleben " (1846) in Rud . See also:

• WAGNER, ADOLF (1835- )
• WAGNER, RUDOLPH (1805-1864)
• WAGNER, WILHELM RICHARD (1813-1883)

Wagner's Handworterbuck der Physiologie, his Allgemeine Physiologie See also:

• DES

des Korperlichen Lebens (teipzig, 1851), and his Medizinische Psychologie See also:

• ODER (Lat. Viadua; Slavonic, Vjodr)

oder Physiologie der Seek (Leipzig, 1852) . When Lotze published these works, medical science was still much under the See also:

• INFLUENCE (Late Lat. influentia, from influere, to flow in)

influence of Schelling's philosophy of nature . The See also:

• MECHANICAL

mechanical See also:

• LAWS

laws, to which See also:

• EXTERNAL

external things were subject, were conceived as being valid 'only in the inorganic world; in the organic and mental worlds these mechanical laws were conceived as being disturbed or overridden by other See also:

• POWERS, HIRAM (1805-1873)

powers, such as the influence of final causes, the existence of types, the See also:

• WORK

work of vital and mental forces . This confusion Lotze, who had been trained in the school of mathematical reasoning, tried to dispel . The laws which govern particles of See also:

• MATTER

matter in the inorganic world govern them likewise if they are joined into an organism . A phenomenon a, if followed by b in the one See also:

• CASE
• CASE, JOHN (d. 1600)

case, is followed by the same b also in the other case . Final causes, vital and mental forces, the soul itself can, if they See also:

• ACT (Lat. actus, actum)

act at all, only act through the inexorable mechanism of natural laws . As we therefore have only to do with the study of existing complexes of material and spiritual phenomena, the changes in these must be explained in science by the See also:

• RULE

rule of mechanical laws, such as obtain everywhere in the world, and only by such . One of the results of these investigations was to extend the meaning of the word mechanism, and comprise under it all laws which obtain in the phenomenal world, not excepting the phenomena of life and mind .

Mechanism was the unalterable connexion of every phenomenon a with other phenomena b, c, d, either as following or preceding it; mechanism was the inexorable form into which the events of this world are See also:

• CAST (from the verb meaning " to throw "; the word is Scand. in origin, cf. Dan. kaste, and Swed. kasta; " cast " in Middle Eng. took the place of the A.S. weor pan, cf. Ger. werf en)

cast, and by which they are connected . The See also:

• OBJECT

object of those writings was to establish the all-pervading rule of mechanism . But the mechanical view of nature is not identical with the materialistic . In the last of the above-mentioned works the question is discussed at great length how we have to consider mind, and the relation between mind and See also:

• BODY

body; the See also:

• ANSWER (derived from and, against, and the same root as swear)

answer is—we have to consider mind as an immaterial principle, its See also:

• ACTION

action, however, on the body and See also:

• VICE

vice versa as purely mechanical, indicated by the fixed laws of a psycho-physical mechanism . These doctrines of Lotze—though pronounced with the distinct and reiterated reserve that they did not contain a See also:

• SOLUTION (from Lat. solvere, to loosen, dissolve)

solution of the philosophical question regarding the nature, origin, or deeper, meaning of this all-pervading mechanism, neither an explanation how the action of external things on each other takes See also:

• PLACE (through Fr. from Lat. platea, street; Gr. IrAar6s, wide)

place nor yet of the relation of mind and body, that they were merely a preliminary See also:

• FORMULA
• FORMULA (Lat. diminutive of forma, shape, pattern, &c., especially used of rules of judicial procedure)

formula of See also:

• PRACTICAL

practical scientific value, itself requiring a deeper See also:

• INTERPRETATION (from Lat. interpretari, to expound, explain, inter pres, an agent, go-between, interpreter; inter, between, and the root pret-, possibly connected with that seen either in Greek 4 p4'ew, to speak, or irpa-rrecv, to do)

interpretation—these doctrines were nevertheless by many considered to be the last word of the philosopher who, denouncing the reveries of Schelling or the idealistic theories of Hegel, established the science of life and mind on the same basis as that of material things . Published as they were during the years when the See also:

• MODERN

modern school of German See also:

• MATERIALISM (from Lat. materia, matter)

materialism was at its height,' these works of Lotze were counted among the opposition literature which destroyed the phantom of Hegelian See also:

• WISDOM, BOOK OF, or WISDOM OF SOLOMON (Sept. Io4ia IaXwµwvos; Lat. Vulg. Liber sapientiae)

wisdom and vindicated the See also:

• INDEPENDENT

independent and self-sufficing position of empirical philosophy . Even philosophers of the See also:

• EMINENCE (Lat. eminentia)

eminence of I . H . Fichte (the younger) did not See also:

• ESCAPE (in mid. Eng. eschape or escape, from the O. Fr. eschapper, modern echapper, and escaper, low Lat. escapium, from ex, out of, and cappa, cape, cloak; cf. for the sense development the Gr. iichueoOat, literally to put off one's clothes, hence to sli

escape this misinterpretation of Lotze's true meaning, though they had his Metaphysik and Logik to refer to, though he promised in his Allgemeine Physiologic (1851) to enter in a subsequent work upon the " bounding See also:

• PROVINCE
• PROVINCE (Lat. provincia; perhaps a contraction of providentia)

province between See also:

• AESTHETICS

aesthetics and See also:

• PHYSIOLOGY (from Gr. 4 i s, nature, and koyos, discourse)

physiology," and though in his Medizinische Psychologie he had distinctly stated that his position was neither the See also:

• IDEALISM (from Gr. i5Ea, archetype or model, through been urged of the truth of its point of view is the persistency Fr. idealisme)

idealism of Hegel nor the See also:

• REALISM (from Low Lat. realis, appertaining to res, things, as opposed to ideas and imaginations)

realism of Herbart, nor materialism, but that it was the conviction that the essence of everything is the See also:

• PART

part it plays in the realization of some See also:

• IDEA (Gr. Ibia, connected with i&eiv, to see; cf. Lat. species from specere, to look at)

idea which is in itself valuable, that the sense of an all-pervading mechanism is to be sought in this, that it denotes the ways and means by which the highest idea, which we may See also:

• CALL (from Anglo-Saxon ceallian, a common Teutonic word, cf. Dutch kallen, to talk or chatter)

call the idea of the See also:

• GOOD, JOHN MASON (1764-1827)

good, has voluntarily chosen to realize itself . The misinterpretations which he had suffered induced Lotze to publish a small pamphlet of a polemical See also:

• CHARACTER (Gr. xapareri7p, from xap&crew, to scratch)

character (Streitschriften, Leipzig, 1857), in which he corrected two mistakes . The opposition which he had made to Hegel's formalism had induced some to See also:

• ASSOCIATE (Lat. associates, from ad, to, and sociare to join)

associate him with the materialistic school, others to See also:

• COUNT (Lat. comes, gen. comitis, Fr. comte, Ital. conte, Span. conde)

count him among the followers of Herbart . Lotze publicly and formally denied that he belonged to the school of Herbart, though he admitted that historically the same See also:

• DOCTRINE

doctrine which might be considered the forerunner of Herbart's teachings might See also:

• LEAD
• LEAD (pronounced iced)

lead to his own views, viz, the monadology of See also:

• LEIBNITZ (LEIBNIZ), GOTTFRIED WILHELM

Leibnitz .

When Lotze wrote these explanations, he had already given to the world the first See also:

• VOLUME

volume of his great work, Mikrokosmus (vol. i . 1856, vol. ii . 1858, vol. iii . 1864; 3rd ed., 1876-1880) . In many passages of his works on See also:

• PATHOLOGY (from Gr. raBos, suffering)

pathology, physiology; and See also:

• PSYCHOLOGY
• PSYCHOLOGY (>Guxrl, the mind or soul, and X yos, theory)

psychology Lotze had distinctly stated that the method of See also:

• RESEARCH (O. Fr. recerche, from recercher, re- and cercer, mod. chercher, to search; Late Lat. circare, to go round in a circle, to explore)

research which he advocated there did not give an explanation of the phenomena of life and mind, but only the means of observing and connecting them together; that the meaning of all phenomena, and the See also:

• REASON (Lat. ratio, through French raison)

reason of their See also:

• PECULIAR

peculiar connexions, was a philosophical problem which required to be attacked from a different point of view; and that the significance especially which See also:

• LAY

lay in the phenomena of life and mind would only unfold itself if by an exhaustive survey of the entire life of See also:

• MAN
• MAN, ISLE OF (anc. Mona)

man, individually, socially, and historically, we gain the necessary data for deciding- what meaning attaches to the existence of this See also:

• MICROCOSM

microcosm, or small world of human life, in the macrocosm of the universe . This See also:

• REVIEW (Fr. revue, from revoir, to see again, Lat. re and videre)

review, which extends, in three volumes, over the wide See also:

• FIELD (a word common to many West German languages, cf. Ger. Feld, Dutch veld, possibly cognate with O.E. f olde, the earth, and ultimately with root of the Gr. irAaror, broad)
• FIELD, CYRUS WEST (1819-1892)
• FIELD, DAVID DUDLEY (18o5-1894)
• FIELD, EUGENE (1850-1895)
• FIELD, FREDERICK (18o1—1885)
• FIELD, HENRY MARTYN (1822-1907)
• FIELD, JOHN (1782—1837)
• FIELD, MARSHALL (183 1906)
• FIELD, NATHAN (1587—1633)
• FIELD, STEPHEN JOHNSON (1816-1899)
• FIELD, WILLIAM VENTRIS FIELD, BARON (1813-1907)

field of See also:

• ANTHROPOLOGY (Gr. avOpw1ror man, and Xoyos, theory or science)

anthropology, beginning with the human See also:

• FRAME

frame, the soul, and their See also:

• UNION
• UNION (known locally as Union Hill and officially as Town of Union)

union in life, advancing to man, his mind, and the course of the world, and concluding with See also:

• HISTORY

history, progress, and the connexion of things, ends with the same idea which was expressed in Lotze's earliest work, his Metaphysik . The view peculiar to him is reached in the end as the crowning conception towards which all See also:

• SEPARATE

separate channels of thought have tended, and in the See also:

• LIGHT

light of which the life of man in nature and mind, in the individual and in society, had been surveyed . This view can be briefly stated as follows: Every-where in the wide See also:

• REALM

realm of observation we find three distinct 'See See also:

• VOGT, KARL CHRISTOPH (1817-1895)

Vogt, Physiologische Briefe (1845-1847); Moleschott, Der Kreislauf des Lebens (1852) ; See also:

• BUCHNER, FRIEDRICH KARL CHRISTIAN LUDWIG (1824-1899)

Buchner, Kraft and Stoff (1855).regions,—the region of facts, the region of laws and the region of standards of value . These three regions are separate only in our thoughts, not in reality . To comprehend the real position we are forced to the conviction that the world of facts is the field in which, and that laws are the means by which, those higher standards of moral and aesthetical value are being realized; and such a union can again only become intelligible through the idea of a See also:

• PERSONAL

personal Deity, who in the creation and preservation of a world has voluntarily chosen certain forms and laws, through the natural operation of which the ends of His work are gained . Whilst Lotze had thus in his published works closed the circle of .his thought, beginning with a ,conception metaphysically gained, proceeding to an exhaustive contemplation of things in the light it afforded, and ending with the stronger conviction of its truth which observation, experience, and life could afford, he had all the See also:

• TIME (0. Eng. Lima, cf. Icel. timi, Swed. timme, hour, Dan. time; from the root also seen in " tide," properly the time of between the flow and ebb of the sea, cf. O. Eng. getidan, to happen, " even-tide," &c.; it is not directly related to Lat. tempus)
• TIME, MEASUREMENT OF
• TIME, STANDARD

time been lecturing on the various branches of philosophy according to the See also:

• SCHEME (Lat. schema, Gr. oxfjya, figure, form, from the root axe, seen in exeiv, to have, hold, to be of such shape, form, &c.)

scheme of academical instruction transmitted from his predecessors . Nor can it be considered anything but a gain that he was thus induced to expound his views with regard to those topics, and in connexion with those problems, which were the traditional forms of philosophical utterance .

His lectures ranged over a wide field: he delivered annually lectures on psychology and on See also:

• LOGIC (Xoy1K7, sc. rixvrt, the art of reasoning)

logic (the latter including a survey of the entirety of philosophical research under the See also:

• TITLE (0. Fr. title, mod. titre, from Lat. titulus)

title Encyclopadie der Philosophic), then at longer intervals lectures on See also:

• METAPHYSICS
• METAPHYSICS, or METAPHYSIC (from Gr. /sera, after, d v med, things of nature, lots, i.e. the natural universe)

metaphysics, philosophy of nature, philosophy of art, philosophy of See also:

• RELIGION
• RELIGION, FOLKLORE, CUSTOM

religion, rarely on history of philosophy and See also:

• ETHICS
• ETHICS, SHAFTESBURY, HOBBES

ethics . In these lectures he expounded his peculiar views in a stricter form, and during the last decade of his life he embodied the substance of those courses in his System der Philosophic, of which only two volumes have appeared (vol. i . Logik, 1st ed., Leipzig, 1894, 2nd ed., 1880; vol. ii . Metaphysik, 1879) . The third and concluding volume, which was to treat in a more condensed form the See also:

• PRINCIPAL

principal problems of practical philosophy, of philosophy of art and religion, never appeared . A small pamphlet on psychology, containing the last form in which he had begun to treat the subject in his lectures (abruptly terminated through his See also:

• DEATH

death on the 1st of See also:

• JULY

July 1881) during the summer session of 1881, has been published by his son . Appended to this volume is a complete See also:

• LIST (O.E. lisle, a Teutonic word, cf. Dut. lust, Ger. Leiste, adapted in Ital. lista and Fr. lisle)
• LIST, FRIEDRICH (1789-1846)

list of Lotze's writings, compiled by See also:

• PROFESSOR (the Latin noun formed from the verb profiteri, to declare publicly, to acknowledge, profess)

Professor Rehnisch of Gottingen . To understand this series of Lotze's writings, it is necessary to begin with his See also:

• DEFINITION (Lat. definitio, from de-finire, to set limits to, describe)

definition of philosophy . This is given after his exposition of logic has established two points, viz. the existence in our mind of certain laws and forms according to which we connect the material supplied to us by our senses, and, secondly, the fact that logical thought cannot be usefully employed without the See also:

• ASSUMPTION, FEAST OF

assumption of a further set of connexions, not logically necessary, but assumed to exist between the data of experience and observation . These connexions of a real not formal character are handed to us by the separate sciences and by the usage and culture of everyday life . See also:

• LANGUAGE (adapted from the Fr. langage, from langue, tongue, Lat. lingua)

Language has crystallized them into certain definite notions and expressions, without which we cannot proceed a single step, but which we have accepted without knowing their exact meaning, much less their origin . In consequence the See also:

• SPECIAL

special sciences and the wisdom of See also:

• COMMON

common life entangle themselves easily and frequently in contradictions .

A problem of a purely formal character thus presents itself, viz. this—to try to bring unity and See also:

• HARMONY (Gr. dpµovia, a concord of musical sounds, dpA'ew to join; &plan midi (sc. TeXvil)

harmony into the scattered thoughts of our general culture, to trace them to their See also:

• PRIMARY

primary assumptions and follow them into their ultimate consequences, to connect them all together, to remodel, curtail or amplify them, so as to remove their apparent contradictions, and to combine them in the unity of an harmonious. view of things, and especially to investigate those conceptions which form the initial assumptions of the several sciences, and to See also:

• FIX, THEODORE (180o-1846)

fix the limits of their applicability This is the formal definition of philosophy . Whether an harmonious conception thus gained will represent more than an agreement among our thoughts, whether it will represent the real connexion of things and thus possess See also:

• OBJECTIVE, or OBJECT GLASS

objective not merely subjective value, cannot be decided at the outset . It is also unwarranted to start with the expectation that everything in the world should be explained by one principle, and it is a needless restriction of our means to expect unity of method . Nor are we able to start our philosophical investigations by an inquiry into the nature of human thought and its capacity to attain an objective knowledge, as in this case we would be actually using that See also:

• INSTRUMENT (Lat. instrumentum, from insincere, to build up, furnish, arrange, prepare)

instrument the usefulness of which we were trying to determine . The See also:

• MAIN (from the Aryan root which appears in " may " and " might," and Lat. magnus, great)
• MAIN (Lat. Moenus)

main See also:

• PROOF (in M. Eng. preove, proeve, preve, &°c., from O. Fr . prueve, proeve, &c., mod. preuve, Late. Lat. proba, probate, to prove, to test the goodness of anything, probus, good)

proof of the objective value of the view we may gain will rather See also:

• LIE, JONAS LAURITZ EDEMIL (1833—1908)
• LIE, MARIUS SOPHUS (1842–1899)

lie in the degree in which it succeeds in assigning to every See also:

• ELEMENT (Lat. elementum)

element of culture its due position, or in which it is able to appreciate and combine different and apparently opposite tendencies and interests, in the sort of See also:

• JUSTICE (Lat. justitia)

justice with which it weighs our manifold desires and aspirations, balancing them in due proportions, refusing to See also:

• SACRIFICE (from Lat. sacrificium; sacer, holy, and facere, to make)

sacrifice to a one-sided principle any truth or conviction which experience has proven to be useful and necessary . The investigations will then naturally See also:

• DIVIDE

divide themselves into three parts, the first of which deals with those to our mind inevitable forms in which we are obliged to think about things, if we think at all (metaphysics), the second being devoted to the great region of facts, trying to apply the results of metaphysics to these, specially the two great regions of external and mental phenomena (cosmology and psychology), the third dealing with those standards of value from which we pronounce our aesthetical or ethical approval or disapproval . In each See also:

• DEPARTMENT (Fr. departement, from departir, to separate into parts)

department we shall have to aim first of all at views clear and consistent within themselves, but, secondly, we shall in the end wish to form some general idea or to See also:

• RISK

risk an opinion how laws, facts and standards of value may be combined in one comprehensive view . Considerations of this latter See also:

• KIND (O. E. ge-cynde, from the same root as is seen in " kin," supra)

kind will naturally present themselves in the two great departments of cosmology and psychology, or they may be delegated to an independent research under the name of religious philosophy . We have already mentioned the final conception in which Lotze's See also:

• SPECULATION

speculation culminates, that of a personal Deity, Himself the essence of all that merits existence for its own See also:

• SAKE

sake, who in the creation and See also:

• GOVERNMENT
• GOVERNMENT (0. Fr. governement, mod. gouvernement, O. Fr. governer, mod. gouverner, from Lat. gubernare, to steer a ship, guide, rule; cf. Gr. xv(3epvav)

government of a world has voluntarily chosen certain laws and forms through which His ends are to be realized . We may add that according to this view nothing is real but the living spirit of See also:

• GOD

God and the world of living See also:

• SPIRITS

spirits which He has created; the things of this world have only reality in so far as they are the See also:

• APPEARANCE (from Lat. apparere, to appear)

appearance of spiritual substance, which underlies everything . It is natural that Lotze, having this great and final conception always before him, works under its influence from the very beginning of his speculations, permitting us, as we progress, to gain every now and then a glimpse of that interpretation of things which to him contains the solution of our difficulties . The See also:

• KEY
• KEY (in O. Eng. tang; the ultimate origin of the word is unknown; it appears only in Old Frisian kei of other Teutonic languages; until the end of the 17th century the pronunciation was kay, as in other words in O. Eng. ending in aeg; cf. daeg, day; clang
• KEY (the phraseograms being indicated by hyphens)
• KEY, SIR ASTLEY COOPER (1821-1888)
• KEY, THOMAS HEWITT (1799-1875)

key to Lotze's theoretical philosophy lies in his metaphysics, to the exposition of which important subject the first and last of his larger publications have been devoted .

To understand Lotze's philosophy, a careful and repeated perusal of these works is absolutely necessary . The object of his metaphysics is so to remodel the current notions regarding the existence of things and their connexions with which the usage of language supplies us as to make them consistent and thinkable . The further assumption, that the modified notions thus gained have an objective meaning, and that they somehow correspond to the real order of the existing world which of course they can never actually describe, depends upon a general confidence which we must have in our reasoning powers, and in the significance of a world in which we ourselves with all the necessary courses of our thoughts have a due place assigned . The principle therefore of these investigations is opposed to two attempts frequently repeated in the history of philosophy, viz.: (1) the See also:

• ATTEMPT (Lat. adtemptare, attentare, to try)

attempt to establish general laws or forms, which the development of things must have obeyed, or which a Creator must have followed in the creation of a world (Hegel) ; and (2) the attempt to trace the See also:

• GENESIS
• GENESIS (Gr. 'ybeo-es, becoming; the term being used in English as a synonym for origin or process of coming into being)

genesis of our notions and decide as to their meaning and value (modern theories of knowledge) . Neither of these attempts is practicable . The world of many things surrounds us; our notions, by which we See also:

• MANAGE

manage correctly or incorrectly to describe it, are also ready made . What remains to be done is, not to explain how such a world manages to be what it is, nor how we came to form these notions, but merely this—to expel from the circle and totality of our conceptions those abstract notions which are inconsistent and jarring, or to remodel and define them so that they may constitute a consistent and harmonious view . In this endeavour Lotze discards as useless and untenable many favourite conceptions of the school, many crude notions of everyday life . The course of things and their connexion is only thinkable by the assumption of a See also:

• PLURALITY (0. Fr. pluralitd, Late Lat. pluralitas, plural number)

plurality of existences, the reality of which (as distinguished from our knowledge of them) can be conceived only as a multitude of relations . This quality of See also:

• STANDING

standing in relation to other things is that which gives to a thing its reality . And the nature of this reality again can neither be consistently represented as a fixed and hard substance nor as an unalterable something, but only as a fixed order of recurrence of continually changing events or impressions . But, further, every attempt to think clearly what those relations are, what we really mean, if we talk of a fixed order of events, forces upon us the See also:

• NECESSITY (Lat. necessitas)

necessity of thinking also that the different things which stand in relations or the different phases which follow each other cannot be merely externally strung together or moved about by some indefinable external See also:

• POWER [WILLIAM GRATTAN] TYRONE (1797-1841)

power, in the form of some See also:

• PREDESTINATION (from Late Lat. praedestinare, to deter-mine beforehand; from the root sta, as in stare, stand)

predestination or inexorable See also:

• FATE

fate .

The things themselves which exist and their changing phases must stand in some See also:

• INTERNAL

internal connexion; they themselves must be active or passive, capable of doing or suffering . This would lead to the view of Leibnitz, that the world consists of monads, self-sufficient beings, leading an inner life . But this idea involves the further conception of Leibnitz, that of a pre-established harmony, by which the Creator has taken care to arrange the life of each See also:

• MONAD (Gr. µovas, unit, from µovos, alone)

monad, so that it agrees with that of all others . This conception, according to Lotze, is neither necessary nor thoroughly intelligible . Why not interpret at once and render intelligible the common conception originatingin natural science, viz. that of a system of laws which governs the many things ? But, in attempting to make this conception quite clear and thinkable, we are forced to represent the connexion of things as a universal substance, the essence of which we conceive as a system of laws which underlies everything and in its own self connects everything, but imperceptible, and known to us merely through the impressions it produces on us, which we call things . A final reflection then teaches us that the nature of this universal and all-pervading substance can only be imagined by us as some-thing analogous to our own mental life, where alone we experience the unity of a substance (which we call self) preserved in the multitude of its (mental) states . It also becomes clear that only where such mental life really appears need we assign an independent existence, but that the purposes of everyday life as well as those of science are equally served if we deprive the material things outside of us of an See also:

• INDEPENDENCE
• INDEPENDENCE, DECLARATION OF
• INDEPENDENCE, WAR OF

independence, and assign to them merely a connected existence through the universal substance by the action of which alone they can appear to us . The universal substance, which we may call the See also:

• ABSOLUTE (Lat. absolvere, to loose, set free)

absolute, is at this See also:

• STAGE (Fr. 6/age; from Lat. stare, to stand)

stage of our investigations not endowed with the attributes of a personal Deity, and it will remain to be seen by further See also:

• ANALYSIS (Gr. avci and Meta, to break up into parts)

analysis in how far we are able—without See also:

• CONTRADICTION, PRINCIPLE OF (principium contradictionis)

contradiction—to identify it with the object of religious veneration, in how far that which to metaphysics is merely a postulate can be gradually brought nearer to us and become a living power . Much in this direction is said by Lotze in various passages of his writings; anything complete, however, on the subject is wanting . Nor would it seem as if it could be the intention of the author to do much more than point out the lines on which the further treatment of the subject should advance . The actual result of his personal inquiries, the great idea which lies at the foundation of his philosophy, we know .

It may be safely stated that Lotze would allow much See also:

• LATITUDE (Lat. latitudo, latus, broad)

latitude to individual convictions, as indeed it is evident that the empty notion of an absolute can only become living and significant to us in the same degree as experience and thought have taught us to realize the seriousness of life, the significance of creation, the value of the beautiful and the good, and the supreme See also:

• WORTH
• WORTH, CHARLES FREDERICK (1825-1895)

worth of personal holiness . To endow the universal substance with moral attributes, to maintain that it is more than the metaphysical ground of everything, to say it is the perfect realization of the See also:

• HOLY

holy, the beautiful and the good, can only have a meaning for him who feels within himself what real not imaginary values are clothed in those expressions . We have still to mention that aesthetics formed a principal and favourite study of Lotze's, and that he has treated this subject also in the light of the leading ideas of his philosophy . See his essays Ueber den Begriff der Schonheit (Gottingen, 1845) and Ueber Bedingungen der Kunstschonheit, ibid . (1847) ; and especially his Geschichte der Aesthetik in Deutschland (See also:

• MUNICH (Ger. Munchen)

Munich, 1868) . Lotze's See also:

• HISTORICAL

historical position is of much interest: Though he disclaims being a follower of Herbart, his formal definition of philosophy and his conception of the object of metaphysics are similar to those of Herbart, who defines philosophy as an attempt to remodel the notions given by experience . In this endeavour he forms with Herbart an opposition to the philosophies of Fichte, Schelling and Hegel, which aimed at objective and absolute knowledge, and also to the See also:

• CRITICISM
• CRITICISM (from the Gr. KpiTrlS, a judge, Kpivew, to decide, to give an authoritative opinion)

criticism of See also:

• KANT, IMMANUEL (1724-1804)

Kant, which aimed at determining the validity of all human knowledge . But this formal agreement includes material See also:

• DIFFERENCES, CALCULUS OF (Theory of Finite Differences)

differences, and the spirit which breathes in Lotze's writings is more akin to the See also:

• OBJECTS

objects and aspirations of the idealistic school than to the See also:

• COLD (in O. Eng. cald and ceald, a word coming ultimately from a root cognate with the Lat. gelu, gelidus, and common in the Teutonic languages, which usually have two distinct forms for the substantive and the adjective, cf. Ger. Kolte, kalt, Dutch koude

cold formalism of Herbart . What, however, with the idealists was an object of thought alone, the absolute, is to Lotze only inadequately definable in rigorous philosophical language; the aspirations of the human See also:

• HEART
• HEART, LUNG

heart, the contents of our feelings and desires, the aims of art and the tenets of religious faith must be grasped in order to fill the empty idea of the absolute with meaning . These manifestations of the divine spirit again cannot be traced and understood by reducing (as Hegel did) the growth of the human mind in the individual, in society and in history to the monotonous See also:

• RHYTHM (Greek pvBµds, from bap, to flow)

rhythm of a speculative schematism; the essence and worth which is in them reveals itself only to the student of detail, for reality is larger and wider than philosophy; the problem, " how the one can be many," is only solved for us in the numberless examples in life and experience which surround us, for which we must retain a lifelong interest and which constitute the true field of all useful human work . This conviction of the emptiness of terms and abstract notions, and of the fulness of individual life, has enabled Lotze to combine in his writings the two courses into which German philosophical thought had been moving since the death of its great founder, Leibnitz . We may define these courses by the terms See also:

• ESOTERIC

esoteric and exoteric--the former. the philosophy of the school, cultivated principally at the See also:

• UNIVERSITIES

universities, trying to systematize everything and reduce all our knowledge to an intelligible principle, losing in this attempt the deeper meaning of Leibnitz's philosophy; the latter the unsystematized philosophy of general culture which we find in the work of the great writers of the classical See also:

• PERIOD
• PERIOD (Gr. irepioSos, a going or way round, circuit, aepi, round, and &Sis, way, road)

period, See also:

• LESSING, GOTTHOLD EPHRAIM (1729–1781)

Lessing, See also:

• WINKELMANN, EDUARD (1838-1896)

Winkelmann, See also:

• GOETHE, JOHANN WOLFGANG VON (1749-1832)

Goethe, See also:

• SCHILLER, JOHANN CHRISTOPH FRIEDRICH VON (1759-18o5)

Schiller and See also:

• HERDER, JOHANN GOTTFRIED VON (1744-1803)

Herder, all of whom expressed in some degree their indebtedness to Leibnitz .

Lotze can be said to have brought philosophy out of the lecture-See also:

• ROOM

room into the See also:

• MARKET (Lat. mercatus, trade or place of trade)

market-place of life . By understanding and combining what was great and valuable in those divided and scattered endeavours, he became the true successor of Leibnitz . The See also:

• AGE (Fr. age, through late Lat. aetaticum, from aetas)

age in which Lotze lived and wrote in See also:

• GERMANY
• GERMANY (Ger. Deutschland)

Germany was not one peculiarly fitted to appreciate the position he took up . Frequently misunderstood, yet rarely criticized, he was nevertheless greatly admired, listened to by devoted hearers and read by an increasing circle . But this circle never attained to the unity of a philosophical school . The real meaning of Lotze's teaching is reached only by patient study, and those who in a larger or narrower sense call them-selves his followers will probably feel themselves indebted to him more for the general direction he has given to their thoughts, for the See also:

• TONE, THEOBALD WOLFE (1763-1798)

tone he has imparted to their inner life, for the seriousness with which he has taught them to consider even small affairs and practical duties, and for the indestructible confidence with which his philosophy permits them to disregard the materialism of science, the See also:

• SCEPTICISM (o-Kesrroµai, I consider, reflect, hesitate, doubt)

scepticism of shallow culture, the disquieting results of philosophical and historical criticism . See E . Pfieiderer, Lotze's philosophische Weltanschauung nach ihren Grundzugen (See also:

• BERLIN
• BERLIN, CONGRESS AND TREATY OF
• BERLIN, ISAIAH (1725–1799)

Berlin, 1882; 2nd ed., 1884) ; E. von See also:

• HARTMANN, KARL ROBERT EDUARD VON (1842–1906)
• HARTMANN, MORITZ (1821–1872)

Hartmann, Lotze's Philosophie (Leipzig, 1888) ; O . See also:

• CASPARI, KARL PAUL (1814-1892)

Caspari, H . Lotze in seiner Stellung zu der durch Kant begriindelen neuesten Geschichte der Philosophie (See also:

• BRESLAU (Polish Wraclaw)

Breslau, 1883; 2nd ed., 1894); R . Falckenberg, See also:

• HERMANN, JOHANN GOTTFRIED JAKOB (1772–1848)
• HERMANN, KARL FRIEDRICH (1804–1855)

Hermann Lotze (See also:

• STUTTGART

Stuttgart, 1901); See also:

• HENRY
• HENRY (1129-1195)
• HENRY (c. 1108-1139)
• HENRY (c. 1174–1216)
• HENRY (Fr. Henri; Span. Enrique; Ger. Heinrich; Mid. H. Ger. Heinrich and Heimrich; O.H.G. Haimi- or Heimirih, i.e. " prince, or chief of the house," from O.H.G. heim, the Eng. home, and rih, Goth. reiks; compare Lat. rex " king "—" rich," therefore " mig
• HENRY, EDWARD LAMSON (1841– )
• HENRY, JAMES (1798-1876)
• HENRY, JOSEPH (1797-1878)
• HENRY, MATTHEW (1662-1714)
• HENRY, PATRICK (1736–1799)
• HENRY, PRINCE OF BATTENBERG (1858-1896)
• HENRY, ROBERT (1718-1790)
• HENRY, VICTOR (1850– )
• HENRY, WILLIAM (1795-1836)

Henry See also:

• JONES
• JONES, ALFRED GILPIN (1824-1906)
• JONES, EBENEZER (182o-186o)
• JONES, ERNEST CHARLES (1819-1869)
• JONES, HENRY (1831-1899)
• JONES, HENRY ARTHUR (1851- )
• JONES, INIGO (1573-1651)
• JONES, JOHN (c. 1800-1882)
• JONES, MICHAEL (d. 1649)
• JONES, OWEN (1741-1814)
• JONES, OWEN (1809-1874)
• JONES, RICHARD (179o-1855)
• JONES, SIR ALFRED LEWIS (1845-1909)
• JONES, SIR WILLIAM (1746-1794)
• JONES, THOMAS RUPERT (1819– )
• JONES, WILLIAM (1726-1800)

Jones, A See also:

• CRITICAL (in alphabetical order of authors)

Critical See also:

• ACCOUNT
• ACCOUNT (through O. Fr. acont, Late Lat. comptum, cornputare, to calculate)

Account of the Philosophy of Lotze (See also:

• GLASGOW

Glasgow, 1895) ; See also:

• PAUL
• PAUL (PAULUS)

Paul See also:

• LANGE, ANNE FRANCOISE ELIZABETH (1772—1816)
• LANGE, ERNST PHILIPP KARL (1813—1899)
• LANGE, FRIEDRICH ALBERT (1828—1875)
• LANGE, JOHANN PETER (1802-1884)

Lange, See also:

• DIE
• DIE (Fr. de, from Lat. datum, given)

Die Lehre vom Instincte bei Lotze and See also:

• DARWIN, CHARLES ROBERT (1809-1882)
• DARWIN, ERASMUS (1731-1802)

Darwin (Berlin, 1896) ; A . Lichtenstein, Lotze and See also:

• WUNDT, WILHELM MAX (1832— )

Wundt (See also:

• BERN (Fr. Berne)

Bern, 1900) .

(J . T . M.; H .