MALAY 

PENINSULA 473 are armed . They are skilful hunters, however, catch fish by in- geniously constructed traps, and live almost entirely on jungle-roots and the produce of their hunting and fishing . The most civilized of these people is found in Upper Perak, and the members of this clan have acquired some knowledge of the art of planting, &c . They cannot, however, be taken as typical of their race, and other specimens of this people are seldom seen even by the Sakai . From time to time they have been raided by the latter, and many Negritos are to be found in captivity in some of the Malayan villages on the eastern side of the peninsula . The mistake of speaking of the Sakai tribes as practically identical with the Semang or Pangan has very frequently been made, but as a matter of fact the two races are absolutely distinct from one another . It has also been customary to include the Sakai in the category of Malayan races, but this too is undoubtedly incorrect . The Sakai still inhabit in greatest numbers the country which forms the interior of Pahang, the Plus and Kinta districts of Perak, and the valley of Nenggiri in Kelantan . Representatives of their race are also found scattered among the Malayan villages through-out the country, and also along the coast, but these have intermixed so much with the Malays, and have acquired so many customs, &c., from their more civilized neighbours, that they can no longer be regarded as typical of the race to which they belong . The pure Sakai in the interior have a good knowledge of planting rice, tapioca, &c., fashion pretty vessels from bamboos, which they decorate with patterns traced by the aid of fire, make loin-cloths (their only garment) from the bark of the trap and ipoh trees; are very musical, using a rude lute of bamboo, and a nose-flute of a very sweet tone, and singing in chorus very melodiously; and altogether have attained in their primitive state to a higher degree of civilization than have the Semang . They are about as tall as the average Malay, are slimly built, light of colour, and have wavy fine hair . In their own language they usually have only three numerals, viz, na-nun, one; nar, two; and ne', three, or variants of these; all higher arithmetical ideas being expressed by the word kerpn, which means " many." A few cases have been re-corded, however, of tribes who can count in their own tongue up to four and five .

Among the more civilized, however, the Malay numerals up to ten are adopted by the Sakai . An examination of their language seems to indicate that it belongs to the Mon-Khmer

group of languages, and the anthropological information forthcoming concerning the Sakai points to the conclusion that they show a greater affinity to the people of the Mon-Khmer races than to the Malayan stock . • Though they now use metal tools imported by the Malays, it is noticeable that the names which they give to those weapons which most closely resemble in character the stone implements found in such numbers all over the peninsula are native names wholly unconnected with their Malay equivalents . On account of this, it has been suggested that in a forgotten past the Sakai were themselves the fashioners of the stone implements, and certain it is that all tools which have no representatives among the stone kelts are known to the Sakai by obvious corruptions of their Malayan names . The presence of the Sakai, a people of the Mon-Khmer stock, in the interior of the peninsula has also been considered as one of many proofs that the Malays intruded from the south and approached the peninsula by means of a sea-route, since had Emery Walker .r._ they swept down from the north, being driven thence by the people of a stronger breed, it might be expected that the fringe of country dividing the two contending races would be inhabited by men of the more feeble stock . Instead, we find the Sakai occupying this position, thus indicating that they have been driven northward by the Malays, and that the latter people has not been expelled by the Mon-Khmer races from the countries now represented by Burma, Siam and French Indo-China . The Sakai population is dying out, and must eventually disappear . (With regard to the Malay, see MALAYS.) Archaeology.—The only ancient remains found in the peninsula are the stone implements, of which mention has already been made, and some remarkable ancient mines, which are situated in the Jelai valley in Pahang . The stone implements are generally of one or two types: a long rectangular adze or wedge rudely pointed at one end, and used in conjunction with a mallet or flat stone, and a roughly triangular axe-head, which has evidently been fixed in the some 750,000 to 800,000, while the Tamils and other natives of India number about roo,000, the aboriginal natives of the peninsula perhaps 20,000, Europeans and Americans about 65oo, and Eurasians about 9000 . The colony of the Straits Settlements, and to a lesser extent the towns of the Federated Malay States, carry a considerable heterogenous population, in which most of the races of Asia find their representatives . Races of the Peninsula.—Excluding the Tai, or Siamese, who are undoubtedly recent intruders from the north, there are three races which for an extended period of time have had their home in the Malay Peninsula . These are the Semang or Pangan, the Sakai or Jakun, and the Malays .

The Semang, as they are most usually called by the Malays, are Negritos—a small, very dark people, with features of the

negroid type, very prognathous, and with short, woolly hair clinging to the scalp in tiny crisp curls . These people belong to the race which would seem to be the true aboriginal stock of southern Asia . Representatives of it are found scattered about the islands from the Andaman group southwards . The state of civilization to which they have attained is very low . They neither plant nor have they any manufactures except their rude bamboo and rattan vessels, the fish and game traps which they set with much skill, and the bows, blow-pipes and bamboo spears with which they i . K 1 ~" e G'har'p I . N.• ...a I ` {7 u l f 0 f Mak L by ~^t •'., f' • . C Dom s~l/ {f ftDa • J/ S i a m KYt l.V K h.K ^ 1 A !J ,~ aw T00 Koss / . A C A B 'O-D m,, n f I ~` a f #. a g span Kompo So ~'tp pn . • t Samit Pt.' .~nb.tbe fJ AakA- s'/ Ronp /.CS . Ka T(cn final' ? 'Ij poly .

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The mines, which have been constructed for the purpose of working

quartz lodes containing gold, are very extensive, and argue a high stage of civilization possessed by the ancient miners . They consist of a number of circular or rectangular pits sunk from the cap of a hill, and going down to a depth of in some cases as much as 120 ft., until in fact the miners have been stopped by being unable to cope with the quantity of water made when the level of the valley was reached . The shafts are placed so close together that in many instances they are divided by only a couple of feet of solid ground, but at their bases a considerable amount of gallery work has been excavated, though it is possible that this was done by miners who came after the people who originally sank the shafts . Native tradition attributes these mines to the Siamese, but no importance can be attached to this, as it is very general for the Malays to give this explanation for any-thing which is obviously not the work of their own ancestors . A theory, which seems to have some probability in its favour, is that these mines were worked by the Khmer people during the period of power, energy and prosperity which found its most lofty expression in the now ruined and deserted city of Angkor Thom; while another attributes these works to the natives of India whose Hindu remains are found in Java and elsewhere, whose influence was at one time widespread throughout Malayan lands, and of whose religious teaching remnants still linger in the superstitions of the Malays and are preserved in some purity in Lombok and Bali . In the absence, however, of any relics of a kind which might lead to the identification of the ancient miners, their nationality and origin are matters which must continue to be mere questions of speculation and conjecture . History.—The first hint to reach Europe concerning the existence of habitable lands to the eastward of the Ganges is to be found in the writings of Pomponius Mela (A.D . 43) which speak of Chryse, or the Golden Isle, as lying off Cape Taurus—supposed to be the most easterly point in Asia—and over against the estuary of the Ganges . Thereafter there occur vague references to Chryse in the Periplus of the Erythrean Sea, &c., but the earliest trace of anything resembling first-hand knowledge concerning the peninsula of Indo-China and Malaya is revealed in the writings of Ptolemy, whose views were mainly derived from those of his predecessor Marinus of Tyre, who in his turn drew his deductions from information supplied to him by the mariner Alexander who, there is every reason to think, had himself voyaged to the Malay Peninsula and beyond . In the light of present knowledge concerning the trade-routes of Asia, which had been in existence for thousands of years ere ever Europeans attempted to make use of them, it is safe to identify Ptolemy's Sinus Perimulicus with the Gulf of Siam, the Sinus Sabaricus with the Straits of Malacca from their southern portals to the Gulf of Martaban, the Aurea Chersonesus with the Malay Peninsula, and the island of Iabadius or Sabadius—the reading of the name is doubtful—with Sumatra, not as has often been mistakenly attempted with Java . Although the first definite endeavour to locate the Golden Chersonese thus dates from the middle of the 2nd century of our era, the name was apparently well known to the learned of Europe at a somewhat earlier period, and in his Antiquities of the Jews, written during the latter half of the 1st century, Josephus says that Solomon gave to the pilots furnished to him by Hiram of Tyre commands " that they should go along with his stewards to the land that of old was called Ophir, but now the Aurea Chersonesus, which belongs to India, to fetch gold." After the time of Ptolemy no advance in know-ledge concerning the geography of south-eastern Asia was made until Cosmas Indicopleustes, a monk and an Alexandrian Greek, wrote from personal knowledge between A.D . 530 and 550 .

His

primary object was to prove that the world was built after the same shape and fashion as the Ark made by the Children of Israel in the desert; but he was able to show that_the Malay Peninsula had to be rounded and thereafter a course steered in a northerly direction if China was to be reached . Meanwhile inter-Asiatic intercourse by means of sea-routes had been steadily on the increase since the discovery of the way to utilize the monsoons and to sail directly to and fro across the Indian Ocean (attributed to the Greek pilot Hippalus) had been made . After the decline of the power of Rome, the dominant force in Asiatic commerce and navigation was Persia, and from that time onward, until the arrival of the Portuguese upon the scene early in the 16th century the spice trade, whose chief emporia were in or near the Malay Peninsula, was in Persian or Arab hands . There is considerable reason' to think, however, that the more frequent ports of call in the Straits of Malacca were situated in Sumatra, rather than on the shores of the Malay Peninsula, and two famous medieval travellers, Marco Polo and Ibn Batuta, both called and wintered at the former, and make scant mention of the latter . The importance of the Malay Peninsula, as has been noted, consisted in the privilege which its locality conferred upon it of being the distributing centre of the spices brought thither from the Moluccas en route for India and Europe . As early as the 3rd century n.c . Megasthenes makes mention of spices brought to the shores of the Ganges from " the southern parts of India," and the trade in question was probably one of the most ancient in the world . So long, however, as India held the monopoly. of the clove, the Malay Peninsula was ignored, the Hindus spreading their influence through the islands of the archipelago and leaving traces thereof even to this day . The Mahommedan traders from Persia and Arabia, following the routes which had been prepared for them by their forebears, broke down the Hindu monopoly and ousted the earlier exploiters so effectually that by the beginning of the 16th century the spice trade was almost exclusively in their hands . These traders were also missionaries of their religion, as indeed is every Mahommedan, and to them is due the conversion of the Malays from rude pantheism, some-what tinctured by Hindu mythology, to the Mahommedan creed . The desire to obtain the monopoly of the spice trade has been a potent force in the fashioning of Asiatic history . The Moluccas were, from the first, the objective of the Portuguese invaders, and no sooner had the white men found their way round the Cape of Good Hope and established themselves successively upon the coast of East Africa, in the neighbourhood of the Gulf of Aden and the Malabar coast, than Malacca, then the chief trading centre of the Malayan Archipelago, became the object of their desire .

The first Portuguese expedition sent out to

capture Malacca was under the command of Diogo Lopez de Siqueira and sailed from Portugal in 1508 . At Cochin Siqueira took on board certain adherents of Alphonso d'Alboquerque who were in bad odour with his rival d'Almeida, among them being Magellan, the future circumnavigator of the world, and Francisco Serrao, the first European who ever lived in the Spice Islands . Siqueira's expedition ended in failure, owing partly to the aggressive attitude of the Portuguese, partly to the very justifiable suspicions of the Malays, and he was presently forced to destroy one of his vessels, to leave a number of his men in captivity, and to sail direct for Portugal . In 1510 a second expedition against Malacca was sent out from Portugal under the command of Diogo Mendez de Vasconcellos, but d'Alboquerque retained it at Cochin to aid him in the retaking of Goa, and it was not until 1511 that the great viceroy could spare time to turn his attention to the scene of Siqueira's failure . After some futile negotiations, which had for their object the recovery of the Portuguese captives before hostilities should begin, an assault was delivered upon Malacca, and though the first attempt to take the city failed after some hard fighting, a. second assault made some days later succeeded, and Malacca passed for ever into European hands, The Portuguese were satisfied with the possession of Malacca itself and did not seek further to extend their empire in Malaya . Instead they used every endeavour to establish friendly relations with the rulers of all the neighbouring kingdoms, and before d'Alboquerque returned to India he despatched embassies to China, Siam, and several kingdoms of Sumatra, and sent a small fleet, with orders to assume a highly conciliatory attitude toward all natives, in search of the Moluccas . Very soon the spice trade had become a Portuguese monopoly, and Malacca was the great headquarters of the trade . It should moreover be noted that Magellan's famous expedition had for its object not the barren feat of circumnavigation but the breaking down of this monopoly, without violating the terms of the papal bull which gave to Spain the conquest of the West, to Portugal the possession of the East., In 1528 a French expedition sailed from Dieppe, penetrated as far as Achill in Sumatra, but returned without reaching the Malay Peninsula . It was, however, the first attempt ever made to defy the papal bull . In 1591, three years after the defeat of the Armada, Raymond and Lancaster rounded the Cape, and after cruising off Penang, decided to winter in Achin . They subsequently hid among the Pulau Sambilan near the mouth of the Perak river, and thence captured a large Portuguese vessel which was sailing from Malacca in company with two Burmese ships . In 1595 the first Dutch expedition sailed from the Texel, but it took a more southerly course than its predecessors and confined its operations to Java and the neighbouring islands .

During this period Achin

developed a determined enmity to the Portuguese, and more than one attempt was made to drive the strangers from Malacca . Eventually, in 1641, a joint attack was made by the Achinese and the Dutch, but the latter, not the people of the sturdy little Sumatran kingdom, became the owners of the coveted port . Malacca was taken from the Dutch by the British in 1995; was restored to the latter in 1818; but in 1824 was exchanged for Benkulen and a few more unimportant places in Sumatra . The first British factory in the peninsula was established in the native state of Patani on the east coast in 1613, the place having been used by the Portuguese in the 16th century for a similar purpose; but the enterprise came to an untimely end in 162o when Captain Jourdain, the first president, was killed in a naval engagement in Patani Roads by the Dutch . Penang was purchased from Kedah in 1786, and Singapore from the then sultan of Johor in 1819 . The Straits Settlements—Singapore, Malacca and Penang —were ruled from India until 1867, when they were erected into a crown colony under the charge of the Colonial Office . In 1874 the Malay state of Perak was placed under British protection by a treaty entered into with its sultan; and this eventually led to the inclusion in a British protectorate of the neighbouring Malay States of Selangor, Sungei Ujong, the cluster of small states called the Negri Sembilan and Pahang, which now form the Federated Malay States . By a treaty made between Great Britain and Siam in 1902 the northern Malay states of the peninsula were admitted to lie within the Siamese sphere of influence, but by a treaty of 1909 Siam ceded her suzerain rights over the states of Kelantan, Trengganu, Kedah and Perlis to Britain . Singapore is the political, commercial and administrative headquarters of the colony of the Straits Settlements, and the governor for the time being is ex officio high commissioner of the Federated Malay States, British North Borneo, Sarawak, the Cocos-Keeling and Christmas Islands, and governor of Labuan . See Sir F . Swettenham, British Malaya (1906); H . Clifford, Further India (1904); Journal of the Malay Archipelago, Logan (Singapore) ; Journal of the Straits Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society (Singapore) ; Weld, Maxwell, Swettenham and Clifford in the Journal of the Royal Colonial Institute (London) ; Clifford in the Journal of the Royal Geographical Society (London) .

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