See also:

• MAHOMET (strictly MUHAMMAD, commonly also MOHAMMED)

MAHOMET (strictly MUHAMMAD, commonly also MOHAMMED)  , founder of the religious See also:

• SYSTEM

system called in See also:

• EUROPE

Europe after him Mahommedanism, and by himself See also:

• ISLAM

Islam or Ilanifism . He died, according to the See also:

• ORDINARY (med. Lat. ordinarius, Fr. ordinaire)

ordinary synchronism, on the 7th of See also:

• JUNE

June 632 (12 Rabia, A.H . 11), and his birthday was exactly sixty-three or sixty-five years earlier, the latter number being evidently an See also:

• INTERPRETATION (from Lat. interpretari, to expound, explain, inter pres, an agent, go-between, interpreter; inter, between, and the root pret-, possibly connected with that seen either in Greek 4 p4'ew, to speak, or irpa-rrecv, to do)

interpretation in lunar years of a number thought to refer to See also:

• SOLAR, SOLLER (Lat. solarium, Fr.• galetas, Ital. solaio)

solar years . The lunar system was introduced into See also:

• ARABIA

Arabia by See also:

• MAHOMET (strictly MUHAMMAD, commonly also MOHAMMED)

Mahomet himself quite at the See also:

• CLOSE
• CLOSE (from Lat. clausum, shut)
• CLOSE, MAXWELL HENRY (1822-1903)

close of his career; that which existed before was certainly solar, as it involved a See also:

• PROCESS

process of intercalation—which, however, seems to have been arbitrarily manipulated by priests, whence certain synchronisms cannot be got for the events in the See also:

• PROPHET (Irpo4i ri7s)

Prophet's career . The number 63 for the years of his See also:

• LIFE

life may See also:

• REST (O. Eng. rest, reste, bed, cognate with other Teutonic forms, e.g. Ger. Rast, Riiste, rest, and probably Gothic Rasta, league, i.e. resting or stopping place)

rest on tradition, though it is unlikely that such matters were accurately noted; it can also be accountedfor by a priori See also:

• COMBINATION (Lat. combinare, to combine)

combination . A Meccan, it is said, became a full See also:

• CITIZEN (a form corrupted in Eng., apparently by analogy with " denizen," from O. Fr. citeain, mod. Fr. citoyen)

citizen at the See also:

• AGE (Fr. age, through late Lat. aetaticum, from aetas)

age of 40; this then would be the age at which the See also:

• MISSION

mission might be started . The See also:

• MEDINA
• MEDINA, JOSE TORIBIO (1852- )

Medina See also:

• PERIOD
• PERIOD (Gr. irepioSos, a going or way round, circuit, aepi, round, and &Sis, way, road)

period (of which See also:

• COUNT (Lat. comes, gen. comitis, Fr. comte, Ital. conte, Span. conde)

count was kept) lasted ten to eleven years; for the Meccan period ten years would seem a likely length . Finally it was known that for some years—about three—the mission had been conducted secretly . The only event in contemporary See also:

• HISTORY

history to which the See also:

• KORAN

Koran alludes in its earlier parts is the See also:

• PERSIAN
• PERSIAN, SYRIAN, EGYPTIAN AND TURKISH

Persian See also:

• CONQUEST

conquest of See also:

• PALESTINE

Palestine in 616 . Clearly Mahomet had begun to prophesy at that date . Before the rise of Islam, Mahomet's native See also:

• PLACE (through Fr. from Lat. platea, street; Gr. IrAar6s, wide)

place, See also:

• MECCA (Arab. Makkah)

Mecca, appears to figure nowhere in See also:

• HISTORICAL

historical records, unless there be a reference to it in the " valley of Baca " (See also:

• PSALM (from the Gr. word * hXAew, to play the harp)

Psalm Ixxxiv . 6) .

Its sacred, and therefore archaic, name is Bakkah; hence the See also:

• IDENTIFICATION (Lat. idem, the same)

identification of the name with that of the See also:

• SANCTUARY (from the late Lat. sanctuarium, a sacred place)

sanctuary Makoraba, known to the See also:

• GREEK
• GREEK, ETRUSCAN AND

Greek geographers, is not philologically tenable; although so eminent a linguist as See also:

• DOZY, REINHART PIETER ANNE (182o-1883)

Dozy evolved a theory of the origin of the See also:

• CITY (through Fr. cite, from Lat. civitas)

city from this name, which appears to be See also:

• SOUTH
• SOUTH, ROBERT (1634–1716)

South Arabian for " sanctuary," and has no connexion with See also:

• HEBREW

Hebrew (as Dozy supposed) . In the 3rd See also:

• CENTURY (from Lat. centuria, a division of a hundred men)

century of Islam the See also:

• MYTHOLOGY

mythology of Mecca was collected and published in See also:

• BOOK

book See also:

• FORM (Lat. forma)

form, but we learn little more from it than names of tribes and places; it is clear that there was no See also:

• RECORD (Lat. recordari, to recall to mind, from cor, heart or mind)

record of the mode in which the community inhabiting the place had got there, and that little was remembered with accuracy of the events which preceded the rise of its prophet . The city had a sanctuary, called the See also:

• CUBE (Gr. K46os, a cube)

Cube (ka'ba), of which the See also:

• NUCLEUS (Lat. for the kernal of a nut, nux, the stone of fruit)

nucleus was the " See also:

• BLACK
• BLACK, ADAM (1784-1874)
• BLACK, JEREMIAH SULLIVAN (1810–1883)
• BLACK, WILLIAM (1841-1898)

Black See also:

• STONE
• STONE (0. Eng. shin; the word is common to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Stein, Du. steen, Dan. and Swed. sten; the root is also seen in Gr. aria, pebble)
• STONE, CHARLES POMEROY (1824-1887)
• STONE, EDWARD JAMES (1831-1897)
• STONE, FRANK (1800-1859)
• STONE, GEORGE (1708—1764)
• STONE, LUCY [BLACKWELL] (1818-1893)
• STONE, MARCUS (184o— )
• STONE, NICHOLAS (1586-1647)

Stone," probably to be identified with See also:

• ALLAH

Allah, the See also:

• GOD

god of the community; both still exist, or rather their legitimate substitutes, as the Ka'ba has been repeatedly reconstructed, and the See also:

• ORIGINAL

original Black Stone was stolen by the See also:

• CARMATHIANS (QARMATHIANS, KARMATHIANS)

Carmathians in the 4th century of Islam; they afterwards returned one, but it may or may not have been the same as that which they removed . At some See also:

• TIME (0. Eng. Lima, cf. Icel. timi, Swed. timme, hour, Dan. time; from the root also seen in " tide," properly the time of between the flow and ebb of the sea, cf. O. Eng. getidan, to happen, " even-tide," &c.; it is not directly related to Lat. tempus)
• TIME, MEASUREMENT OF
• TIME, STANDARD

time in the 6th century—said to have been the See also:

• BIRTH (a word common in various forms to Teutonic languages from the root of the verb " to bear ")

birth-See also:

• YEAR

year of the Prophet, but really much earlier—an Abyssinian invader raided Mecca with the view of abolishing this sanctuary; but for some See also:

• REASON (Lat. ratio, through French raison)

reason had to desist . This expedition, known as the "See also:

• RAID

Raid of the See also:

• ELEPHANT

Elephant," one of these animals being employed in it, seems to be of See also:

• GREAT

great importance for explaining the rise of Islam; for a sanctuary which can repel an invader acquires tremendous reputation . Some verses in the Koran which are perhaps not genuine, record the See also:

• MIRACLE (Lat. miraculum, from mirari, to wonder)

miracle whereby Allah repelled the " See also:

• PEOPLE

People of the Elephant." The sanctuary was apparently in the See also:

• POSSESSION
• POSSESSION (Lat. possessio, possidere, to possess)

possession of the tribe Koreish (Quraish), the origin of whose name is unknown, said to have come originally from Cutha in See also:

• MESOPOTAMIA (Mevoaora)

Mesopotamia . They were known (we are told) as the people of Allah, and, by wearing a badge, were sacrosanct throughout Arabia . If this be true, it was probably a See also:

• PRIVILEGE

privilege earned by the miraculous See also:

• DEFENCE
• DEFENCE (Lat. defendere, to defend)

defence of the Ka'ba, and is sufficient to See also:

• ACCOUNT
• ACCOUNT (through O. Fr. acont, Late Lat. comptum, cornputare, to calculate)

account for the rise of Meccan See also:

• COMMERCE
• COMMERCE (Lat. commercium, from, cum, together, and rnerx, merchandise)

commerce of which we hear much in the See also:

• BIOGRAPHY (from the Gr. (3ios, life, and yp&4 , writing)

biography of the Prophet, and to which some verses of the earliest See also:

• PART

part of the Koran allude; for merchants who were safe from attacks by bandits would have an enormous See also:

• ADVANTAGE

advantage . The records seem, however, to be inconsistent with this assertion; and the growth of the Meccan commerce is sufficiently accounted for by the fact that after the Abyssinian invasion See also:

• PILGRIMAGE (Fr. pelerinage, Lat. peregrinatio)

pilgrimage to the Ka'ba became the practice of numerous Arab tribes, and for four months in the year (selected by Meccan priests) raiding was forbidden, in See also:

• ORDER
• ORDER (through Fr. ordre, for earlier ordene, from Lat. ordo, ordinis, rank, service, arrangement; the ultimate source is generally taken to be the root seen in Lat. oriri, rise, arise, begin; cf. " origin ")
• ORDER, HOLY

order to enable the pilgrimage to be safely made . In addition to this it would seem that all Mecca counted as sanctuary—i.e. no See also:

• BLOOD

blood might under any circumstances be See also:

• SHED

shed there . The community lived by purveying to pilgrims and the carrying See also:

• TRADE (O. Eng. trod, footstep, from tredan, to tread; in M. Eng. the forms teed, trod and trade appear, the last in the sense of a beaten track)
• TRADE, BOARD OF

trade; and both these operations led to the See also:

• IMMIGRATION (from Lat. in, into, and tnigrare, to depart)

immigration of strangers . There seems to be no doubt that Mahomet was himself a member of the tribe Koreish, and indeed too many of his relatives figure in history to permit of his parentage being questioned .

Maiomet's His See also:

• COUSIN (Fr. cousin, Ital. cugino, Late Lat. cosinus, perhaps a popular and familiar abbreviation of consobrinus, which has the same sense in classical Latin)
• COUSIN, JEAN (1500-1590)
• COUSIN, VICTOR (1792–1867)

cousin `See also:

• ALI

Ali, See also:

• FOURTH

fourth See also:

• CALIPH, CALIF

caliph, was the son of See also:

• ABU

Abu See also:

• FAMILY

Family . Talib, whose name attests the historical See also:

• CHARACTER (Gr. xapareri7p, from xap&crew, to scratch)

character of the kindred name `Abd al-Mottalib, Mahomet's grandfather: for the fact that this name is in part enigmatical is certainly no See also:

• ARGUMENT

argument against its genuineness . In the 3rd century of Islam His See also:

• COUNTRY (from the Mid. Eng. contre or contrie, and O. Fr. cuntree; Late Lat. contrata, showing the derivation from contra, opposite, over against, thus the tract of land which fronts the sight, cf. Ger. Gegend, neighbourhood)

Country . a document was shown in which a See also:

• MAN
• MAN, ISLE OF (anc. Mona)

man of See also:

• SAN

San'a in See also:

• YEMEN (Yaman)

Yemen acknowledged that he had borrowed from 'Abd al-Mottalib r000 See also:

• SILVER

silver dirhems of the Hudaida See also:

• STANDARD
• STANDARD, BATTLE OF THE

standard, and Allah with the two " angels " (probably a See also:

• EUPHEMISM (from Gr. eiiidirl sos, having a sound of good omen; et)

euphemism for the goddesses Al-See also:

• LAT

lat and al-'Uzza) served as See also:

• WITNESS
• WITNESS (from O. Eng. witan, to know)

witness; it is difficult to see why such a document should have been forged . The name Hashim (for 'Abd al-Mottalib's See also:

• FATHER

father) may or may not be historical; here, as in the ascending See also:

• LINE

line throughout, we have subjects without predicates . The name of 'Abd al-Mottalib's son, who was Mahomet's father, is given as 'Abdallah; the correctness of this has been questioned, because " Servant of Allah " would seem to be too appropriate, and the name was often given by the Prophet to converts as a substitute for some See also:

• PAGAN
• PAGAN (Lat. paganus, of or belonging to a pagus, a canton, county district, village, commune)

pagan appellation . This, however, is hypercritical, as the name of the father could not easily be altered, when relatives abounded, and it would seem that at one time the Prophet made no theological use of the name Allah, for which he intended to substitute Rahman . The name of his See also:

• MOTHER

mother is given as Aminah, and with this one of his own titles, Amin, agrees; although the See also:

• ARABS

Arabs do not appear to bring the two into connexion . Her father's name is given as Wahb, and she is brought into relation with a Medinese tribe called the Banu 'Ad' b. al-Najjar, to whom she is said to have brought her son in his See also:

• EARLY
• EARLY, JUBAL ANDERSON (1816-1894)

early See also:

• INFANCY

infancy . The circumstances may have been suggested by his later connexion with that rplace; yet in what seems a historical narrative her See also:

• GRAVE

grave is mentioned as known to be at Abwa, midway between the two cities, whence this early See also:

• BOND
• BOND, SIR EDWARD AUGUSTUS (1815-1898)

bond between the Prophet and his future See also:

• HOME
• HOME, DANIEL DUNGLAS (1833-1886)
• HOME, EARLS OF

home may have really existed . His own name is given in the Koran in the forms Ahmad and the See also:

• FAMILIAR (through the Fr. familier, from Lat. familiaris, of or belonging to the familia, family)

familiar Muhammad; in contemporary See also:

• POETRY

poetry we also find the form Mahmud . Similar variation between derivatives from the same See also:

• ROOT (late O.E. rot, adopted from Scand., cf. Norw. and Swed. rot, Dan. rod; the true O.E. word was wyrt, plant, represented in Ger. Wurz or Wurzel; the ultimate root is the same in both words, and is seen in Lat. radix)
• ROOT, ELIHU (1845– )

root is found in proper names which occur in early poetry; the meaning of all would be " the praised," if the root be given its Arabic signification—" the desired " if interpreted front the Hebrew .

The form Muhammad (ordinarily transliterated Mohammed; Mlahomet, Mehmet, &c., represent the See also:

• TURKISH

Turkish See also:

• PRONUNCIATION (Lat. pronuntiatio, from pronuntiare, proclaim, announce, pronounce)

pronunciation) is found in a pre-Islamic inscription, and appears to have been fairly See also:

• COMMON

common in Arabia . In See also:

• HAG

Hag. ii . 7 a derivative of the Hebrew See also:

• EQUIVALENT

equivalent root occurs in the prophecy " and the desired of all nations shall come," and this passage has suggested the See also:

• IDEA (Gr. Ibia, connected with i&eiv, to see; cf. Lat. species from specere, to look at)

idea that the name may have been taken by the Prophet as the equivalent of " See also:

• MESSIAH (Dan. x. 25, 26)

Messiah," while the Moslems themselves find its equivalent in the Paraclete of the Fourth See also:

• GOSPEL (O. Eng. godspel, i.e. good news, a translation of Lat. bona annuntiatio, or evangelium, Gr. evayyeXwv; cf. Goth. iu spillon, " to announce good news," Ulfilas' translation of the Greek, from iu, that which is good, and spellon to announce)

Gospel, though this identification re-quires more ingenuity . His kunyah (i.e. the Arab See also:

• TITLE (0. Fr. title, mod. titre, from Lat. titulus)

title of respect, in which a man is called after his son) is Abu'l-Qasim; other names by which he is called are titles of See also:

• HONOUR (Lat. honos or lwnor, honoris; in English the word was spelled with or without the u indifferently until the 17th century, but during the 18th century it became fashion-able to spell the word " honor "; Johnson's and Webster's Dictionaries stereoty

honour, e.g . Mustafa " chosen." (See further the genealogical table, ad fin.) In the Koran, Allah says that He found the Prophet an See also:

• ORPHAN

orphan, poor and astray; it is possible that all these expressions Early Life. should be understood figuratively, like the " poor, naked, See also:

• BLIND, MATHILDE (1841—1896)

blind " of See also:

• CHRISTIAN
• CHRISTIAN, WILLIAM (1608-1663)

Christian See also:

• HYMNS

hymns; the Arabs, how- ever, take them literally, and Mahomet is said to have been a See also:

• POSTHUMOUS

posthumous See also:

• CHILD
• CHILD, FRANCIS JAMES (1825-1896)
• CHILD, L
• CHILD, LYDIA MARIA (1802-1880)
• CHILD, SIR FRANCIS (1642-1713)
• CHILD, SIR JOHN (d. 1690)
• CHILD, SIR JOSIAH (163o - 1699)

child, whose mother died a few months or years after his birth, and who was brought up first by his grandfather, and then by his See also:

• UNCLE

uncle Abu Talib, one of the poorer members of the family; in the controversy between the Alid and Abbasid pre- tenders of the 2nd century of Islam the Abbasid Mansur claims that his ancestor fed the ancestor of 'Ali, i.e . Abu Talib, other- See also:

• WISE, HENRY ALEXANDER (1806-1876)
• WISE, ISAAC MAYER (1819-1900)

wise he would have had to beg . There was evidently an apparent inconsistency between Mahomet's being a poor orphan and the favourite grandchild of the eminent and wealthy 'Abd al-Mottalib; and it was solved in this way . There was a tradition that in his early years he was sent into the See also:

• DESERT

desert to acquire the habits and the See also:

• LANGUAGE (adapted from the Fr. langage, from langue, tongue, Lat. lingua)

language of the See also:

• BEDOUINS (Ahl Bedu, " dwellers in the open land," or Ahl el beit, " people of the tent," as they call themselves)

Bedouins; and this seems to have been attested by the Prophet himself . In a tribal fight he is said to have acted as See also:

• ARMOUR, PHILIP DANFORTH (1832-1901)

armour-See also:

• BEARER

bearer to one of his uncles, Zubair . There seems no doubt that he often accompanied Meccan caravans to the countries with which the Meccans had trade relations; such especially were See also:

• SYRIA

Syria and south Arabia, and perhaps See also:

• EGYPT

Egypt and Mesopotamia . It is conceivable that he may have visited See also:

• ABYSSINIA (officially ETHIOPIA)

Abyssinia by See also:

• SEA (in O. Eng. sae, a common Teutonic word; cf. Ger. See, Dutch Zee, &c.; the ultimate source is uncertain)
• SEA, COMMAND OF THE

sea . For though accurate knowledge is nowhere to be found in the Koran, it exhibits a large amount of See also:

• MISCELLANEOUS

miscellaneous See also:

• INFORMATION (from Lat. informare, to give shape or form to, to represent, describe)

information, such as a trader might well pick up .

His career as a See also:

• CARAVAN (more correctly Karwan)

caravan-conductor appears to have terminated with his See also:

• MARRIAGE

marriage to Khadija, daughter of Khuwailid, represented by the tradition as a wealthy widow, fifteen years his See also:

• SENIOR, NASSAU WILLIAM (1790-1864)

senior and See also:

• FORTY

forty years of age at the time of the See also:

• UNION
• UNION (known locally as Union Hill and officially as Town of Union)

union . As she became the mother of a numerous family, a See also:

• SPECIAL

special See also:

• RULE

rule was discovered by Moslem physiologists extending the child-bearing period of Korashite See also:

• WOMEN

women beyond that of others . Since it is claimed for Mahomet that he first gave Arab women the right to inherit See also:

• PROPERTY

property, the difficulty noticed is not the only one connected with this marriage; and See also:

• ROBERTSON, FREDERICK WILLIAM (1816-1853)
• ROBERTSON, GEORGE CROOM (1842-1892)
• ROBERTSON, JOSEPH (1810-1866)
• ROBERTSON, THOMAS WILLIAM (1829-1871)
• ROBERTSON, WILLIAM BRUCE (182o-1886)

Robertson See also:

• SMITH
• SMITH, ADAM (1723–1790)
• SMITH, ALEXANDER (183o-1867)
• SMITH, ANDREW JACKSON (1815-1897)
• SMITH, CHARLES EMORY (1842–1908)
• SMITH, CHARLES FERGUSON (1807–1862)
• SMITH, CHARLOTTE (1749-1806)
• SMITH, COLVIN (1795—1875)
• SMITH, EDMUND KIRBY (1824-1893)
• SMITH, G
• SMITH, GEORGE (1789-1846)
• SMITH, GEORGE (184o-1876)
• SMITH, GEORGE ADAM (1856- )
• SMITH, GERRIT (1797–1874)
• SMITH, GOLDWIN (1823-191o)
• SMITH, HENRY BOYNTON (1815-1877)
• SMITH, HENRY JOHN STEPHEN (1826-1883)
• SMITH, HENRY PRESERVED (1847– )
• SMITH, JAMES (1775–1839)
• SMITH, JOHN (1579-1631)
• SMITH, JOHN RAPHAEL (1752–1812)
• SMITH, JOSEPH, JR
• SMITH, MORGAN LEWIS (1822–1874)
• SMITH, RICHARD BAIRD (1818-1861)
• SMITH, ROBERT (1689-1768)
• SMITH, SIR HENRY GEORGE WAKELYN
• SMITH, SIR THOMAS (1513-1577)
• SMITH, SIR WILLIAM (1813-1893)
• SMITH, SIR WILLIAM SIDNEY (1764-1840)
• SMITH, SYDNEY (1771-1845)
• SMITH, THOMAS SOUTHWOOD (1788-1861)
• SMITH, WILLIAM (1769-1839)
• SMITH, WILLIAM (c. 1730-1819)
• SMITH, WILLIAM (fl. 1596)
• SMITH, WILLIAM FARRAR (1824—1903)
• SMITH, WILLIAM HENRY (1808—1872)
• SMITH, WILLIAM HENRY (1825—1891)
• SMITH, WILLIAM ROBERTSON (1846-'894)

Smith has called See also:

• ATTENTION (from Lat. ad-tendo, await, expect; the condition of being " stretched " or " tense ")

attention to some others, unconnected with his theory of " marriage and kinship in early Arabia." After his marriage Mahomet appears to have been partner in a See also:

• SHOP

shop in Mecca; where he apparently sold agricultural produce . His See also:

• STYLE
• STYLE (from Gr. a-6'1ms, a column; a different word from that used in literature, see below)

style is strongly marked by phrases and metaphors See also:

• DRAWN

drawn from trade, though as a statesman he never displayed any See also:

• FINANCIAL

financial ability . See also:

• WRITING
• WRITING (the verbal noun of " to write," O. Eng. writan, to inscribe)

Writing in the monumental script of South Arabia had been known for centuries in the See also:

• PENINSULA
• PENINSULA (Lat. paeninsula, from paene, almost, and insula, an island)

peninsula; and shortly before the rise of Islam a cursive script—the See also:

• PARENT, SIMON NAPOLEON (1855– )

parent of the ordinary See also:

• EDUCATION

Education . Arabic character—had been started in the Christian See also:

• STATE
• STATE, GREAT OFFICERS OF

state of Him, with which the beginnings of See also:

• MODERN

modern Arabic literature are connected . A modification of this had been introduced into Mecca, and was probably used for contracts and similar documents . The word ummi, literally " popular " or " plebeian " (according to one See also:

• ETYMOLOGY (Gr. grvµos, true, and X6yos, "account)

etymology), applied to Mahomet in the Koran, is said to mean " one who can neither read nor write," and the most generally accepted view is that he could do neither, a supposition which enters into the See also:

• DOCTRINE

doctrine of the miraculous nature of the Koran . According to another interpretation the word means " Meccan," i.e. native of " the Mother of the Villages " (Umm al-Qura); and the most probable theory is that he could do both, but unskilfully . Indeed on one historic occasion he erased certain words in a document; and where in the Koran he rebuts the See also:

• CHARGE
• CHARGE (through the Fr. from the Late Lat. carricare, to load in a carrus or wagon; cf. " cargo ")

charge of " taking notes," he does not employ the obvious See also:

• RETORT (Lat. retorquere, to twist or turn back)

retort that he could not write, but gives a far less convincing See also:

• ANSWER (derived from and, against, and the same root as swear)

answer . For poetry, which seems to have been cultivated in Arabia See also:

• LONG, GEORGE (1800-1879)
• LONG, JOHN DAVIS (1838– )

long before his time, he possessed no See also:

• EAR (common Teut.; O.E. are, Ger. Ohr, Du. oor, akin to Lat. auris, Gr. ovs)

ear; but we have little reason for supposing that either writing or versification had yet entered into Arabian education . The former would be acquired by those who needed it, the latter was regarded as a natural See also:

• GIFT (a common Teutonic word, cf. Ger. die Gift, gift, das Gift, poison, formed from the Teut. stem gab-, to give, cf. Dutch geven, Ger. geben; in O. Eng. the word appears with initial y, the guttural of later English is due to Scandinavian influence)

gift .

There is reason for thinking the language of the Koran incorrect and ungrammatical in parts, but as it afterwards became the ultimate standard of classical Arabic, this point is not easy to prove . On the whole then his early life seems to have been such as was normal in the See also:

• CASE
• CASE, JOHN (d. 1600)

case of a man belonging to one of the more important families in a community which had not long been started on a career of prosperity . Of the organization of that community we unfortunately know very little, though we hear of a See also:

• COUNCIL (Lat. concilium, from cum, together, and the root cal, to call)

council-chamber, and, as has been seen, of an age-qualification for See also:

• ADMISSION

admission to it . It is, however, certain that the theory of syocstem. decision by See also:

• MAJORITY (Fr. majorite; Med. Lat. majoritas; Lat. major, greater)

majority was absolutely unknown to Mahomet's second successor, whence we learn little from this tradition (even if it be See also:

• AUTHENTIC (from Gr. aOO 'rns, one who does a thing himself)

authentic) of the mode whereby the tribes who together formed the Meccan See also:

• POPULATION (Lat. populus, people; populare, to populate)

population managed their common concerns, whether commercial or See also:

• POLITICAL

political . The form of See also:

• GOVERNMENT
• GOVERNMENT (0. Fr. governement, mod. gouvernement, O. Fr. governer, mod. gouverner, from Lat. gubernare, to steer a ship, guide, rule; cf. Gr. xv(3epvav)

government seems to have been a rudimentary See also:

• OLIGARCHY (Gr. oXiyot, few, apxil, rule)

oligarchy, directed by some masterful individual; before the See also:

• FLIGHT

Flight we read of various prominent personages, after the Flight and the See also:

• BATTLE

battle of Badr (A.H . 2) one chieftain, Abu Sofian (see See also:

• CALIPHATE

CALIPHATE, ad init.), appears to take the See also:

• LEAD
• LEAD (pronounced iced)

lead whether in See also:

• WAR
• WAR (O. Eng. werre, Fr. guerre, of Teutonic origin; cf. O.H.G. werran, to confound)

war or in policy . It would seem, however, that the right of See also:

• INDEPENDENT

independent See also:

• ACTION

action belonged to the individual tribes, even to the extent of refusing to take part in a See also:

• CAMPAIGN

campaign . For the See also:

• SETTLEMENT
• SETTLEMENT, ACT OF

settlement of ordinary disputes recourse was had (it appears) rather to soothsayers, near or distant, than to any regularly constituted authority or tribunal . On the other See also:

• HAND
• HAND (a word common to Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Hand, Goth. handus)
• HAND, FERDINAND GOTTHELF (1786-185r)

hand we are furnished with a See also:

• LIST (O.E. lisle, a Teutonic word, cf. Dut. lust, Ger. Leiste, adapted in Ital. lista and Fr. lisle)
• LIST, FRIEDRICH (1789-1846)

list of officials who were concerned with different parts of the festal performances and the ordinary See also:

• WORSHIP (i.e. " worth-ship," O. Eng. weor8scipe)

worship . Of these we may mention the Custodian of the Ka'ba, and th% See also:

• OFFICIAL (Late Lat. QJicialis, for class. Lat. apparitor, from officium, office, duty)

official whose See also:

• DUTY (from " due," that which is owing, O. Fr. deu, dil, past participle of devoir; Lat. debere, debitum; cf. " debt ")

duty was sigayak (" watering "), said to mean furnishing the pilgrims with See also:

• WATER

water, but more ingeniously interpreted in See also:

• RECENT

recent times as " See also:

• RAIN (O.E. regn; the word is common to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Regen, Swed. and Dan. regn; it has been connected with Lat. rigare, to wet, Gr. 13pixeav)

rain-bringing," a See also:

• FUNCTION

function which even in the and century of Islam the See also:

• GOVERNOR (from the Fr. gouverneur, from gouverner, O. Fr. governer, Lat. gubernare, to steer a ship, to direct, guide)

governor in some places was supposed to exercise . Of Arabian paganism we possess no trustworthy or See also:

• COMPLETE

complete account; since we hear of no theological literature belonging to it, Beginnings probably no such account could have been given . of the There were doubtless a variety of practices, many of Mission. which have been continued to this See also:

• DAY (O. Eng. dreg, Ger. Tag; according to the New English Dictionary, " in no way related to the Lat. dies")
• DAY, JOHN (1574-1640?)
• DAY, THOMAS (1748-1789)

day in the ceremonies of the pilgrimage, and offerings of different sorts to various deities, interpreted variously by the worshippers in accordance with their spiritual, intellectual and moral levels; e.g. as actual stones, or as men (or more often women) residing in the stones or otherwise connected with them, or bearing a similar relation to trees, or stars, &c .

In See also:

• GENERAL
• GENERAL (Lat. generalis, of or relating to a genus, kind or class)

general every tribe had its See also:

• PATRON

patron of the See also:

• KIND (O. E. ge-cynde, from the same root as is seen in " kin," supra)

kind, and where there were aggregations of tribes, connexions were established between these deities, and See also:

• AFFILIATION (from Lat. ad filiare, to adopt as a son)

affiliation-theories excogitated; hence the theory attributed in the Koran to the Meccans that the goddesses al-'Uzza, &c. were the daughters of Allah, may well represent the outcome of such See also:

• SPECULATION

speculation . These, however, were known to few, whereas the practices were familiar to all . Some of these were harmless, others barbarous; many offensive, but not very reprehensible, superstitions . Before Mahomet's time Arabian paganism had already been attacked both from the outside and from the inside . On the one hand the See also:

• NORTHERN

northern tribes had gradually been Externs/ Influences. christianized, owing to the See also:

• INFLUENCE (Late Lat. influentia, from influere, to flow in)

influence of the See also:

• BYZANTINE

Byzantine See also:

• EMPIRE

empire; on the other hand south Arabia had fallen successively under Jewish, Abyssinian and Persian influence; and the last, though little is known of Persian rule, is unlikely to have favoured pagan cults . See also:

• CHRISTIANITY

Christianity had also some important See also:

• REPRESENTATION

representation in Najran far south of Mecca, while Jewish settlements were prospering See also:

• NORTH
• NORTH, BARONS
• NORTH, MARIANNE (1830—1890)
• NORTH, ROGER (1653-1734)
• NORTH, SIR THOMAS (1535?-16o1?)

north of Mecca in the Prophet's future home Yathrib and its neighbourhood . See also:

• POWER [WILLIAM GRATTAN] TYRONE (1797-1841)

Power, See also:

• CIVILIZATION

civilization and learning were thus associated with monotheism (Judaism), See also:

• DUALISM (from rare Lat. dualis, containing two, from duo)

dualism (Mazdaism) and tritheism (as the Arabs interpreted Christianity); paganism was the See also:

• RELIGION
• RELIGION, FOLKLORE, CUSTOM

religion of See also:

• IGNORANCE (Lat. ignorantia, from ignorare, not to know); want of knowledge, a state of mind which in law has important consequences. A well-known legal maxim runs: ignorantia juris non excusat ("ignorance of the law does not excuse")

ignorance (jahiliyyah, interpreted by See also:

• GOLDZIHER, IGNAZ (1850– )

Goldziher as " barbarism," but the difference is not very considerable) . Mecca itself and the neighbouring and allied Taif are said to have produced some monotheists or Christians, who identified the Allah of Mecca with the Allaha or God of the Syrian Christians, called by the Abyssinian Christians " See also:

• LORD
• LORD (O. Eng. hldford, i.e. hldfweard, the warder or keeper of bread, hlIf, loaf; the word is not represented in any other Teutonic language)
• LORD, JOHN (1810-1894)

Lord of the Regions," and by the See also:

• JEWS
• JEWS (Heb. Y8hudi, man of Judah; Gr. 'Iovbaiot; Lat. Judaei)

Jews " the Merciful " (Rahmana); one such is said to have been a cousin of Khadija, Mahomet's wife; his name is given as Waraqah, son of Naufal, and he is credited with copying or translating a Gospel . We even hear of flagellant monks and persons vowed to See also:

• TOTAL

total See also:

• ABSTINENCE (from Lat. abstinere, to abstain)

abstinence among the precursors of Islam . With these persons Mahomet had little in common, since they do not appear to have claimed to enforce their views upon others, or to have interfered with politics . He appears mainly to have been struck by the See also:

• PERSONALITY (from Lat. persona, originally an actor's mask, from personare,1 to sound through)

personality of the founders of the systems dominant in the civilized See also:

• WORLD

world, and to have aspired from the first to occupy the place of legislator or See also:

• MOUTHPIECE (Fr. embouchure; Ger. Mundstuck; Ital. bocchino)

mouthpiece of the Deity; and that he was this was and is the See also:

• MAIN (from the Aryan root which appears in " may " and " might," and Lat. magnus, great)
• MAIN (Lat. Moenus)

main proposition of the See also:

• MAHOMMEDAN

Mahommedan creed . The " Prophet " or " Apostle " (at different times he employed both the Jewish and the Christian phrase) was the divinely appointed See also:

• DICTATOR (from the Lat. dictare, frequentative of dicere, to speak)

dictator of his community; if he were not obeyed, divine vengeance would overtake the disobedient .

At this proposition Mahomet arrived by See also:

• INDUCTION (from Lat. inducere, to lead into; cf. Gr. ilrayu yli)

induction from the re-cords of the Biblical prophets, as well as others who seem to have figured in Arabian mythology, e.g. the destruction of the tribe Thamud (mentioned by See also:

• PLINY, THE ELDER
• PLINY, THE YOUNGER

Pliny, and therefore historical) for their disobedience to their prophet Salih, and of 'Ad (probably mythical) for their similar treatment of Had . The character of the See also:

• MESSAGE (a word occurring in slightly different forms in several languages, e.g. Fr. message, Span. mensaje, Ital. messagio; adapted from the Low Lat. missaticum, from mittere)

message did not affect the See also:

• NECESSITY (Lat. necessitas)

necessity for obedience; at times it was condemnation of some moral offence, at others a trivial order . Divine vengeance overtook those who disobeyed either . This is the theory of the prophetic See also:

• OFFICE (from Lat. officium, " duty," " service," a shortened form of opifacium, from facere, " to do," and either the stem of opes, " wealth," " aid," or opus, " work ")

office which pervades the Koran, wherein the doctrine is formulated that every nation had its divine06ide and that Mecca before Mahomet's time had none . This,tilace, then, Mahomet See also:

• FELT (cognate with Ger. Filz, Du. vilt, Swed. and Dan. fill; the root is unknown; the word has given Med. Lat. filtrum, " filter ")

felt a divine See also:

• CALL (from Anglo-Saxon ceallian, a common Teutonic word, cf. Dutch kallen, to talk or chatter)

call to fill . But we are never likely to ascertain what first put the idea into his mind . The fables which his biographers tell on this subject are not See also:

• WORTH
• WORTH, CHARLES FREDERICK (1825-1895)

worth repeating; his own system, in The which he is brought into See also:

• DIRECT

direct communication with Prophet's the Deity, though at a later period the See also:

• ANGEL

angel See also:

• GABRIEL (Heb. SKns, man of God)

Gabriel call. appears to have acted as intermediary, naturally leaves no See also:

• ROOM

room for such speculations; and since his See also:

• DISPENSATION

dispensation was thought to be absolutely new, and to make a tabula rasa of the pagan past, his first followers, having broken with that past, See also:

• LEFT

left no intelligible account of the state of affairs which preceded their See also:

• MASTER (Lat. magister, related to tnagis, more, as the corresponding minister is to minus, less; the English form is due partly to the O. Eng. maegister, and partly to O. Fr. maistre, mod. maitre; cf. Du. meester, Ger. Meister, Ital. maestro)

master's call . Some generations therefore elapsed before that past was studied with. any sort of sympathy, and details could not then be recovered, any more than they can now be supplied by conjecture . So far as Mahomet may be said from the first to have formulated a definite notion of his See also:

• WORK

work, we should probably be right in thinking it to be the restoration of the religion of See also:

• ABRAHAM, or ABRAM (Hebrew for " father is high ")

Abraham, or (as the Koran calls him) See also:

• IBRAHIM

Ibrahim . Though we have no reason for supposing the name of Abraham or See also:

• ISHMAEL (a Hebrew name meaning " God hears ")

Ishmael to have been known in Mecca generally before Mahomet's time, the Biblical See also:

• ETHNOLOGY

ethnology was not apparently questioned by those who were told of it, and there are stories, not necessarily apocryphal, of precursors of Mahomet going abroad in See also:

• SEARCH, or VISIT AND SEARCH

search of the " religion of Abraham." One feature of that system, associated in the See also:

• BIBLE
• BIBLE, ENGLISH

Bible with the name of Ishmael as well, was See also:

• CIRCUMCISION (Lat. circum, round, and caedere, to cut)

circumcision, which was actually observed by the Meccan tribes, though it would appear with technical See also:

• DIFFERENCES, CALCULUS OF (Theory of Finite Differences)

differences from the Jewish method; the association of monotheism with it would seem reasonable enough, in view of Jewish traditions, such as Mahomet may have heard on his travels; why the doctrine of the future life should be coupled with it is less obvious . That the Meccan See also:

• TEMPLE
• TEMPLE, FREDERICK (1821-1902)
• TEMPLE, RICHARD
• TEMPLE, SIR RICHARD, BART
• TEMPLE, SIR WILLIAM, BART

temple and its See also:

• RITES

rites had been founded by these two patriarchs appears to have been deduced by Mahomet himself, but perhaps at a later See also:

• STAGE (Fr. 6/age; from Lat. stare, to stand)

stage of his career . That these rites, so far as they were idolatrous, were in flagrant See also:

• DEFIANCE

defiance of the religion of Abraham must have struck any one who accepted the accounts of it which were current among Jews and Christians .

The precursors, however, appear to have felt no call to reform their See also:

• FELLOW

fellow-citizens; whereas it is evident that Mahomet regarded himself as charged with a message, which he was See also:

• BOUND, or BOUNDARY (from O. Fr. bonde, Med. Lat. bodena or butina, a frontier line)

bound to deliver, and which his God would in some way render effective . As it was obvious that the claim to be God's mouthpiece was to claim See also:

• AUTOCRACY (Gr. abroepareca, absolute power)

autocracy, Mahomet employed the utmost caution in his mode of asserting this claim; on the question of his sincerity there have been different opinions held, and it is not necessary to take any view on this See also:

• MATTER

matter . For three years his followers were a See also:

• SECRET (Lat. secretum, hidden, concealed)

secret society; and this period appears to have been preceded by one of private preparation, the first See also:

• REVELATION, BOOK OF

revelation being received when the Prophet was in religious retirement—a ceremony called tahannuth, of which the meaning is uncertain, but which can have no connexion with the Hebrew tehinneth ("supplications ")—on See also:

• MOUNT, WILLIAM SIDNEY (1807-1868)

Mount Mira, near Mecca . If the traditional See also:

• DATES

dates assigned to the suras (chapters) of the Koran (q.v.) are correct, the earliest revelations took the form of pages or rolls which the Prophet was to read by the " See also:

• GRACE (Fr. grace, Lat. gratia, from grates, beloved, pleasing; formed from the root cra-, Gr. xav-, cf. xaipw, x6p,ua, Xapts)
• GRACE, WILLIAM GILBERT (1848– )

grace of God," as See also:

• JOSEPH
• JOSEPH, COMTE DE (1785-1870)
• JOSEPH, FATHER (FRANCOIS LECLERC DU TREMBLAY) (1577-1638)

Joseph Smith, the founder of the Mormon community, said of the power given him to read the "See also:

• EGYPTIAN

Egyptian" The Koran. characters on the See also:

• GOLD
• GOLD [symbol Au, atomic weight 195.7(H = 1),197.2(0 =16)]

gold plates which he had found . The command to read is accompanied by the statement that "his most generous Lord had taught man by the See also:

• PEN (Lat. penna, a feather, pen)

pen (calamus) that which he did not know." Waraqah, to whom the event is said to have been communicated by Khadija, called these communications " the Greater See also:

• LAW
• LAW (0. Eng. lagu, M. Eng. lawe; from an old Teutonic root lag, " lie," what lies fixed or evenly; cf. Lat. lex, Fr. loi)
• LAW, JOHN (1671—1729)
• LAW, WILLIAM (1686-1761)

Law (nomos)." The Prophet was directed to communicate his mission at the first only to his nearest relatives . The utterances were from the first in a sort of See also:

• RHYME

rhyme, such as is said to have been employed for See also:

• SOLEMN (Lat. sollemnis, sollemnis, less correctly solennis, yearly, annual; from sollus = totus, whole, entire, Gr. Mos., and annus, year)

solemn matter in general, e.g. oracles or prayers . At an early period the See also:

• PRODUCTION (Lat. productionem, from producere, to pro-duce)

production of a written communication was abandoned for oral communications, delivered by the Prophet in See also:

• TRANCE (through the French, from Lat. transitus, from transire, to cross, pass over)

trance; their delivery was preceded by copious See also:

• PERSPIRATION (Lat. per, through, and spirare, to breathe)

perspiration, for which the Prophet prepared (in accordance with instructions found in the Koran) by wrapping himself in a blanket . Trusty followers were instructed to take these utterances down, but the phenomena which accompanied their delivery at least in one case suggested imposture to the See also:

• SCRIBE, AUGUSTIN EUGENE (1791-1860, French dramatist, was born in Paris on the 24th of December 1791. His father was a silk merchant, and he was well educated, being destined for the bar. But, having a real gift for the theatre, a gift which unfortunately

scribe, who apostatized in consequence . It is extraordinary that there is no reason to suppose that any official record was ever kept of these revelations; the Prophet treated them somewhat as the Sibyl did her leaves . This carelessness is equally astounding whether the Prophet was sincere or insincere . If the matter afterwards collected in the Koran be genuine, the early revelations must have been miscellaneous in content, magical, historical and homiletic . To some See also:

• STRANGE, SIR ROBERT (1721-1792)

strange oaths are prefixed .

Apparently the purpose to be compassed was to convince the See also:

• AUDIENCE (from Lat. audire, to hear)

audience of their miraculous origin . The formulation of doctrines belongs to a later period and that of See also:

• JURISPRUDENCE (Lat. jurisprudenlia, knowledge of law, from jus, right, and prudentia, from providere, to foresee)
• JURISPRUDENCE, COMPARATIVE

jurisprudence to the latest of all . In that last period also, when Mahomet was See also:

• DESPOT (Gr. Sc-va6rgs, lord or master; the origin of the first part of the Gr. word is unknown, the second part is cognate with rbvcs, husband, Lat. potens, powerful)

despot of Medina, the Koran served as an official See also:

• CHRONICLE (from Gr. Xpovos, time)

chronicle, well compared by See also:

• SPRENGER, JAKOB (fl. 1500)

Sprenger to the leading articles on current events in a ministerial See also:

• ORGAN

organ . Where the continuous See also:

• PARAGRAPH

paragraph is substituted for the ejaculation, the divine author apologizes for the style . Certain doctrines and practices (e.g. washing of the See also:

• PERSON, OFFENCES AGAINST THE

person and the garments) must have been enjoined from the first, but our authorities scarcely give us any clear notion what they were . The doctrines to which the Prophet himself throughout assigned most value seem to have been the unity of God and the future life, or resurrection of the See also:

• BODY

body . The former necessitated the See also:

• ABANDONMENT (Fr. abandonnement, from abandonner, to abandon, relinquish; abandonner was originally equivalent to mettred banddn, to leave to the jurisdiction, i.e. of another, bandon being from Low Latin bandum, bannum, order, decree, " ban ")

abandonment of the idolatrous worship which formed part of the daily life of Mecca, and in which Mahomet and Khadija had been accustomed to take their part . • Yet it seems to have been due to the initiative of the proselytes themselves rather than to the Prophet's orders that the Meccan worship was actually flouted by them; for the See also:

• ANECDOTE (from av-, privative, and isSLSwµu, to give out or publish)

anecdote which represents the Prophet and his See also:

• YOUNG
• YOUNG, A
• YOUNG, ARTHUR (1741-1820)
• YOUNG, BRIGHAM (1801-1877)
• YOUNG, CHARLES MAYNE (1777–1856)
• YOUNG, EDWARD (1683–1765)
• YOUNG, JAMES (1811-1883)
• YOUNG, THOMAS (1773-1829)

young cousin attempting to pull down the images in or about the Ka'ba appears to be apocryphal . The first Moslem ceremony would appear to have been the religious See also:

• MEETING (from " to meet," to come together, assemble, 0. Eng. metals ; cf. Du. moeten, Swed. mota, Goth. gamotjan, &c., derivatives of the Teut. word for a meeting, seen in O. Eng. Wit, moot, an assembly of the people; cf. witanagemot)

meeting for the purpose of See also:

• HEARING (formed from the verb " to hear," O. Eng. hyran, heron, &c., a common Teutonic verb; cf. Ger. Koren, Dutch hooren, &c.; the O. Tent. form is seen in Goth. hausjan; the initial h makes any connexion with " ear," Lat. audire, or Gr. &Kobew very doub

hearing the delivery of revelations, of which after the Prophet's See also:

• DEATH

death the See also:

• SERMON (Lat. sermo, a discourse)

sermon (khutbah) took the place . After various provisional meeting-places, the See also:

• HOUSE
• HOUSE (O. Eng. hiss, a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Dut. huis, Ger. Haus; in Gothic it is only found in gudhiss, a temple; it may be ultimately connected with the root of " hide," conceal)

house of one al-Arqam on Mt . Safa was adopted for this purpose; and here proselytes were initiated . The names which the new community received from its founder are both philological puzzles; for the natural sense of Growth of Moslem (Muslim) appear to be " traitors," and to the Early this a contemporary war-See also:

• SONG

song of Mahomet's enemies commnnity.alludes; while Hanif (especially applied in the Koran to Abraham) seems to be the Hebrew word for " hypocrite." The former is explained in the Koran to mean " one who hands over his See also:

• FACE (from Lat. fades, derived either from facere, to make, or from a root fa-, meaning " appear "; cf. Gr. cbatvstv)

face or person to God," and is said to have been invented by Abraham; of the latter no explanation is given, but it seems to signify from the context " devotee." Since the divine name Rahman was at one time favoured by Mahomet, and this was connected with one Maslama of the tribe IJanifa, who figures in politics at the end of Mahomet's career but must have been a religious See also:

• LEADER, BENJAMIN WILLIAMS (1831– )

leader far earlier, it has been suggested that the names originally belonged to Maslama's community .

The honour of having been Mahomet's first convert is claimed for three persons: his wife Khadija, his cousin Ali, who must have been a lad at the commencement of the mission, and Abu Bekr, son of Abu Quhafah, afterwards Mahomet's first successor . This last person became Mahomet's alter ego, and is usually known as the Siddiq (Heb. word signifying " the See also:

• SAINT (lat. sanctus, " holy ")

saint;" but to the Arabs meaning " faithful friend)" . His See also:

• LOYALTY

loyalty from first to last was absolutely unswerving; he was selected to accompany Mahomet on the most See also:

• CRITICAL (in alphabetical order of authors)

critical occasion of his life, the Flight from Mecca; Mahomet is said to have declared that had he ever made a confidant of any one, that person would have been Abu Bekr; implying that there were things which were not confided even to him . The success of the Prophet's enterprise seems to have been very largely due to the part played by this adherent, who possessed a variety of attainments which he put at Mahomet's service; who when an intermediary was required was always ready torepresent him, and who placed the See also:

• COMMENDATION (from the Lat. commendare, to entrust to the charge of, or to procure a favour for)

commendation of the Prophet above every other See also:

• CONSIDERATION (from Lat. considerare, to look at closely, examine, generally taken to be from con-, and the base seen in sidus, sideris, a star, the word being supposed to be originally an astrological or astronomical term)

consideration, private or public . The two appear to have regularly laid See also:

• SIEGE (0. Fr. sege, siege, mod. siege, seat, ultimately from sedere, to sit, cf. Class. Lat. obsidium, a siege)

siege to those persons in Mecca whose adherence was desirable; and the ability which many of the earlier converts afterwards displayed, whether as states-men or generals, is a remarkable testimony to their power of gauging men . It seems clear that the growth of See also:

• WEALTH

wealth in Mecca had led to the accentuation of the difference between persons of different station, and that many were discontented with the oligarchy which governed the city . Converts could, therefore, be won without serious difficulty among the aliens and in general those who suffered under various disqualifications . Some members of the Jewish community seem also to have joined; and some See also:

• RELICS (Lat, reliquiae, the equivalent of the English " remains " in the sense of a dead body)

relics of the Abyssinian expedition (i.e. descendants of the invaders) . Among the most important converts of the Meccan period were Mahomet's uncle IIamza, afterwards for his valour called " the See also:

• LION
• LION (Lat, leo, leonis; Gr. Mew)

Lion of God "; `Abd al-Rahman (Abdarrahman) son of `Auf; See also:

• OTHMAN (c. 574-656)

Othman, son of `See also:

• ALLAN, DAVID (1744–1796)
• ALLAN, SIR HUGH (1810–1882)
• ALLAN, SIR WILLIAM (1782–1850)

Allan, who married two of the Prophet's daughters successively, and was Mahomet's third successor; and, more important than any See also:

• SAVE, or SAVA (Ger. Sau; Hungarian Szdva; Lat. Savus)

save Abu Bekr, See also:

• OMAR (c. 581-644)

Omar, son of al-Khattab, a man of extraordinary force of character, to whom siege seems to have been laid with extraordinary skill . At some time he received the See also:

• HONOURABLE (Fr. honorable, from Lat. honorabilis, worthy of honour)

honourable title Faruq (" Deliverer ") ; he is represented as regularly favouring force, where Abu Bekr favoured See also:

• GENTLE (through the Fr. gentil, from Lat. gentilis, belonging to the same gens, or family)

gentle methods; unlike Abu Bekr, his loyalty was not always above suspicion . His adherence is ascribed to the period of publicity . The secrecy which marked its early years was of the greatest value for the eventual success of the mission; for when Mahomet came forward publicly he was already the See also:

• HEAD (in 0. Eng. heafad; the word is common to Teutonic languages; cf. Dutch hoofd, Ger. Haupt, generally taken to be in origin connected with Lat. caput, Gr. KerbOvi7)
• HEAD, SIR EDMUND WALKER, BART
• HEAD, SIR FRANCIS BOND, BART

head of a See also:

• BAND

band of See also:

• UNITED

united followers .

His own family appear to have been either See also:

• FIRM