See also:

• MASSACHUSETTS (an Indian name, originally applied to a tribe of Indians)

MASSACHUSETTS (an See also:

• INDIAN

Indian name, originally applied to a tribe of See also:

• INDIANS, NORTH AMERICAN

Indians)  , one of the See also:

• ORIGINAL

original thirteen states of the See also:

• AMERICAN

American See also:

• UNION
• UNION (known locally as Union Hill and officially as Town of Union)

Union, bounded on the N. by See also:

• VERMONT

Vermont and New See also:

• HAMPSHIRE (or COUNTY OF SOUTHAMPTON, abbreviated HANTS)

Hampshire, on the E. by the See also:

• ATLANTIC

Atlantic, on the S. by Rhode See also:

• ISLAND (O.E. ieg =isle, +land')

Island and See also:

• CONNECTICUT

Connecticut, and on the W. by New See also:

• YORK
• YORK (HOUSE OF)
• YORK, EDMUND OF LANGLEY, DUKE OF (1341-1402)
• YORK, EDWARD
• YORK, FREDERICK AUGUSTUS, DUKE OF (1763-1827)
• YORK, RICHARD, DUKE

York . It lies approximately between 41° 15' and 42° 50' N. See also:

• LAT

lat. and 69° 55' and 730 3o' W. See also:

• LONG, GEORGE (1800-1879)
• LONG, JOHN DAVIS (1838– )

long . The bulk of its See also:

• AREA

area—which is about 8266 sq. m . (of which 227 are See also:

• WATER

water)-forms a parallelogram of 130 M . E. and W., 46 m . N. and S., the additional area lying in a See also:

• PROJECTION

projection at the S.E. and a lesser one at the N.E., which give the mainland a breadth of 90 M. where it See also:

• BORDERS, THE

borders upon the ocean, while the See also:

• GENERAL
• GENERAL (Lat. generalis, of or relating to a genus, kind or class)

general irregularity of the See also:

• COAST (from Lat. costa, a rib, side)

coast-See also:

• LINE

line gives a See also:

• SEA (in O. Eng. sae, a common Teutonic word; cf. Ger. See, Dutch Zee, &c.; the ultimate source is uncertain)
• SEA, COMMAND OF THE

sea frontage of about 250 M . See also:

• PHYSICAL

Physical Features.—The See also:

• EAST
• EAST, ALFRED (1849- )

east and See also:

• SOUTH
• SOUTH, ROBERT (1634–1716)

south-east portions are in general undulating or level, the central hilly and broken, and the See also:

• WEST
• WEST, BENJAMIN (1738-1820)
• WEST, NICHOLAS (1461-1533)

west rugged and mountainous . (For See also:

• GEOLOGICAL

geological details see See also:

• UNITED

UNITED STATES: See also:

• GEOLOGY (from Gr. yp7, the earth, and Abyor, science)

Geology, ad fin.) The Hoosac Hills (12oo–1600 ft. high), separating the valleys of the Housatonic and Connecticut, are a range of the Berkshires, a See also:

• PART

part of the Appalachian See also:

• SYSTEM

system, and a continuation of the See also:

• GREEN, A
• GREEN, ALEXANDER HENRY (1832—1896)
• GREEN, DUFF (1791—1875)
• GREEN, JOHN RICHARD (1837—1883)
• GREEN, MATTHEW (1696-1737)
• GREEN, THOMAS HILL (1836-1882)
• GREEN, VALENTINE (1739–1813)
• GREEN, WILLIAM HENRY (.1825–1900)

Green Mountains of Vermont, and with the Taconic range on the west See also:

• SIDE
• SIDE (mod. Eski Adalia)

side of the Housatonic Valley—of which the highest peaks are Greylock, or " Saddleback " (3535 ft.), and Mt See also:

• WILLIAMS
• WILLIAMS, JOHN (1582-1650)
• WILLIAMS, JOHN (1796-1839)
• WILLIAMS, ROGER (c. 1604–1684)
• WILLIAMS, ROWLAND (1817-1870)
• WILLIAMS, SIR WILLIAM FENWICK

Williams (3040 ft.)—in the extreme See also:

• NORTH
• NORTH, BARONS
• NORTH, MARIANNE (1830—1890)
• NORTH, ROGER (1653-1734)
• NORTH, SIR THOMAS (1535?-16o1?)

north-west corner of the See also:

• STATE
• STATE, GREAT OFFICERS OF

state, See also:

• FORM (Lat. forma)

form the only considerable elevated See also:

• LAND

land.' Bordering on the lowlands of the Connecticut, Mt Tom (1214 ft.) and a few other hills (Mt See also:

• HOLYOKE

Holyoke, 954 ft.; Mt Toby, 1275) form conspicuous landmarks . East of this valley the See also:

• COUNTRY (from the Mid. Eng. contre or contrie, and O. Fr. cuntree; Late Lat. contrata, showing the derivation from contra, opposite, over against, thus the tract of land which fronts the sight, cf. Ger. Gegend, neighbourhood)

country continues more or less hilly and rocky, but the elevations eastward become increasingly slight and of little consequence . Mt See also:

• LINCOLN
• LINCOLN, ABRAHAM (1809-1865)
• LINCOLN, EARLS OF

Lincoln (1246 ft.) and especially Mt Wachusett (2108 ft.), to the east in a level country, are very exceptional . The See also:

• BLUE (common in different forms to most European languages)

Blue Hills in See also:

• MILTON
• MILTON, JOHN (1608–1674)

Milton are the nearest elevations to the coast, and are conspicuous to navigators approaching See also:

• BOSTON
• BOSTON, THOMAS (1676-1732)

Boston . The south-east corner of the state is a sandy See also:

• LOWLAND

lowland, generally level with a slightly elevated See also:

• RIDGE (a word. common to many Teutonic languages, meaning " back," whether of a man or an animal, cf. German Rucke)
• RIDGE, WILLIAM PETT (1864- )

ridge (Manomet) south of See also:

• PLYMOUTH
• PLYMOUTH, EARLS OF

Plymouth, and well watered by ponds .

With the exception of this corner, See also:

• MASSACHUSETTS (an Indian name, originally applied to a tribe of Indians)

Massachusetts is a part of the slanting upland that includes all of See also:

• SOUTHERN

southern New See also:

• ENGLAND
• ENGLAND, THE CHURCH OF

England . This upland is an uplifted peneplain of subaerial denudation,' now so far advanced in a " second " See also:

• CYCLE
• CYCLE (Gr. KUK)^os, a circle)

cycle of weathering and so thoroughly dissected that to an untrained See also:

• EYE
• EYE (O. Eng. edge, Ger. Auge; derived from an Indo-European root also seen in Lat. oc-ulus, the organ of vision (q.v.)

eye it appears to be only a country of hills confusedly arranged . The general See also:

• CONTOUR

contour of the upland, marked by a remarkably even See also:

• SKY (M. Eng. skie, cloud; O. Eng. skua, shade; connected with an Indo-European root sku, cover, whence " scum," Lat. obscurus, dark, &c.)

sky-line, is evident at almost every locality in the state . In the nature and position of the upland rocks—mainly crystalline See also:

• SCHISTS (Gr. vxq'ecv, to split)

schists and gneisses, excessively complicated and disordered in See also:

• MASS (O.E. maesse; Fr. messe; Ger. Messe; Ital. messa; from eccl. Lat. missa)
• MASS, IN

mass, and also internally deformed—there is found abundant See also:

• PROOF (in M. Eng. preove, proeve, preve, &°c., from O. Fr . prueve, proeve, &c., mod. preuve, Late. Lat. proba, probate, to prove, to test the goodness of anything, probus, good)

proof that the peneplain is a degraded See also:

• MOUNTAIN (0. Fr. montaigne; popular Lat. montanea, an adjectival form from the classical mons, montis, whence Eng. " mount," a form usually used along with the name of an individual mountain, e.g. Mt Everest)
• MOUNTAIN, THE (La Montagne)

mountain region . The upland is interrupted by the See also:

• RIVERS
• RIVERS, ANTHONY WOODVILLE, or WYDEVILLE, 2ND EARL (c. 1442—1483)
• RIVERS, EARL
• RIVERS, RICHARD SAVAGE, 4TH EARL (c. 1660—1712)

rivers, and on the coast by See also:

• GREAT

great lowlands, and is everywhere marked by hills somewhat surmounting the generally even skyline . See also:

• MONADNOCK

Monadnock (in New Hampshire nearN.E.Massachusetts), the Blue Hills near Boston, Greylock, in the north-west, and Wachusett in the centre, are the most cornmanding remnant-summits (known.generically as "Monadnocks ") of the original mountain system . But in the derivant valley peneplains See also:

• DEVELOPED

developed in the See also:

• PRESENT

present cycle of denudation, and there are residual summits also; in the Connecticut Valley See also:

• TRAP (0. Eng. treppe or traepee, properly a step, as that or which an animal places its foot and is caught, cf. Ger. Treppe flight of stairs)

trap ridges, of which Mt Tom and Mt Holyoke are the best examples; at Mt Holyoke, See also:

• LAVA

lava necks; occasionally in the lowlands, ridges of resistant See also:

• SANDSTONE

sandstone, like See also:

• DEERFIELD

Deerfield Mountain near See also:

• NORTHAMPTON
• NORTHAMPTON, ASSIZE OF
• NORTHAMPTON, EARLS AND MARQUESSES OF

Northampton; in the See also:

• BERKSHIRE [abbreviated Berks, pronounced Berkshire]
• BERKSHIRE, THOMAS HOWARD, 1ST EARL OF (1587–1669)

Berkshire Valley, summits of resistant schists, like Greylock, the highest See also:

• SUMMIT

summit in the state . The larger streams have cut their channels to very moderate gradients, but the smaller ones are steeper . The Housatonic and Millers (and the Connecticut also, but not in its course within Massachusetts alone) afford beautiful examples of the dependence of valley breadth upon the strike of soft or harder rocks across the stream . The Connecticut See also:

• LOW, SETH (1850- )
• LOW, WILL HICOK (1853- )

low-land is cut from 5 to 18 m. wide in soft sandstones and shales . The glacial era has See also:

• LEFT

left abundant evidences in the See also:

• TOPOGRAPHY
• TOPOGRAPHY (Gr. Toros, place, -partied', to write)

topography of the state . The See also:

• ICE (a word common to Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Eis)

ice covered even the Monadnocks .

Till drumlins, notably abundant on the lowland about Boston and the highland near See also:

• SPENCER
• SPENCER, HERBERT (1820-1903)
• SPENCER, JOHN CHARLES SPENCER, 3RD EARL (1782-1845)
• SPENCER, JOHNPOYNTZ SPENCER
• SPENCER, WILLIAM ROBERT (1769-1834)

Spencer; morainic hills, extending, e.g. all along Cape See also:

• COD

Cod; eskers, See also:

• KAMES, HENRY HOME, LORD (1696-1782)

kames and See also:

• RIVER

river terraces afford the plainest evidences of the extent of the glacial See also:

• SHEET

sheet . The Berkshire country—Berkshire, See also:

• HAMPDEN, HENRY BOUVERIE WILLIAM BRAND, 1ST
• HAMPDEN, JOHN (c. 1595-1643)
• HAMPDEN, RENN DICKSON (1793-1868)

Hampden, Hampshire and See also:

• FRANKLIN
• FRANKLIN, BENJAMIN (1706-1790)
• FRANKLIN, SIR JOHN (1786-1847)
• FRANKLIN, WILLIAM BUEL (1823-1903)

Franklin counties—is among the most beautiful regions of the United States . It is a See also:

• ROLLING

rolling highland dominated by long, wooded See also:

• HILL
• HILL (0. Eng. hyll; cf. Low Ger. hull, Mid. Dutch hul, allied to Lat. celsus, high, collis, hill, &c.)
• HILL, A
• HILL, AARON (1685-175o)
• HILL, AMBROSE POWELL
• HILL, DANIEL HARVEY (1821-1889)
• HILL, DAVID BENNETT (1843–1910)
• HILL, GEORGE BIRKBECK NORMAN (1835-1903)
• HILL, JAMES J
• HILL, JOHN (c. 1716-1775)
• HILL, MATTHEW DAVENPORT (1792-1872)
• HILL, OCTAVIA (1838– )
• HILL, ROWLAND (1744–1833)
• HILL, SIR ROWLAND (1795-1879)

hill-ridges, remarkably even-topped in general See also:

• ELEVATION

elevation, intersected and broken by deep valleys . Scores of charming lakes See also:

• LIE, JONAS LAURITZ EDEMIL (1833—1908)
• LIE, MARIUS SOPHUS (1842–1899)

lie in the hollows . The See also:

• DISTRICT

district is often called the See also:

• LAKE
• LAKE, GERARD LAKE, 1ST VISCOUNT (1744-1808)

Lake Region of See also:

• AMERICA

America, partly from the comparableness of its scenic beauties with the Ehglish Lake Country (See also:

• MATTHEW, GOSPEL OF ST
• MATTHEW, ST (MaOOaior or MarOaIos, probably a shortened form of the Hebrew equivalent to Theodorus)
• MATTHEW, TOBIAS

Matthew See also:

• ARNOLD
• ARNOLD, BENEDICT (1741-1801)
• ARNOLD, GOTTFRIED (1666-1714)
• ARNOLD, MATTHEW (1822-1888)
• ARNOLD, SAMUEL (1740--18o2)
• ARNOLD, SIR EDWIN (1832-1904)
• ARNOLD, THOMAS (1745-1842)

Arnold, however, wrote: " The country is pleasing but not to be compared with Westmoreland . It is wider and opener, and neither hills nor lakes are so effective."), and partly from the See also:

• PARALLELISM, PSYCHOPHYSICAL

parallelism of See also:

• LITERARY

literary associations . It has become since 185o, and especially in much more See also:

• RECENT

recent years, a favoured resort of summer residents . Owing to topography, and also to the manner in which Massachusetts ' At least seventy hills in the state, mainly in this See also:

• QUARTER (through Fr. from Lat. quartarius, fourth part)

quarter, have an elevation of 1500 ft . (twenty-four above 2000 ft.) . 2 In some localities it is not easy to establish irrefutably and in detail the inter-arrangement of drainage and See also:

• ROCK
• ROCK (O.Fr. rake, Sp. rota, Ital. rocca; possibly from a Lat. form rupica, from rupes, rock)
• ROCK, DANIEL (1799–187t)

rock structure that proves it to be a subaerial peneplain instead of an uplifted sub-marine See also:

• PLATFORM (Fr. plateforme, i.e. ground plan)

platform; but the general proof is very clear.was settled, the western counties were long connected commercially more closely with New York than with Massachusetts, and this territory was long in dispute between these two states . The Connecticut is the most considerable stream, and is navigable by small See also:

• CRAFT (a word common to Teutonic languages for strength, or power; cf. Ger. Kraft)

craft . Its valley, much the richest portion of the state agriculturally, is celebrated for the quiet variety and beauty of its scenery .

The Housatonic, in portions placid, in others See also:

• WILD, JONATHAN (c. 1682-1725)

wild and rapid, winding along the deflecting barrier of the Hoosac Hills, is the most beautiful river of the state, despite the See also:

• MERCANTILE (or COMMERCIAL) AGENCIES

mercantile use of its water-See also:

• POWER [WILLIAM GRATTAN] TYRONE (1797-1841)

power . The See also:

• MERRIMAC

Merrimac, the second stream of the state in See also:

• VOLUME

volume, runs in a charming valley through the extreme north-east corner, and affords immensely valuable water-power at See also:

• LOWELL
• LOWELL, ABBOTT LAWRENCE (1856— )
• LOWELL, CHARLES RUSSELL (1835-1864)
• LOWELL, JAMES RUSSELL (1819-1891)
• LOWELL, JOHN (1743-1802)

Lowell, See also:

• LAWRENCE
• LAWRENCE (LAURENTIUS, LORENZO), ST
• LAWRENCE, AMOS (1786—1852)
• LAWRENCE, AMOS ADAMS (1814–1886)
• LAWRENCE, GEORGE ALFRED (1827–1876)
• LAWRENCE, JOHN LAIRD MAIR LAWRENCE, 1ST BARON (1811-1879)
• LAWRENCE, SIR HENRY MONTGOMERY (1806–1857)
• LAWRENCE, SIR THOMAS (1769–1830)
• LAWRENCE, STRINGER (1697–1775)

Lawrence and See also:

• HAVERHILL

Haverhill . South of Cohasset the See also:

• SHORE

shore is sandy, with a few isolated rocky ledges and boulders . About Boston, and to the north of it, the shore is rocky and picturesque . Cape Cod, like a human See also:

• ARM (a common Teutonic word; the Indo-European root is ar, to join or fit; cf. the Lat. armus, shoulder, and the plural word arma, weapons, Gr. apphs, joint, and the reduplicated apapilKSV, to join)

arm doubled at the See also:

• ELBOW

elbow, 40 M. from See also:

• SHOULDER (in O.E. sculder, cognate with Ger. Schulter, Dutch schouder, Swed. skuldra, &c; the root is unknown)

shoulder to elbow and 30 from elbow to See also:

• HAND
• HAND (a word common to Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Hand, Goth. handus)
• HAND, FERDINAND GOTTHELF (1786-185r)

hand, is nowhere more than a few See also:

• MILES, NELSON APPLETON (1839— )

miles broad . It is a sandy ridge, dotted with summer resorts and cottages . Cape See also:

• ANN

Ann has a rugged interior and a ragged, rocky coast . It, too, is a summer recreation ground, with much beautiful scenery . Boston Harbor (originally known as Massachusetts See also:

• BAY

Bay, a name which now has a much broader signification) is the finest roadstead on the coast . The extreme See also:

• HOOK, JAMES CLARKE (1819-1907)
• HOOK, THEODORE EDWARD (1788-1841)
• HOOK, WALTER FARQUHAR (1798-1875)

hook of the Cape Cod See also:

• PENINSULA
• PENINSULA (Lat. paeninsula, from paene, almost, and insula, an island)

Peninsula forms See also:

• PROVINCETOWN

Provincetown Harbor, which is an excellent and capacious See also:

• PORT

port of See also:

• REFUGE

refuge for vessels. approaching Boston . See also:

• SALEM

Salem Harbor is the most considerable other haven on Massachusetts Bay; on See also:

• BUZZARD

Buzzard's Bay New See also:

• BEDFORD

Bedford has a See also:

• GOOD, JOHN MASON (1764-1827)

good See also:

• HARBOUR (from M.E. hereberge, here, an army; cf. Ger. Heer and -beorg, protection or shelter. Other early forms in English were herberwe and haiborow, as seen in various place names, such as Market Harborough.. The French auberge, an inn, derived through

harbour, and on the Atlantic coast are the excellent harbours of See also:

• GLOUCESTER
• GLOUCESTER (abbreviated as pronounced Glo'ster)
• GLOUCESTER, EARLS AND DUKES OF
• GLOUCESTER, GILBERT DE CLARE, EARL OF (1243-1295)
• GLOUCESTER, RICHARD DE CLARE, EARL OF (1222-1262)
• GLOUCESTER, ROBERT, EARL OF (d. 1147)
• GLOUCESTER, THOMAS OF WOODSTOCK, DUKE

Gloucester and See also:

• MARBLEHEAD

Marblehead, both frequented by summer residents . Gloucester has the largest See also:

• FISHERY (LAW OF)

fishery interests of any See also:

• PLACE (through Fr. from Lat. platea, street; Gr. IrAar6s, wide)

place in the country, and is one of the See also:

• CHIEF (from Fr. chef, head, Lat. caput)

chief fishing ports of the See also:

• WORLD

world .

Buzzard's Bay is also a popular See also:

• YACHTING

yachting ground, and all about its shores are towns of summer See also:

• RESIDENCE (Latin residere, to remain behind, to dwell, reside)

residence . See also:

• WOOD, ANTHONY A2 (1632-1695)
• WOOD, JOHN GEORGE (1827—1889)
• WOOD, MRS HENRY [ELLEN] (1814—1887)
• WOOD, SEARLES VALENTINE (1798—188o)

Wood's Hole is a station of the United States See also:

• BUREAU (a Fr. word from burel or bureau, a coarse cloth used for coverings)

Bureau of See also:

• FISHERIES

Fisheries, and a marine biological laboratory is there . The See also:

• PRINCIPAL

principal islands lie off the south coast . The largest is Martha's Vineyard, about 20 M. long, with an extreme breadth of about 91 m . It has in Vineyard Haven (See also:

• HOLMES, OLIVER WENDELL (18o9-1894)

Holmes's Hole) a spacious harbour, much frequented by See also:

• WIND
• WIND (a common Teut. word, cognate with Skt. vats, Lat. ventus, cf. " weather," to be of course distinguished from to " wind," to coil or twist, O.Eng. windan, cf. "wander," "wend," &c.)

wind-See also:

• BOUND, or BOUNDARY (from O. Fr. bonde, Med. Lat. bodena or butina, a frontier line)

bound vessels seeking a passage See also:

• ROUND (O. Fr. rond, Lat. rotundus, the Fr. is the source also of Du. rond; Ger., Swed., Dan. and Nor. rond)

round Cape Cod . The island is covered with stunted trees . Its See also:

• POPULATION (Lat. populus, people; populare, to populate)

population was formerly dependent wholly upon the sea, but its See also:

• CLIMATE

climate has made it a popular summer resort, See also:

• OAK (O. Eng., (lc)

Oak Bluffs being one of the chief resorts of the Atlantic coast . Farther east, See also:

• NANTUCKET

Nantucket, a smaller island of triangular shape, is likewise the See also:

• HOME
• HOME, DANIEL DUNGLAS (1833-1886)
• HOME, EARLS OF

home of a seafaring folk who still retain in some degree See also:

• PRIMITIVE

primitive habits, though summer visitors are more and more affecting its See also:

• LIFE

life . See also:

• FLORA

Flora and See also:

• FAUNA

Fauna.—Massachusetts lies entirely in the humid area of the Transition life-See also:

• ZONE (Gr. 'WV77, a girdle, from 'wvvLvay to gird)

zone, with the exception of the extreme north-western corner of the state, which lies in the Boreal zone . Thus the original native trees and See also:

• PLANTS

plants were those See also:

• COMMON

common to New England and See also:

• NORTHERN

northern New York . The presence of a dense population has driven out some, and brought In others, including some noxious weeds . The larger wild animals have disappeared, excepting an occasional See also:

• BLACK
• BLACK, ADAM (1784-1874)
• BLACK, JEREMIAH SULLIVAN (1810–1883)
• BLACK, WILLIAM (1841-1898)

black See also:

• BEAR
• BEAR, BLACK
• BEAR, BROWN
• BEAR, GRIZZLY
• BEAR, ISABELLINE
• BEAR, WHITE

bear or See also:

• DEER (O. E. rigor, dfor, a common Teutonic word, meaning a wild animal, cf. Ger. Tier, Du. dier, &c., probably from a root dhus-, to breathe)
• DEER, CHINESE

deer .

Of the smaller See also:

• FUR (connected with O. Fr. forre, a sheath or case; so " an outer covering ")

fur-bearing animals, the See also:

• BEAVER
• BEAVER (from Fr. baviere, a child's bib, from bane, saliva)

beaver was long ago exterminated, the See also:

• OTTER
• OTTER (0. Eng. ate, otor, a common Teutonic word, cf. Dutch and Ger. Otter, Dan. odder, Swed. utter; it is to be referred to the root seen in Gr. 6&ep, water)
• OTTER, SEA

otter is seen very rarely, and the See also:

• MINK

mink only in the most isolated districts; but foxes, skunks, weasels, See also:

• MUSK (Med. Lat. muscus, late Gr. µbvXos, possibly Pers. mushk, from Sansk. mushka, the scrotum)

musk-rats, rabbits, and See also:

• GREY, CHARLES GREY, 2ND EARL (1764-1845)
• GREY, HENRY GREY, 3RD EARL (1802-1894)
• GREY, LADY JANE (1537-1554)
• GREY, SIR EDWARD
• GREY, SIR GEORGE (1812–1898)

grey and red squirrels are not uncommon . Copperhead See also:

• SNAKES

snakes and rattlesnakes are occasionally seen, and there are several See also:

• SPECIES

species of harmless serpents . Of See also:

• GAME

game birds the most characteristic is the See also:

• PARTRIDGE (Du. Patrijs, Fr. perdrix, from Lat. perdix, apparently onomatopoeic from the call of the bird)
• PARTRIDGE, JOHN BERNARD (1861– )
• PARTRIDGE, WILLIAM ORDWAY (1861– )

partridge (ruffed See also:

• GROUSE

grouse), exclusively a woodland See also:

• BIRD

bird; the See also:

• WILSON, ALEXANDER (1766-1813)
• WILSON, HENRY (1812–1875)
• WILSON, HORACE HAYMAN (1786–1860)
• WILSON, JAMES (1742—1798)
• WILSON, JAMES (1835— )
• WILSON, JAMES HARRISON (1837– )
• WILSON, JOHN (1627-1696)
• WILSON, JOHN (178 1854)
• WILSON, ROBERT (d. 1600)
• WILSON, SIR DANIEL (1816–1892)
• WILSON, SIR ROBERT THOMAS (1777—1849)
• WILSON, SIR WILLIAM JAMES ERASMUS
• WILSON, THOMAS (1663-1755)
• WILSON, THOMAS (c. 1525-1581)
• WILSON, WOODROW (1856— )

Wilson's See also:

• SNIPE (0. Eng. Spite, Icel. Snipe, Dutch Snip, Ger. Schnepfe)

snipe and the See also:

• WOODCOCK (O. Eng. wude-cocc, wudu-coc, and wudu-snite)

woodcock are not uncommon in favourable localities, and several species of ducks are found especially in the bays and marshes near the coast during the seasons of See also:

• MIGRATION

migration . A stray See also:

• EAGLE (Fr. aigle, from the Lat. aquila)

eagle is sometimes seen . Very interesting to ornithologists are the •few See also:

• HEATH
• HEATH, BENJAMIN (1704-1766)
• HEATH, WILLIAM (1737—1814)

heath hens, the eastern representative of the See also:

• PRAIRIE (adopted from the Fr. prairie, a meadow-tract. Late Lat. prataria, Lat. pratum, meadow)

prairie See also:

• HEN

hen (pinnated grouse), which are found on the island of Martha's Vineyard, and are the See also:

• SOLE (Solea)

sole survivors in the eastern states of one of the finest of American game birds, now practically exterminated even on the western plains . There are many insectivorous birds; among the See also:

• SONG

song birds are the See also:

• HERMIT

hermit See also:

• THRUSH (A. S. Prysce, Icel. priistr, Norw. Trast, O. H. Ger. Drosce, whence the mod. Ger. prossel, to be compared with the analogous English form Throstle,l now almost obsolete, both being apparently diminutives)

thrush, the wood thrush, the Wilson's thrush, the See also:

• BROWN
• BROWN, CHARLES BROCKDEN (1771-181o)
• BROWN, FORD MADOX (1821-1893)
• BROWN, FRANCIS (1849- )
• BROWN, GEORGE (1818-188o)
• BROWN, HENRY KIRKE (1814-1886)
• BROWN, JACOB (1775–1828)
• BROWN, JOHN (1715–1766)
• BROWN, JOHN (1722-1787)
• BROWN, JOHN (1735–1788)
• BROWN, JOHN (1784–1858)
• BROWN, JOHN (1800-1859)
• BROWN, JOHN (1810—1882)
• BROWN, JOHN GEORGE (1831— )
• BROWN, ROBERT (1773-1858)
• BROWN, SAMUEL MORISON (1817—1856)
• BROWN, SIR GEORGE (1790-1865)
• BROWN, SIR JOHN (1816-1896)
• BROWN, SIR WILLIAM, BART
• BROWN, THOMAS (1663-1704)
• BROWN, THOMAS (1778-1820)
• BROWN, THOMAS EDWARD (1830-1897)
• BROWN, WILLIAM LAURENCE (1755–1830)

brown thrasher, the bobolink, the catbird, the See also:

• OVEN (O. Eng. of n,Ger. Ofen, cf. Gr. Irvin, oven)

oven bird, the See also:

• HOUSE
• HOUSE (O. Eng. hiss, a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Dut. huis, Ger. Haus; in Gothic it is only found in gudhiss, a temple; it may be ultimately connected with the root of " hide," conceal)

house See also:

• WREN (O. Eng. wrcknna, Mid. Eng. wrenne; Icel. rindill)
• WREN, SIR CHRISTOPHER (1632-1723)

wren, the song See also:

• SPARROW (0. Eng. spearwa; Icel. sporr; O.H.G. Sparo)

sparrow, the See also:

• FOX
• FOX, C
• FOX, CHARLES JAMES (1749-1806)
• FOX, EDWARD (c. 1496-1538)
• FOX, GEORGE (1624-1691)
• FOX, RICHARD (c. 1448-1528)
• FOX, ROBERT WERE (1789—1877)
• FOX, SIR STEPHEN (1627–1716)
• FOX, SIR WILLIAM (1812-1893)

fox sparrow, the vesper sparrow, the See also:

• WHITE
• WHITE, ANDREW DICKSON (1832– )
• WHITE, GILBERT (1720–1793)
• WHITE, HENRY KIRKE (1785-1806)
• WHITE, HUGH LAWSON (1773-1840)
• WHITE, JOSEPH BLANCO (1775-1841)
• WHITE, RICHARD GRANT (1822-1885)
• WHITE, ROBERT (1645-1704)
• WHITE, SIR GEORGE STUART (1835– )
• WHITE, SIR THOMAS (1492-1567)
• WHITE, SIR WILLIAM ARTHUR (1824--1891)
• WHITE, SIR WILLIAM HENRY (1845– )
• WHITE, THOMAS (1628-1698)
• WHITE, THOMAS (c. 1550-1624)

white-throated sparrow (See also:

• PEABODY
• PEABODY, ANDREW PRESTON (1811–1893)
• PEABODY, ELIZABETH PALMER (1804-1894)
• PEABODY, GEORGE (1795-1869)

Peabody bird), the See also:

• GOLD
• GOLD [symbol Au, atomic weight 195.7(H = 1),197.2(0 =16)]

gold-See also:

• FINCH
• FINCH (Ger. Fink, Lat. Fringilla)

finch and the See also:

• ROBIN

robin . See also:

• BROOK

Brook See also:

• TROUT (Salmo trutta)

trout are found, especially in the streams in the western part of the state, and See also:

• BASS
• BASS (the same word as " base," and so pronounced, but influenced in spelling by the Ital. basso)

bass, pickerel, See also:

• PERCH (through Fr. from Lat. perca, Gr. 7rEpKo; the last word is connected with 2repev6r, dark-coloured, spotted)
• PERCH (through Fr. perche from Lat. pertica, a pole or rod used for measurement)

perch and smaller See also:

• FISH (O. Eng. fist, a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Dutch visch, Ger. Fisch, Goth. fisks, cognate with the Lat. piscis)
• FISH, HAMILTON (1808-1893)

fish occur in the rivers and other inland See also:

• WATERS, TERRITORIAL

waters . Fish are so abundant on the coast that the cod is sometimes used as an See also:

• EMBLEM (Gr. Eµ3Xysa, something put in or inserted, from EµfiiXAew, to throw in)

emblem of the state; thus a figure of one hangs in the representatives' chamber at the State House . The artificial See also:

• PROPAGATION

propagation and preservation of See also:

• SALMON
• SALMON, GEORGE (1819-1904)

salmon and other edible fresh-water fish have been carried on successfully under the supervision of a state See also:

• COMMISSION (from Lat. commissio, committere)

commission . The See also:

• COMMONWEALTH

commonwealth has expend'ed large sums since 1890 in a vain See also:

• ATTEMPT (Lat. adtemptare, attentare, to try)

attempt to exterminate the gipsy See also:

• MOTH

moth (Ocneria, or more exactly Porthetria, dispar), accidentally allowed to See also:

• ESCAPE (in mid. Eng. eschape or escape, from the O. Fr. eschapper, modern echapper, and escaper, low Lat. escapium, from ex, out of, and cappa, cape, cloak; cf. for the sense development the Gr. iichueoOat, literally to put off one's clothes, hence to sli

escape in 1869 by a See also:

• FRENCH
• FRENCH, DANIEL CHESTER (1850– )
• FRENCH, NICHOLAS (1604-1678)

French naturalist . Climate.—The climate is trying, showing great extremes of temperature (20° F. below zero to too° above) and marked See also:

• LOCAL

local See also:

• VARIATIONS
• VARIATIONS, CALCULUS
• VARIATIONS, CALCULUS OF

variations . The south-eastern coast and islands are mildest .

The mean See also:

• AVERAGE

average temperature of Boston is 48° F . In the interior it is slightly See also:

• LOWER

lower . The mean summer temperature generally over the state is about 70° F . Changes are often sudden, and the passage from See also:

• WINTER, JOHN STRANGE
• WINTER, PETER (c. 1755-1825)

winter to summer is through a rapid See also:

• SPRING (from " to spring," " to leap or jump up," " burst out," O. Eng., springau, a common Teut. word, cf. Ger. springer, possibly allied to Gr. QnrFpxecOac, to move rapidly)

spring . The ocean tempers the climate considerably on the seaboard . Boston Harbor has been frozen over in the past, but steamtugs plying constantly now prevent the occurrence of such obstruction . In the elevated region in the west the winters are decidedly severe, and the springs and summers often See also:

• LATE

late and See also:

• COLD (in O. Eng. cald and ceald, a word coming ultimately from a root cognate with the Lat. gelu, gelidus, and common in the Teutonic languages, which usually have two distinct forms for the substantive and the adjective, cf. Ger. Kolte, kalt, Dutch koude

cold . See also:

• WILLIAMSTOWN

Williamstown has a winter mean of about 23° F . The yearly precipitation is about 39 to 45 in., decreasing inland, and is evenly distributed throughout the See also:

• YEAR

year . Fogs are common on the coast, and east wind drizzles; the north-east winds being the See also:

• WEATHER (O. Eng. weder; the word is common to Teutonic languages; cf. Du. weder, Dan. veir, Icel. ve8r, and Ger. Wetter and Gewitter, storm; the root is wa- to blow, from which is derived " wind ")

weather bane of spring and late autumn . In the summer and the autumn the weather is commonly See also:

• FINE

fine, and often most beautiful; and especially in the Berkshires a cool, pure and elastic See also:

• ATMOSPHERE (Gr. fir µ6r, vapour; orkaipa, a sphere)

atmosphere prevails, relatively dry, and altogether delightful . See also:

• AGRICULTURE
• AGRICULTURE (from Lat. ages, field, and colere, to cultivate)
• AGRICULTURE, BOARD OF

Agriculture.—The See also:

• SOIL

soil, except in some of the valleys, is not naturally fertile; and sandy wastes are common in the south-east parts .

High cultivation, however, has produced valuable See also:

• MARKET (Lat. mercatus, trade or place of trade)

market-gardens about Boston and the larger towns; and See also:

• INDUSTRY (Lat. industria, from indu-, a form of the pre, position in, and either stare, to stand, or struere, to pile up)

industry has made tillage remunerative in most other parts . The See also:

• GROSS

gross value of agricultural products is not great compared with that of other See also:

• INDUSTRIES

industries, but they are of great importance in the See also:

• ECONOMY

economy of the state . The See also:

• TOTAL

total value of See also:

• FARM

farm See also:

• PROPERTY

property in 1900 was $182,646,704, including livestock valued at $15,798,464 . Of the increase in the total value of farm property between 1856 and 1900 more than See also:

• HALF

half was in the See also:

• DECADE (from Gr. Oka, ten)

decade 189o—1900; this increase being due partly to the rising value of suburban realty, but also to a development of intensive farming that has been very marked since 1880 . The total value of farm products in 1899 was $42,298,274 (See also:

• EXPENDITURE

expenditure for fertilizers $1,320,600); crops representing 54.7 and See also:

• ANIMAL
• ANIMAL (Lat. animalis, from anima, breath, soul)

animal products 45.3% of this total . The leading crops and their percentages of the total See also:

• CROP (a word common. in various forms, such as Germ. Kropf, to many Teutonic languages for a swelling, excrescence, round head or top of anything; it appears also in Romanic languages derived from Teutonic, in Fr. as troupe, whence the English " crupper "

crop value were See also:

• HAY
• HAY (a word common in various forms to Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Heu, Dutch hooi; the root from which it is derived, meaning " to cut," is also seen in " to hew "; cf. " hoe ")
• HAY, GEORGE (1729—1811)
• HAY, GILBERT
• HAY, JOHN (1838–1905)

hay and See also:

• FORAGE

forage (39.1 %), vegetables (23.9%), fruits and nuts (11'7%), See also:

• FOREST

forest products (8.4%), and See also:

• FLOWERS, ARTIFICIAL

flowers and plants (7'1%) . Of the animal products 67'3% were See also:

• DAIRY

dairy products, and 2o.8% poultry and eggs . Cereals' have been for many years declining, although See also:

• INDIAN

Indian See also:

• CORN (a common Teutonic word; cf. Lat. granum, seed, grain)
• CORN (fromm Lat. corms, horn)

corn is a valuable subsidiary to the dairy See also:

• INTEREST

interest, which is the most thriving farm industry . The value of farms on which dairying was the chief source of income in 1900 was 46% of the total farm value of the state; the corresponding percentages for livestock, vegetables, hay and See also:

• GRAIN (derived through the French from Lat. granum, seed, from an Aryan root meaning " to wear down," which also appears in the common Teutonic word " corn ")

grain, flowers and plants, See also:

• FRUIT (through the French from the Lat. fructus; frui, to enjoy)

fruit and See also:

• TOBACCO

tobacco, being respectively 14.6, 10.2, 8•o, 4.2, 3.2, and 1.8% . The shrinkage of cereal crops has been mainly responsible for the See also:

• IDEA (Gr. Ibia, connected with i&eiv, to see; cf. Lat. species from specere, to look at)

idea that Massachusetts is agriculturally decadent . Parallel to this shrinkage was the decrease in ranging See also:

• SHEEP
• SHEEP (from the Anglo-Saxon sceap, a word common in various forms to Teutonic languages; e.g. the German Schaf)

sheep (82.o% from 1850—I900; 34.2% from 1890-1900), and See also:

• CATTLE (Norman Fr. catel, from Late Lat. capitale, wealth or property, a word applied in the feudal system to movable property and particularly to live stock, and surviving in its wider meaning as " chattel " or " chattle ")

cattle, once numerous in the hill counties of the west, and in the Connecticut Valley; Boston, then ranking after See also:

• LONDON

London as the second See also:

• WOOL, WORSTED AND WOOLLEN MANUFACTURES

wool market of the world, and being at one See also:

• TIME (0. Eng. Lima, cf. Icel. timi, Swed. timme, hour, Dan. time; from the root also seen in " tide," properly the time of between the flow and ebb of the sea, cf. O. Eng. getidan, to happen, " even-tide," &c.; it is not directly related to Lat. tempus)
• TIME, MEASUREMENT OF
• TIME, STANDARD

time the chief packing centre of the country . Dairy cows in-creased, however, from 185o to 1900 by 41.9% (1890-1900, 7.3%) .

The amount of improved farmland decreased in the same See also:

• PERIOD
• PERIOD (Gr. irepioSos, a going or way round, circuit, aepi, round, and &Sis, way, road)

period 39.4%, decreasing even more since 188o than earlier, and amounting in 1900 to no more than 25'1% of the area of the state; but this decrease has been compensated by increased value of products, especially since the beginning of intensive agriculture . An unusual See also:

• DENSITY (Lat. densus, thick)

density of See also:

• URBAN
• URBAN (Urbanus)

urban See also:

• SETTLEMENT
• SETTLEMENT, ACT OF

settlement, furnishing excellent home markets and transportation facilities, are the See also:

• MAIN (from the Aryan root which appears in " may " and " might," and Lat. magnus, great)
• MAIN (Lat. Moenus)

main props of this new interest . See also:

• WORCESTER
• WORCESTER, EARLS AND MARQUESSES OF
• WORCESTER, JOHN TIPTOFT, EARL OF (1427—1470)
• WORCESTER, WILLIAM (c. 1415-c. 1482)

Worcester and See also:

• MIDDLESEX
• MIDDLESEX, LIONEL CRANFIELD, 1ST EARL OF (1575-1645)

Middlesex counties are agriculturally foremost . Tobacco, which has been cultivated since colonial times, especially since the See also:

• CIVIL

Civil See also:

• WAR
• WAR (O. Eng. werre, Fr. guerre, of Teutonic origin; cf. O.H.G. werran, to confound)

War, is grown exclusively in the Connecticut Valley or on its borders . In the swamps and bogs of the south-east coast See also:

• CRANBERRY

cranberry culture is practised, this district producing in 1900 three-fifths of the entire yield of the United States . " Abandoned farms " (aggregating, in 1890, 3.4% of the total farm area, and 6.85% in Hampshire See also:

• COUNTY (through Norm. Fr. comae, cf. O. Fr. cunte, conk', Mod. Fr. comae, from Lat. comitatus, cf. Ital. comitato, Prov. comtat; see COUNT)

county) are common, especially in the west and south-east . Mines and See also:

• MINING

Mining.—See also:

• GRANITE (adapted from the Ital. granite, grained; Lat. granum, grain)

Granite is the chief See also:

• MINERAL

mineral, and granite See also:

• QUARRYING

quarrying is the principal mineral industry of the state . In 1900 the value of manufactures based primarily upon the products of mines and quarries was $196,930,979, or 19% of the state's total manufactured product . In 1906 Massachusetts led all states in the value of its granite output, but in 1907 and 1908 it was second to Vermont . The value of the product (including a small output of igneous rocks) was in 1903, $2,351,027; 1904, $2,554,748; 1905, $2,251,319; 1906, $3,327,416; 1907, $2,328,777; 1908, $2,027,463 . Granite boulders were used for construction in Massachusetts as See also:

• EARLY
• EARLY, JUBAL ANDERSON (1816-1894)

early as 1650 . Systematic quarrying of siliceous crystalline rocks in New England began at See also:

• QUINCY
• QUINCY, JOSIAH (1744–1775)

Quincy in about 1820 .

The Gloucester quarries, opened in 1824, were probably the next to be worked regularly . The principal granite quarries are in See also:

• MILFORD

Milford, ' The yield of cereals and of such other crops in 1907 as are recorded in the Yearbook of the United States See also:

• DEPARTMENT (Fr. departement, from departir, to separate into parts)

Department of Agriculture was as follows: Indian corn, 1,584,000 bushels; oats, 245,000 bushels; See also:

• BARLEY (Hordeum sativum)

barley, 64,000 bushels; See also:

• BUCKWHEAT

buckwheat, 42,000 bushels; potatoes, 3,600,000 bushels; hay, 760,000 tons; tobacco, 7,167,500 Ib . In the same year, according to the same authority, there were in the state 196,000 milch cows, 92,000 other neat cattle, 45,000 sheep and 70,000 See also:

• SWINE

swine.(Worcester county), Quincy and Milton (See also:

• NORFOLK
• NORFOLK, EARLS AND DUKES OF

Norfolk county), See also:

• ROCKPORT

Rockport (See also:

• ESSEX
• ESSEX, ARTHUR CAPEL
• ESSEX, EARLS OF
• ESSEX, KINGDOM OF
• ESSEX, ROBERT DEVEREUX
• ESSEX, ROBERT DEVEREUX, 2ND2 EARL OF (1566-1601)
• ESSEX, WALTER DEVEREUX, IST2 EARL OF (1541–1576)

Essex county) and See also:

• BECKET, THOMAS (c. 1118—1170)

Becket (Berkshire county) . Of the fourteen quarries of " Milford granite," twelve are in the township of that name, and two in Hopkinton township, Middlesex county . B . K . See also:

• EMERSON, RALPH WALDO (1803-1882)
• EMERSON, WILLIAM (1701-1782)

Emerson and J . H . See also:

• PERRY
• PERRY (from Fr. Moire, from poire, a pear)
• PERRY, MATTHEW CALBRAITH (1794–1858)
• PERRY, OLIVER HAZARD (1785-1819)

Perry classify this granite as See also:

• POST

post-See also:

• CAMBRIAN

Cambrian . They describe it' as " a compact, massive rock, somewhat above See also:

• MEDIUM

medium grain, and of See also:

• LIGHT

light See also:

• COLOUR (Lat. color, connected with celare, to hide, the root meaning, therefore, being that of a covering)

colour . The light flesh colour of the feldspar, and the blue of the See also:

• QUARTZ

quartz give it in some places a slight pinkish tint, and it is now much used as a See also:

• BUILDING

building-See also:

• STONE
• STONE (0. Eng. shin; the word is common to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Stein, Du. steen, Dan. and Swed. sten; the root is also seen in Gr. aria, pebble)
• STONE, CHARLES POMEROY (1824-1887)
• STONE, EDWARD JAMES (1831-1897)
• STONE, FRANK (1800-1859)
• STONE, GEORGE (1708—1764)
• STONE, LUCY [BLACKWELL] (1818-1893)
• STONE, MARCUS (184o— )
• STONE, NICHOLAS (1586-1647)

stone under the name of ' See also:

• PINK

pink granite.' " The Quincy granite district lies around the north-east end of the Blue Hill region, about 11 m. south of Boston . For monumental purposes this granite is classified as " medium," " dark," and " extra dark." Quincy granite takes a very high See also:

• POLISH

polish, owing to the See also:

• ABSENCE (Lat. absentia)

absence of See also:

• MICA

mica and to the coarser cleavage of its See also:

• HORNBLENDE

hornblende and See also:

• AUGITE

augite .

The lightest of the monumental stone quarried at Quincy is called gold-See also:

• LEAF (O. Eng. leaf, cf. Dutch loof, Ger. Laub, Swed. lof, &c.; possibly to be referred to the root seen in Gr. Ma-eta, to peel, strip)

leaf ; it is bluish-green See also:

• GRAY
• GRAY (or GREY), WALTER DE (d. 1255)
• GRAY, ASA (1810-1888)
• GRAY, DAVID (1838-1861)
• GRAY, ELISHA (1835-1901)
• GRAY, HENRY PETERS (1819-18/7)
• GRAY, HORACE (1828–1902)
• GRAY, JOHN DE (d. 1214)
• GRAY, JOHN EDWARD (1800–1875)
• GRAY, PATRICK GRAY, 6TH BARON (d. 1612)
• GRAY, ROBERT (1809-1872)
• GRAY, SIR THOMAS (d. c. 1369)
• GRAY, THOMAS (1716-1771)

gray, speckled with black and light yellow brown . Another variety has small, rather widely separated See also:

• CHERRY

cherry-red dots . The Rockport granite is found along or near the seashore, between Rockport and Bay View, and within about three-quarters of a mile of Cape Ann . The granite is of two kinds, known commercially as " grey granite " and " green granite." Both varieties .are hard and take a very high polish . The See also:

• BECKER, HEINRICH (1770-1822)
• BECKER, WILHELM ADOLF (1796—1846)

Becker granite (known as " See also:

• CHESTER
• CHESTER, EARLS OF

Chester dark " and " Chester light ") is a See also:

• MUSCOVITE

muscovite-See also:

• BIOTITE

biotite granite varying from medium grey to medium bluish grey colour, and fine in texture . It is used principally for monuments . In 1907 Massachusetts ranked See also:

• SIXTH

sixth among the states in the value of its trap rock product ($432,604), and eighth in sandstone ($243,328) . The value of the See also:

• MARBLE (from Lat. marmor, Gr. pApµapos, shining stone)

marble produced in the same year was $212,438, the state ranking fifth in the value of the total product and See also:

• FOURTH

fourth in building-marble . Other minerals are See also:

• EMERY (Ger. Smirgel)

emery, See also:

• LIMESTONE

limestone and quartz . The state ranked fifth in 1906 in the total value of stone quarried ($4,333,616), and eighth in 1908 ($2,955,195) . The output of See also:

• LIME
• LIME (O. Eng. lim, Lat. limes, mud, from linere, to smear)

lime in 1908 was 107,813 tons, valued at $566,022 . Second in value to the various stones were the See also:

• CLAY (from O. Eng. claeg, a word common in various forms to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Klei)
• CLAY, CASSIUS MARCELLUS (1810-1903)
• CLAY, CHARLES (1801–1893)
• CLAY, FREDERIC (1838–1889)
• CLAY, HENRY (1777–1852)

clay products of the state, which were valued in 1906 at $2,172,733 (of which $1,415,864 was the value of common See also:

• BRICK (derived according to some etymologists from the Teutonic bricke, a disk or plate; but more authoritatively, through the French brique, originally a " broken piece," applied especially to bread, and so to clay, from the Teutonic brikan, to break)

brick) and in 1908 at $1,647,362 (of which 50,921 was the value of common brick) .

There are many mineral springs in the state, more than half being in Essex and Middlesex counties . The total amount of mineral waters sold in 1908 was valued at $227,907 . In that year the total value of the minerals and mining products of the state was $5,925,949 . Gold has been found in small quantities in Middlesex, Norfolk and Plymouth counties . Manufactures.—Though only four states of the Union are smaller, only three exceeded Massachusetts in 1905 in the value of manufactured products (six exceeding it in population) ; and this despite very scant native resources of raw materials and a very limited home market . See also:

• HISTORICAL

Historical priority of development, exceptionally extensive and well utilized water-power, and good transportation facilities are largely responsible for the exceptional See also:

• RANK (O.Fr. rant or rent, mod. rang, generally connected with the O.E. and O.H.G. bring, a ring)

rank of Massachusetts as a manufacturing state . Vast water-power is developed on the Merrimac at Lawrence and Lowell, and on the Connecticut at South See also:

• HADLEY
• HADLEY, ARTHUR TWINING (1856– )
• HADLEY, JAMES (1821–1872)

Hadley, and to a less extent at scores of other cities on many streams and artificial ponds; many of the See also:

• MACHINES

machines that have revolutionized See also:

• INDUSTRIAL

industrial conditions since the beginning of the factory system have been invented by Massachusetts men; and the state contains various technical See also:

• SCHOOLS

schools of great importance . In 1900 the value of manufactures was $1,035,198,989, an increase from 1890 of 16.6%; that from 188o to 1890 having been 40.7 % . In textiles—cottons, worsteds, woollens and carpets—in boots and shoes, in See also:

• RUBBER, INDIARUBBER

rubber See also:

• FOOT

foot-See also:

• WEAR

wear, in fine See also:

• WRITING
• WRITING (the verbal noun of " to write," O. Eng. writan, to inscribe)

writing See also:

• PAPER
• PAPER (Fr. papier, from Lat. papyrus)

paper, and in other See also:

• MINOR
• MINOR (Lat. for smaller, lesser)
• MINOR, ROBERT CRANNELL (1839-1904)

minor products, it is the leading state of the country . The textile industries (the making of carpets and rugs, See also:

• COTTON
• COTTON (Fr. coton; from Arab. qutun)
• COTTON, CHARLES (163o–1687)
• COTTON, GEORGE EDWARD LYNCH (1813–1866)
• COTTON, JOHN (1585–1652)
• COTTON, SIR ROBERT BRUCE

cotton goods, cotton smallwares, See also:

• DYEING (0. Eng. dedgian, dealt ; Mid. Eng. deyen)

dyeing and See also:

• FINISHING

finishing textiles, See also:

• FELT (cognate with Ger. Filz, Du. vilt, Swed. and Dan. fill; the root is unknown; the word has given Med. Lat. filtrum, " filter ")

felt goods, felt hats, See also:

• HOSIERY

hosiery and knit goods, See also:

• SHODDY

shoddy, See also:

• SILK

silk and silk goods, woollen goods, and worsted goods), employed 32.5% of all manufacturing wage earners in 1905, and their product ($271,369,816) was 24.1 % of the total, and of this nearly one-half ($129,171,449) was in cotton goods, being 28.9% of the total output of the country, as compared with i1% for South Carolina, the nearest competitor of Massachusetts . There is a steadily increasing product of fine grade fabrics . The output of worsted goods in 1905 ($51,973,944) was more than three-tenths that of the entire country, Rhode Island being second with $44,477,596; in Massachusetts the increase in the value of this product was 28.2% between 1900 and 1905 .

The value of woollen goods in 1905 ($44,653,940) was more than three-tenths of the entire product for the country; and it was 44'6% more than that of 1900 . The value of boots and shoes and cut stock in 1905 was $173,612,660, being 23% greater than in 1900; the value of boots and shoes in 1905 ($144,291,426) was 45.1 % of the country's output, that of New York, the second state, being only 101% . In this industry, as in the manufacture of cotton good's, Massachusetts has long been without serious rivalry; See also:

• BROCKTON

Brockton, See also:

• LYNN

Lynn, z The Green Schists and Associated Granites and Porphyries of Rhode Island, Bulletin, U.S . Geological Survey, No . 311, 1907, Haverhill, Marlboro and Boston, in the See also:

• ORDER
• ORDER (through Fr. ordre, for earlier ordene, from Lat. ordo, ordinis, rank, service, arrangement; the ultimate source is generally taken to be the root seen in Lat. oriri, rise, arise, begin; cf. " origin ")
• ORDER, HOLY

order named, being the principal centres . The third industry in 1905 was that of foundry and See also:

• MACHINE
• MACHINE (through Fr. from Lat. form machina of Gr. µnxavil)

machine-See also:

• SHOP

shop products ($58,508,793), of which Boston and Worcester are the principal centres . Lesser interests, in the order of importance, with the product value of each in 1905, were: rubber goods ($53,133,020), tanned, curried and finished See also:

• LEATHER (a word which appears in all Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Leder, Dutch leer or leder, Swed. leder, and in such Celtic forms as Welsh llader)
• LEATHER, ARTIFICIAL

leather ($33,352,999), in the manufacture of which Massachusetts ranked second among the states; paper and wood pulp' ($32,012,247), in the See also:

• PRODUCTION (Lat. productionem, from producere, to pro-duce)

production of which the state ranked second among the states of the Union; slaughtering and See also:

• MEAT

meat packing ($30,253,838); See also:

• PRINTING (from Lat. imprimere, O. Fr. empreindre)

printing and See also:

• PUBLISHING

publishing ($33,900,748, of which $21,020,237 was the value of See also:

• NEWSPAPERS

newspapers and See also:

• PERIODICALS

periodicals) ; clothing ($2I,724,056); See also:

• ELECTRICAL
• ELECTRICAL (or ELECTROSTATIC) MACHINE

electrical machinery, apparatus and supplies ($15,882,216); See also:

• LUMBER

lumber ($12,636,329); See also:

• IRON [symbol Fe, atomic weight 55.85 (0=16)]

iron and See also:

• STEEL, FLORA ANNIE (1847– )

steel, steel See also:

• WORKS

works and rolling-See also:

• MILLS, JOHN (d. 1736)
• MILLS, ROGER QUARLES (1832– )

mills products ($I1,947,731; less than in 1900); cordage and twine ($11,173,521), in the manufacture of which Massachusetts was second only to New York; See also:

• FURNITURE (from " furnish," Fr. fournir)

furniture ($ii3O92,58i); See also:

• MALT (O. Eng., mealt; O. Sax., malt; O. Tent., maltos; Mod. Ger., Malz; Scand., malt; probably derived from the Sanskrit mrdu, soft, thus having reference to the fact that malt is raw grain rendered soft or tender)

malt liquors ($II,080,944); See also:

• JEWELRY (O. Fr. jouel, Fr. joyau, perhaps from joie, joy; Lat. gaudium; retranslated into Low Lat. jocale, a toy, from jocus, by misapprehension of the origin of the word)

jewelry ($10,073,595), Massachusetts ranking second to Rhode Island; See also:

• CONFECTIONERY (from Lat. confectio, conficere, compound)

confectionery ( 5,317,996), in which Massachusetts was third among the states . Many of these industries have a See also:

• HISTORY

history going back far into colonial times, some even dating from the first half of the 17th See also:

• CENTURY (from Lat. centuria, a division of a hundred men)

century . Textile products were really varied and of considerable importance before 1700 . The policy of the See also:

• BRITISH

British See also:

• GOVERNMENT
• GOVERNMENT (0. Fr. governement, mod. gouvernement, O. Fr. governer, mod. gouverner, from Lat. gubernare, to steer a ship, guide, rule; cf. Gr. xv(3epvav)

government towards such industries in the colonial period was in general repressive . The non-importation sentiment preceding the War of See also:

• INDEPENDENCE
• INDEPENDENCE, DECLARATION OF
• INDEPENDENCE, WAR OF

Independence fostered home manufactures considerably, and the See also:

• EMBARGO (a Spanish word meaning " stoppage ")

Embargo and Non-Intercourse Acts before the war of 1812, as well as that war itself (despite the subsequent glut of British goods) had a much greater effect; for they See also:

• MARK
• MARK, CARL (1858– )
• MARK, GOSPEL OF ST
• MARK, ST

mark the introduction of the factory system, which by 183o was firmly established in the textile industry and was rapidly transforming other industries . Improvements were introduced much more slowly than in England, the cost of cotton machinery as late as 1826 being 50–6o% greater in America .

The first successful power See also:

• LOOM

loom in America was set up at See also:

• WALTHAM

Waltham in 1814 . See also:

• CARDING

Carding, roving and See also:

• SPINNING (from O. Eng. spinnen, to spin, cf. Ger. spinnen, &c., the Teut. root is seen, to draw out, cf. span, spider)

spinning machines were constructed, at See also:

• BRIDGEWATER, FRANCIS EGERTON, 3RP DUKE OF (1736-1803)
• BRIDGEWATER, FRANCIS HENRY EGERTON

Bridgewater in 1786 . The first cotton See also:

• MILL
• MILL (O. Eng. mylen, later myln, or miln, adapted from the late Lat. molina, cf. Fr. moulin, from Lat. mola, a mill, molere, to grind; from the same root, mol, is derived " meal;" the word appears in other Teutonic languages, cf. Du. molen, Ger. muhle)
• MILL, JAMES (1773-1836)
• MILL, JOHN (c. 1645–1707)
• MILL, JOHN STUART (1806-1873)

mill had been established in See also:

• BEVERLY

Beverly in 1788, and the first real woollen factory at Byfield in 1794 . Woolcard machinery destined to revolutionize the industry was devised by See also:

• AMOS
• AMOS, SHELDON (1835–1886)

Amos Whittemore (1759–1828) in 1797; spinning jennies were in operation under water-power before 1815 . See also:

• CARPET

Carpet-See also:

• WEAVING

weaving was begun at Worcester in 1804 . " Not a yard of See also:

• FANCY (a shortened form, dating from the 15th century, of " fantasy," which is derived through the O. Fr. fantasie, modern fantaisie. from the Latinized form of the Gr. cbavraoia, Oavrai'ecv, Oat Pais, to show)

fancy wool fabric had ever been See also:

• WOVEN

woven by the power-loom in any country till done by See also:

• WILLIAM
• WILLIAM (1143-1214)
• WILLIAM (1227-1256)
• WILLIAM (1J33-1584)
• WILLIAM (A.S. Wilhelm, O. Norse Vilhidlmr; O. H. Ger. Willahelm, Willahalm, M. H. Ger. Willehelm, Willehalm, Mod.Ger. Wilhelm; Du. Willem; O. Fr. Villalme, Mod. Fr. Guillaume; from " will," Goth. vilja, and " helm," Goth. hilms, Old Norse hidlmr, meaning
• WILLIAM (c. 1130-C. 1190)
• WILLIAM, 13TH

William See also:

• CROMPTON
• CROMPTON, SAMUEL (1753-1827)

Crompton at the Middlesex Mills, Lowell, in 1840 " (See also:

• SAMUEL

Samuel Lawrence) ? The introduction of the remarkably See also:

• COMPLETE

complete machinery of the See also:

• SHOE (a word appearing in the Teutonic languages in various forms, as Ger. Schuh, Swed. and Dan. sko, sometimes supposed to come from an unknown root ska or sku, cover)

shoe industry was practically complete by 1865, this being the last of the great industries to come under the full dominance of machinery . At See also:

• PITTSFIELD

Pittsfield and at See also:

• DALTON
• DALTON, JOHN (1766-1844)

Dalton is centred the manufacture of fine writing papers, including that of paper used by the See also:

• NATIONAL

national government for bonds and paper See also:

• MONEY

money . Four-fifths of all See also:

• LOFT (connected with " lift," i.e. raised in the air; O. Eng. lyft; cf. Ger. Luft; the French term is grenier and Ger. Boden)

loft-dried paper produced in the country from 186o–1897 was made within 15 M. of See also:

• SPRINGFIELD

Springfield; Holyoke and South Hadley being the greatest producers . Vulcanized rubber is a Massachusetts invention . Most of the See also:

• IMITATION (Lat. imitatio, from intitari, to imitate)

imitation jewelry of the United States is produced at Attleboro and North Attleboro, and in See also:

• PROVIDENCE

Providence, Rhode Island . In 1905 Boston produced 16.4% of all the manufactures of the state, and Lynn, the second See also:

• CITY (through Fr. cite, from Lat. civitas)

city, which had been fifth in 1900, 4.9 % .

Some industries which have since become dead or of relatively slight magnitude were once of much greater significance, economically or socially : such as the See also:

• RUM
• RUM (according to Skeat, a corruption of Malay brum or bram; the adjective " rum," i.e. " queer," being a distinct word, in Gipsy rem)

rum-distilling connected with the colonial slave See also:

• TRADE (O. Eng. trod, footstep, from tredan, to tread; in M. Eng. the forms teed, trod and trade appear, the last in the sense of a beaten track)
• TRADE, BOARD OF

trade, and various interests concerned with See also:

• SHIPBUILDING

shipbuilding and See also:

• NAVIGATION (from Lat. navis, ship, and agere, to move)

navigation . The packing of pork and See also:

• BEEF (through O. Fr. boef, mod. boeuf, from Lat. bos, bovis, ox, Gr. f3oiir, which show the ultimate connexion with the Sanskrit go, gaits, ox, and thus with " cow")

beef formerly centred in Boston; but, while the volume of this business has not diminished, it has been greatly exceeded in the west . For many years Massachusetts controlled a vast lumber trade, See also:

• DRAWING

drawing upon the forests of See also:

• MAINE
• MAINE, ANNE LOUISE BENEDICTE DE BOURBON
• MAINE, SIR HENRY JAMES SUMNER (1822–1888)

Maine, but the growth of the west changed the old channels of trade, and Boston carpenters came to make use of western See also:

• TIMBER

timber . It was between 1840 and 185o that the cotton manufactures of Massachusetts began to assume large proportions; and about the same time the manufacture of boots and shoes centred there . See also:

• MEDFORD

Medford See also:

• SHIPS

ships began to be famous shortly after the beginning of the 19th century, and by 1845 that See also:

• TOWN

town employed one quarter of all the shipwrights in the state . Fishing is an important industry . See also:

• DRIFT (from "drive ")

Drift whales were utilized in the earliest years of the See also:

• COLONY (Lat. colonia, from colonus, a cultivator)

colony, and shore boating for the baleen (or " right ") See also:

• WHALE

whale—See also:

• RICH, BARNABE (c. 1540-1617)
• RICH, CLAUDIUS JAMES (1787-1821)
• RICH, JOHN (1692-1761)
• RICH, PENELOPE, LADY (c. 1562–1607)
• RICH, RICHARD, 1ST BARON RICH (1490?-1567)

rich in See also:

• BONE (a word common in various forms to Teutonic languages, in many of which it is confined to the shank of the leg, as in the German Bein)
• BONE, HENRY (1755-1834)

bone and in blubber yielding common oil—was an industry already regulated by various towns before 1650; but the pursuit of the sperm whale did not begin until about 1713 . The former industry had died out before the War of In-dependence; the latter is not yet quite See also:

• EXTINCT

extinct . Nantucket and New Bedford were the centres of the whaling trade, which, for the In 1905 Massachusetts produced 6o.7% of the writing paper manufactured in the country . Besides writing paper, See also:

• BOOK

book paper and building paper are made in the state, but very little newspaper . 2 It must be noted, however, that the first successful construction of See also:

• CARDS, PLAYING

cards, drawing and roving, and of spindles, on the See also:

• ARKWRIGHT, SIR RICHARD (1732-1792)

Arkwright principle was by S . See also:

• SLATER, JOHN FOX (1815-1884)
• SLATER, SAMUEL (1768-1835)

Slater at See also:

• PAWTUCKET

Pawtucket, Rhode Island in 1790.853 See also:

• ENERGY (from the Gr. ivipyela; iv, in, ipyov, work)

energy and skill required and the length (three to five years when sailing vessels were employed) of the ever-widening voyages which finally took the fishermen into every quarter of the globe, See also:

• CON

con-tributes the most romantic chapters in the history of American See also:

• COMMERCE
• COMMERCE (Lat. commercium, from, cum, together, and rnerx, merchandise)

commerce .

At one time it gave occupation to a thousand ships, but the introduction of See also:

• PETROLEUM (Lat. Petra, rock, and oleuin, oil)

petroleum gradually diminished this resource of the lesser ports . The See also:

• NEWFOUNDLAND

Newfoundland See also:

• BANK

Bank fisheries were of greater economic importance and are still very important . Gloucester is the chief centre of the trade . The value of fishery products in 1895 was $5,703,143, and in 1905 $7,025,249; and 15,694 persons were engaged in the fisheries . Though cod is much the most important fish (in 1905 fresh cod were valued at $991,679, and salted cod at $696,928), See also:

• HADDOCK (Gadus aeglefinus)

haddock (fresh, $1,051,910; salted, $17,194), See also:

• MACKEREL

mackerel (value in 1905, including See also:

• HORSE (a word common to Teutonic languages in such forms as hors, hros, ros; cf. the Ger. ross)

horse mackerel, $970,876), See also:

• HERRING (Clupea harengus, Haring in German, le hareng in French, sill in Swedish)

herring (fresh, $266,699; salted, $114,997), See also:

• POLLOCK

pollock ($267,927), See also:

• HAKE (Merluccius vulgaris)
• HAKE, EDWARD (fl. 1579)
• HAKE, THOMAS GORDON (1809-1895)

hake ($258,438), See also:

• HALIBUT

halibut ($218,232), and many other varieties are taken in great quantities . The See also:

• SHELL
• SHELL (O. Eng. scell, scyll, cf. Du. sceel, shell, Goth. skalja, tile; the word means originally a thin flake,. cf. Swed. skalja, to peel off; it is allied to " scale " and " skill," from a root meaning to cleave, divide, separate)

shell fisheries are less important than those of Maine . Commerce.—Already by 1660 New England products were an " important See also:

• ELEMENT (Lat. elementum)

element in the commerce and industries of the See also:

• MOTHER

mother country " (Weeden) . Codfish was perhaps the truest basis of her commerce, which soon came to include the West Indies, See also:

• AFRICA
• AFRICA, ROMAN

Africa and southern See also:

• EUROPE

Europe . Of fundamental importance was the trade with the French West Indies, licit and illicit, particularly after the See also:

• PEACE
• PEACE, BREACH OF THE

Peace of See also:

• UTRECHT
• UTRECHT, TREATY OF

Utrecht (1713) . Provisions taken to Newfoundland, poor fish to the West Indies, See also:

• MOLASSES

molasses to New England, rum to Africa and good cod to See also:

• FRANCE
• FRANCE, ANATOLE (1844– )

France and See also:

• SPAIN
• SPAIN (Espana)

Spain, were the commonest ventures of See also:

• FOREIGN

foreign trade . The See also:

• ENGLISH

English Navigation Acts were generally evaded, and were economically of little effect; politically they were of great importance in Massachusetts as a force that worked for independence . Privateering, piracy and slave-trading—which though of less extent than in Rhode Island became early of importance, and declined but little before the American War of Independence—give colour to the history of colonial trade .

Trade with See also:

• CHINA

China and See also:

• INDIA
• INDIA, FRENCH

India from Salem was begun in 1785 (first voyage from New York, 1784), and was first controlled there, and afterwards in Boston till the trade was lost to New York . The Boston trade to the See also:

• CANADIAN

Canadian north-west coast was begun in 1788 . The first See also:

• REGULAR

regular steamship line from Boston to other American Atlantic ports was established in 1824 . In commercial relations the chief port of Massachusetts attained its greatest importance about 1840, when it was selected as the American See also:

• TERMINUS

terminus of the first steamship line (See also:

• CUNARD, SIR SAMUEL

Cunard) connecting Great See also:

• BRITAIN (Gr. Hperavuml vi7vot, Bperravia; Lat. Britannia, rarely Britannia)

Britain with the United States; but Boston lost the commercial See also:

• PRESTIGE

prestige then won by the failure of the state to promote railway communication with the west, so as to equal the development effected by other cities . The decline of commerce, however, had already begun, manufacturing sup-planting it in importance; and this decline was rapid by 1850 . From 184o to 186o Massachusetts-built ships competed successfully in the carrying trade of the world . Before 184o a See also:

• SHIP

ship of 500 tons was a large ship, but after the See also:

• DISCOVERY

discovery of gold in See also:

• CALIFORNIA
• CALIFORNIA, LOWER (Baja California)
• CALIFORNIA, UNIVERSITY OF

California the See also:

• SIZE

size of vessels increased rapidly and their lines were more and more adapted to See also:

• SPEED, JOHN (1552–1629)

speed . The limit of size was reached in an immense clipper of 4555 tons, and the greatest speed was attained in a passage from See also:

• SAN

San Francisco to Boston in seventy-five days, and from San Francisco to See also:

• CORK
• CORK (perhaps through Sp. corcha from Lat. cortex, bark, but possibly connected with quercus, oak)
• CORK, RICHARD BOYLE

Cork in ninety-three days . The development of See also:

• STEAM
• STEAM (0. Eng. steam, vapour, smoke, cf. Du. steam; the origin is unknown)

steam navigation for the carrying of large cargoes has driven this See also:

• FLEET

fleet from the sea . Only a small part of the exports and imports of Massachusetts is now carried in American bottoms.' The first grain elevator built in Boston, and one of the first in the world, was erected in 1843, when Massachusetts sent Indian corn to See also:

• IRELAND
• IRELAND, CHURCH
• IRELAND, CHURCH OF
• IRELAND, JOHN (1761-1842)
• IRELAND, JOHN (1838- )
• IRELAND, WILLIAM HENRY (1777-1835)

Ireland . When the Civil War and steam navigation put an end to the supremacy of Massachusetts wooden sailing ships, much of the See also:

• CAPITAL (i.e. capital stock or fund)
• CAPITAL (Lat. caput, head)

capital which had been employed in navigation was turned into developing railway facilities and See also:

• COASTING

coasting steamship lines . In 1872 the great See also:

• FIRE (in O. Eng. f j'r; the word is common to West German languages, cf. Dutch vuur, Ger. Feuer; the pre-Teutonic form is seen in Sanskrit pu, pavaka, and Gr. irup; the ultimate origin is usually taken to be a root meaning to purify, cf. Lat. purus)

fire in Boston made large drains upon the capital of the state, and several years of depression followed .

But in 1907 Boston was the second port of the United States in the magnitude of its foreign commerce . In that year the value of imports at the Boston-See also:

• CHARLESTOWN

Charlestown customs district was $123,411,168, and the value of exports was $104,610,908; for 1909 the corresponding figures were $127,025,654 and $72,936,869 . Other ports of entry in the state in 1909 were) See also:

• NEWBURYPORT

Newburyport, Gloucester, Salem, Marblehead, Plymouth, See also:

• BARNSTABLE

Barnstable, Nantucket, Edgartown, New Bedford and Fall River . A protective See also:

• TARIFF (adapted in English from the French; the word comes through the Spanish tarifa, a list or schedule of prices, from the Arabic, ta'rifa, information, an inventory, 'arf, know-ledge)

tariff was imposed in early colonial times and See also:

• PROTECTION

protection was generally approved in the state until toward the See also:

• CLOSE
• CLOSE (from Lat. clausum, shut)
• CLOSE, MAXWELL HENRY (1822-1903)

close of the 19th century, when a strong demand became apparent for See also:

• RECIPROCITY (Lat. reciprocus, returning back the same way, alternating, probably from re back and pro forward)

reciprocity with See also:

• CANADA

Canada and for tariff reductions on the raw materials (notably hides) of Massachusetts manufactures . At the end of 1908 the length of railway lines within the state was 2,109'33 miles . The Hoosac See also:

• TUNNEL (Fr. tonne!, later tonneau, a diminutive from Low Lat. tonna, tunna, a tun, cask)

Tunnel, 54 M. long, pierces the Hoosac Mountain in the north-west corner of the state, affording a communication with western lines . It cost about $20,000,000, the state lending its See also:

• CREDIT (Lat. credere, to believe)

credit, and was built between 1855 and 1874 . The inter-urban electric See also:

• RAILWAYS

railways are of very great importance in the state; in 1908 the total mileage of See also:

• STREET
• STREET, GEORGE EDMUND (1824-1881)

street and inter-urban electric ' The tax valuation on ships engaged in foreign trade was lowered between 1884 and 1900 from $2,801,405 to $147,768 . railways was 2841.59 M . (2233.85 m. being first main track) . The Cape Cod See also:

• CANAL
• CANAL (from Lat. canalis, " channel " and " kennel " being doublets of the word)

canal, 12 M. long, from See also:

• SANDWICH
• SANDWICH, EDWARD MONTAGU, or MOUNTAGU, 1ST EARL OF (1625–1672)
• SANDWICH, JOHN MONTAGU, 4TH EARL OF (1718–1792)

Sandwich on Barnstable Bay to Buzzard's Bay, was begun in See also:

• JUNE

June 1909, with a view to shortening the distance by water from Boston to New York and eliminating the danger of the voyage round Cape Cod . Population.—The population of the state in 1910 was 3,366,416, the increases in successive decades after 1790 being respectively 11.6, 11.6, 10.9, 16.6, 20.9, 34.8, 23.8, 18'4, 22'4, 25.6, 25.3 and 20%.1 With the exception of Rhode Island, it is the most densely populated state in the Union, the average number to the square mile in 1900 being 349 (in 1910, 418.8), and the urban population, i.e. the population of places having above 8000 or more inhabitants, being 69'9 % in 1890 and in 1900 76.0 % of the total population (in places above 2500, 91.5 %; in places above 25,000, 58.3 %) .

The See also:

• FEMALE

female population is greater (and has been since 1765, at least) than the male, the percentage being in 1900 greater than in any other state of the Union (51.3 %; District of See also:

• COLUMBIA

Columbia, owing to clerks in government service 52.6 %) . In 1900 less than 1.3 % of the population was coloured; 30.2 % were foreign-See also:

• BORN, IGNAZ, EDLER VON (1742–1791)

born (this element having almost continuously risen from 16.49 % in 1855), and 62.3 % of all inhabitants and 46.5 % of those native-born had one or both parents of foreign See also:

• BIRTH (a word common in various forms to Teutonic languages from the root of the verb " to bear ")

birth . Ireland contributed the largest proportion of the foreign-born (29.5 %), although since 1875 the proportion of Irish in the total population has considerably fallen . After the Irish the leading foreign elements are Canadian English (18.7 %), Canadian French (15.8%) and English (9.7 %), these four constituting three-fourths of the foreign population . Since 1885 the natives of southern See also:

• ITALY
• ITALY (Italia)

Italy have greatly increased in number . Of the in-crease in total population from 1856–1895 only a third could be attributed to the excess of births over deaths; two-thirds being due to See also:

• IMMIGRATION (from Lat. in, into, and tnigrare, to depart)

immigration from other states or from abroad . Boston is the second immigrant port of the country . A large part of the trans-atlantic immigrants pass speedily to permanent homes in the west, but by far the greater part of the Canadian influx remains . According to the See also:

• CENSUS (from Lat. censere, to estimate or assess; connected by some with centum, i.e. a count by hundreds)

census of 1910 there were 32 incorporated cities2 in Massachusetts, of which 6 had between 12,000 and 20,000 in-habitants; 3 between 20,000 and 25,000 (Gloucester, Medford and North See also:

• ADAMS
• ADAMS, ANDREW LEITH (1827-1882)
• ADAMS, CHARLES FRANCIS (1807-1886)
• ADAMS, HENRY (1838— )
• ADAMS, HENRY CARTER (1852— )
• ADAMS, HERBERT (i858— )
• ADAMS, HERBERT BAXTER (1850—1901)
• ADAMS, JOHN (1735–1826)
• ADAMS, JOHN QUINCY (1767-1848)
• ADAMS, SAMUEL (1722-1803)
• ADAMS, THOMAS (d. c. 1655)
• ADAMS, WILLIAM (d. 162o)

Adams); ii between 25,000 and 50,000 (See also:

• MALDEN

Malden, Haverhill, Salem, See also:

• NEWTON
• NEWTON, ALFRED (1829–1907)
• NEWTON, JOHN (1725-1807)
• NEWTON, JOHN (1823-1895)
• NEWTON, SIR CHARLES THOMAS (1816-1894)
• NEWTON, SIR ISAAC (1642-1727)

Newton, See also:

• FITCHBURG

Fitchburg, See also:

• TAUNTON
• TAUNTON, HENRY LABOUCHERE, BARON (1798–1869)

Taunton, See also:

• EVERETT
• EVERETT, ALEXANDER HILL (1790-1847)
• EVERETT, CHARLES CARROLL (1829-1900)
• EVERETT, EDWARD (1794–1865)

Everett, Quincy, Pittsfield, Waltham, See also:

• CHICOPEE

Chicopee); 7 between 50,000 and See also:

• IOO

ioo,000 (New Bedford, Lynn, Springfield, Lawrence, See also:

• SOMERVILLE
• SOMERVILLE, MARY (178o-1872)

Somerville, Holyoke, Brockton); and 5 more than ioo,000 (Boston, 670,585; Worcester, 145,986; Fall River, 119,295; Lowell, 106,294; See also:

• CAMBRIDGE
• CAMBRIDGE, EARLS AND DUKES OF
• CAMBRIDGE, RICHARD OWEN (1717-1802)

Cambridge, 104,839) . Taking quinquennial periods from 1856–1905 the birth-rates were 29'5, 25.3, 26.0, 27.6, 24.2, 25.0, 25.8, 27.6, 27.0 and 24.2 per i,000; and the See also:

• DEATH

death-rates 17.7, 20.7, 18.2, 20.8, 18.8,19.8, 19.4, 19'8, 18'0 and 16.4.8 See also:

• PNEUMONIA (Gr. ?rveu AMP, lung)

Pneumonia and See also:

• CONSUMPTION (Lat. consumere)

consumption, approximately of equal fatality (15 to 18 per to,000 each), exceed more than twofold the diseases of next lower fatality, See also:

• CANCER (" THE CRAB ")
• CANCER, LUIS (d. 1549)
• CANCER, or CARCINOMA (from Lat. cancer, Gr. KapKivwga, an eating ulcer)

cancer and See also:

• CHOLERA (from the Gr. Xo)du, tile, and Map, to flow)

cholera infantum . Of See also:

• MALES

males (1,097, 581) engaged in 1900 in gainful occupations 47.1 % were engaged in manufacturing and See also:

• MECHANICAL

mechanical pursuits (77.9 in every too in 187o and 73 in 1900), 27.1 in trade and transportation, 14.2 in domestic and See also:

• PERSONAL

personal service, 7.4 in agricultural pursuits and 4 2 in professional service . The corresponding. percentages for See also:

• FEMALES

females (1,169,467) were 46.4 in manufacturing (in 1890, 52 %), 32'3 in domestic and personal service, 13.6 in trade and transportation, 7.1 in professional service and o•6 in agriculture .

Formerly farmers' daughters of native stock were much employed in factories; but since operatives of foreign birth or parentage have in great part 1 The population of the state was 378,787 in 1790; 422,845 in 1800; 472,040 in 1810; 523,287 in 1820; 610,408 in 1830; 737,699 in 1840; 994,514 in 1850; 1'231,066 in 1860; 1,457,351 in 1870; 1,783,085 in 1880 ; 2,238,943 in 189o; and 2,805,346 in 1900 . In 1905, according to the state census, the population was 3,003,680, or about 7.7 % more than in 1900 . 2 In 1910 the following townships each had populations of more than 15,000: See also:

• REVERE
• REVERE, PAUL (1735–1818)

Revere, See also:

• LEOMINSTER

Leominster, See also:

• WESTFIELD

Westfield, See also:

• ATTLEBOROUGH

Attleborough, Peabody, See also:

• HYDE
• HYDE, THOMAS (1636-1703)

Hyde See also:

• PARK (Fr. part; Ital. parco; Sp. Marque; O.Eng. pearroc; connected with Ger. pferch, fold, and pfarrei, district, translating med. Lat. parochia, parish)
• PARK, EDWARDS AMASA (1808–1900)
• PARK, MUNGO (1771-1806?)

Park . 8 The birth-rates every fifth (census) year up to 1895 varied for natives from 14.48 to 19'49; for foreigners from 45.87 to 66.68 . The See also:

• MARRIAGE

marriage rates in quinquennial periods up to 1905 were 19.6, 18.6, 21.0, 19.8, 15.6, 18.6, 18.6, 18.6, 17.4 and 17.4; the ratio of marriages to the marriageable population was for males (above 16 years) 61.5, for females (above 14) 46.0; the fecundity of marriages seemed to have increased, being about twice as high for foreigners as for natives . See See also:

• ANNUAL

Annual See also:

• REPORT (O.Fr. report or raport, modern rapport, from O.Fr. reporter, mod. rap porter, Lat. reportare, to bring back, in poetical use only, of bringing back an account, news, &c.)

Report of the See also:

• BOARD (O. Eng. bord)

Board of See also:

• HEALTH

Health (1896), by S . W . See also:

• ABBOTT
• ABBOTT, EMMA (1849-1891)
• ABBOTT, JACOB (1803-1879)
• ABBOTT, JOHN STEVENS CABOT (1805-1877)
• ABBOTT, LYMAN (1835- )

Abbott; and Sixty-fourth Report of Births, Marriages and Deaths in Massachusetts (1906).taken their places, they have sought other occupations, largely in the manufacture of small wares in the cities, and particularly in departments of trade where skilled labour is essential . See also:

• HOUSEHOLD, ROYAL

Household service is seldom now done, as it formerly was, by See also:

• WOMEN

women of native stock . The federal census of 1900 showed that of every ioo persons employed for gain only 37.5 % were of native descent (that is, had a native-born See also:

• FATHER

father) . Natives heavily predominated in agriculture and the professions, slightly in trade, and held barely more than half of all governmental positions; but in transportation, personal service, manufactures, labour and domestic service, the predominance of the foreign element warranted the assertion of the state Bureau of See also:

• STATISTICS

Statistics of Labour that " the strong industrial See also:

• CONDITION (Lat. condicio, from condicere, to agree upon, arrange; not connected with conditio, from condere, conditum, to put together)

condition of Massachusetts has been secured and is held not by the labour of what is called the 'native stock,' but by that of the immigrants." After the original and exclusively English immigration from 1620 to 164o there was nothing like regular foreign immigration until the 19th century; and it was a favourite assertion of Dr See also:

• PALFREY
• PALFREY, JOHN GORHAM (1796-1881)

Palfrey that the See also:

• BLOOD

blood of the fishing folk on Cape Cod was more purely English through two centuries than that of the inhabitants of any English county . With foreign immigration the strength of the See also:

• ROMAN

Roman See also:

• CATHOLIC (Gr. KcaBoXuK6s, general, universal)

Catholic See also:

• CHURCH
• CHURCH (according to most authorities derived from the Gr. Kvpcaxov [&wµa], " the Lord's [house]," and common to many Teutonic, Slavonic and other languages under various forms—Scottish kirk, Ger. Kirche, Swed. kirka, Dan. kirke, Russ. tserkov, Buig. cerk
• CHURCH, FREDERICK EDWIN (1826-1900)
• CHURCH, GEORGE EARL (1835–1910)
• CHURCH, RICHARD WILLIAM (1815–189o)
• CHURCH, SIR RICHARD (1784–1873)

Church has greatly increased: in 1906 of every moo of estimated population 355 were members of the Roman Catholic Church (a proportion exceeded only in New See also:

• MEXICO
• MEXICO (Span. Mejico, or Mexico,)
• MEXICO, FEDERAL DISTRICT OF
• MEXICO, GULF OF

Mexico and in Rhode Island; 310 was the number per woo in See also:

• LOUISIANA

Louisiana), and only 148 were communicants of See also:

• PROTESTANT

Protestant bodies; in 1906 there were 1,080,706 Roman Catholics (out of a total of 1,562,621 communicants of all denominations), 119,196 Congregationalists, 80,894 See also:

• BAPTISTS

Baptists, 65,498 Methodists and 51,636 Protestant Episcopalians .

Reference has been made to " abandoned farms " in Massachusetts . The See also:

• DESERTION

desertion of farms was an inevitable result of the opening of the great cereal regions of the west, but it is by no means characteristic of Massachusetts alone . The Berkshire district affords an excellent example of the interrelations of topography, soil and population . Many hill towns once thriving have long since become abandoned, desolate and comparatively inaccessible; though with the development of the summer See also:

• RESIDENT

resident's interests many will probably eventually regain prosperity . Almost half of the high-land towns reached their maximum population before the opening of the 19th century, although Berkshire was scarcely settled till after 1760, and three-fourths of them before 1850 . On the other hand three-fourths of the lowland towns reached their maximum since that date, and half of them since 1880 . The lowland population increased six and a half times in the century, the upland diminished by an eighth . Socially and educationally the upland has furnished an interesting example of decadence . Since 1865 (at least) various parts of Cape Cod have shrunk greatly in population, agriculture and manufactures, and even in fishing interests; this reconstruction of industrial and social interests being, apparently, simply part of the general urban See also:

• MOVEMENT

movement—a movement toward better opportunities . What prosperity or stability remains in various Cape Cod communities is largely due to foreign immigrants—especially British-Americans and Portuguese from the See also:

• AZORES (Acores), or WESTERN ISLANDS

Azores; although the population remains, to a degree exceptional in northern states, of native stock . Government.—Representative government goes back to 1634, and the bicameral legislature to 1644 . The constitution of 1780, which still endures (the only remaining state constitution of the 18th century), was framed in the main by Samuel Adams, and as an embodiment of colonial experience and revolutionary principles, and as a See also:

• MODEL (0. Fr. modelle, mod. modele; It. modello, pattern, mould; from Lat. modus, measure, standard)

model of constitution-making in the early years of independence, is of very great historical interest .

It has been amended with considerable freedom (37 amendments up to 1907), but with more conservatism than has often prevailed in the constitutional reform of other states; so that the constitution of Massachusetts is not so completely in See also:

• HARMONY (Gr. dpµovia, a concord of musical sounds, dpA'ew to join; &plan midi (sc. TeXvil)

harmony with See also:

• MODERN

modern democratic sentiment as are the public See also:

• OPINION (Lat. opinio, from opinari, to think)

opinion and See also:

• STATUTE

statute See also:

• LAW
• LAW (0. Eng. lagu, M. Eng. lawe; from an old Teutonic root lag, " lie," what lies fixed or evenly; cf. Lat. lex, Fr. loi)
• LAW, JOHN (1671—1729)
• LAW, WILLIAM (1686-1761)

law ' of the state . The commonwealth, for example, is still denominated " See also:

• SOVEREIGN

sovereign," and See also:

• EDUCATION

education is not declared a constitutional See also:

• DUTY (from " due," that which is owing, O. Fr. deu, dil, past participle of devoir; Lat. debere, debitum; cf. " debt ")

duty of the commonwealth . One unique feature is the duty of the supreme See also:

• COURT
• COURT (from the O. Fr. court, Late Lat. cortis, curtis, a popular form of class. Lat. cohors, gen. cohortis; the mod. Fr. form tour is due to the influence of the Lat. curia, the word used in medieval documents to translate " court " in the feudal sense)
• COURT, ANTOINE (1696-176o)

court to give legal See also:

• ADVICE (Fr. avis, from Lat. ad, to, and visum, viewed)

advice, on See also:

• REQUEST, LETTERS OF

request, to the See also:

• GOVERNOR (from the Fr. gouverneur, from gouverner, O. Fr. governer, Lat. gubernare, to steer a ship, to direct, guide)

governor and See also:

• COUNCIL (Lat. concilium, from cum, together, and the root cal, to call)

council . Another almost equally exceptional feature is the persistence of the colonial executive council, consisting of members chosen to represent divisions of the state, who assist the governor in his executive functions . Massachusetts is also one of the few states in which the legislature meets in annual session.' Townships were represented as such in this See also:

• BODY

body (called the General Court) until 1856 . Religious qualifications for See also:

• SUFFRAGE (Lat. suffragium)

suffrage and See also:

• OFFICE (from Lat. officium, " duty," " service," a shortened form of opifacium, from facere, " to do," and either the stem of opes, " wealth," " aid," or opus, " work ")

office-holding were somewhat relaxed, except in the See also:

• CASE
• CASE, JOHN (d. 1600)

case of ' The number of representatives from 1832 to 1908 varied from 240 to 635, and the length of session from 58 to 206 days (since 1861 none of under too days), with an almost continual increase in both respects . Roman Catholics, after 1691.1 Real See also:

• TOLERATION (from Lat. tolerare, to endure)

toleration in public opinion See also:

• GREW, NEHEMIAH (1641-1712)

grew slowly through the 18th century, removing the religious tests of voters; and a constitutional See also:

• AMENDMENT (through the O. Fr. amender, to correct, from Lat. mendum, a fault)

amendment in 1821 explicitly forbade such tests in the case of office-holders . Property qualifications for the suffrage and for office-holding—universal through colonial times—were abolished in the main in 1780 . From 1821 to 1891 the See also:

• PAYMENT (Fr. paiement, from payer, to pay; Lat. pacare, to appease, pax, peace)

payment of at least a See also:

• POLL

poll-tax was a condition precedent to the exercise of the suffrage . An educational test (dating from 1857) is exacted for the See also:

• PRIVILEGE

privilege of voting, every voter being required to be able to read the constitution of the commonwealth in the English See also:

• LANGUAGE (adapted from the Fr. langage, from langue, tongue, Lat. lingua)

language, and to write his name . The property qualification of the governor was not abolished until 1892 . In the presidential See also:

• ELECTION
• ELECTION (from Lat. eligere, to pick out)

election of 1896, when an unprecedentedly large See also:

• VOTE

vote was See also:

• CAST (from the verb meaning " to throw "; the word is Scand. in origin, cf. Dan. kaste, and Swed. kasta; " cast " in Middle Eng. took the place of the A.S. weor pan, cf. Ger. werf en)

cast, the number of voters registered was nearly 20 % of the population, and of these nearly 82 % actually voted .

Massachusetts is one of the only two states in the Union in which elections for state See also:

• OFFICERS

officers are held annually . In 1888 an See also:

• ACT (Lat. actus, actum)

act was passed providing for the use in state elections of a blanket See also:

• BALLOT (from Ital. ballotta, dim. of balla, a ball)

ballot, on which the names of all candidates for each office are arranged alphabetically under the heading of that office, and there is no arrangement in party columns . This was the first state law of the See also:

• KIND (O. E. ge-cynde, from the same root as is seen in " kin," supra)

kind in the country . The same method of voting has been adopted in about two-thirds of the townships of the state . A limited suffrage was conferred upon women in 1879 . Every female See also:

• CITIZEN (a form corrupted in Eng., apparently by analogy with " denizen," from O. Fr. citeain, mod. Fr. citoyen)

citizen having the qualifications of a male voter may vote in the city and town elections for members of the school See also:

• COMMITTEE (from commute, an Anglo-Fr. past participle of commettre, Lat. committere, to entrust; the modern Fr. equivalent comite is derived from the Eng.)

committee . A householder with a See also:

• FAMILY

family may, by recording the proper See also:

• DECLARATION (from Lat. declarare, to make fully clear, clams)

declaration in a registry of deeds, hold exempt from See also:

• ATTACHMENT

attachment, See also:

• LEVY (Fr. levee, from lever, Lat. levare, to lift, raise)
• LEVY, AMY (1861–1889)
• LEVY, AUGUSTE MICHEL (1844– )

levy on See also:

• EXECUTION (from Lat. ex-sequor, exsecutus, follow or carry out)

execution, and See also:

• SALE
• SALE, GEORGE (c. 1697-1736)
• SALE, SIR ROBERT HENRY (1782—1845)

sale for the payment of debts thereafter contracted an See also:

• ESTATE (through O. Fr. estat, mod. flat, from Lat. status, state, condition, position, stare, to stand)

estate of See also:

• HOMESTEAD

homestead, not exceeding $boo in value, in a farm or See also:

• LOT
• LOT (Lat. Oltis)

lot with buildings thereon which he lawfully possesses by See also:

• LEASE (derived through the Fr. from the Lat. laxare, to loosen)

lease or otherwise and occupies as his residence . The exemption does not extend, however, to the See also:

• PROHIBITION (Lat. prohibere, to prevent)

prohibition of sale for taxes, and in case the householder's buildings are on land which he has leased those buildings are not exempt from sale or levy for the ground See also:

• RENT

rent . If the householder has a wife he can See also:

• MORTGAGE

mortgage or convey his estate of homestead only with her consent, and if he See also:

• DIES, CHRISTOPH ALBERT (1755-1822)

dies leaving a widow or minor See also:

• CHILDREN, LAW RELATING TO

children the homestead exemption survives until the youngest See also:

• CHILD
• CHILD, FRANCIS JAMES (1825-1896)
• CHILD, L
• CHILD, LYDIA MARIA (1802-1880)
• CHILD, SIR FRANCIS (1642-1713)
• CHILD, SIR JOHN (d. 1690)
• CHILD, SIR JOSIAH (163o - 1699)

child is twenty-one years of See also:

• AGE (Fr. age, through late Lat. aetaticum, from aetas)

age, or until the death or marriage of the widow, provided the widow or a child continues to occupy it . The See also:

• SCOPE (through Ital. scopo, aim, purpose, intent, from Gr. o'KOaos, mark to shoot at, aim, o ic07reiv, to see, whence the termination in telescope, microscope, &c.)

scope of state activity has become somewhat remarkable . In addition to the usual state boards of education (1837), agriculture (1852), railroad commissioners (1869), health (1869), statistics of labour, fisheries and game, charity (1879), the dairy bureau (1891), of See also:

• INSANITY (from Lat. in, not, and sanus, sound)

insanity (1898), See also:

• PRISON (derived through the Fr. from the Lat. prehensio, seizure)

prison, highways, See also:

• INSURANCE

insurance and banking commissions, there are also commissions on ballot-law, voting machines, civil service (1884), uniformity of legislation, See also:

• GAS

gas and electric See also:

• LIGHTING

lighting corporations, conciliation and See also:

• ARBITRATION (Lat. arbitrari, to examine or judge)
• ARBITRATION, INTERNATIONAL

arbitration in labour disputes (1886), &c . There are efficient state boards of See also:

• REGISTRATION

registration in See also:

• PHARMACY

pharmacy, See also:

• DENTISTRY (from Lat. dens, a tooth)

dentistry and See also:

• MEDICINE

medicine .

Foods and drugs have been inspected since 1882 . In general it may be said that the excellence of administrative results is noteworthy . The See also:

• WORK

work of the Bureau of Statistics of Labor, of the Bureau of Health, of the Board of Railroad Commissioners, and of the Board of Conciliation and Arbitration, and the progress of civil service, have been remarkable for value and efficiency . Almost all state employees are under civil service rules; the same is true of the city of Boston; and of the clerical, stenographic, prison, See also:

• POLICE (Fr. police, government, civil administration, a police force, Gr. sroXumeia, constitution, condition of a state, roars, city, state)

police, civil See also:

• ENGINEERING

engineering, fire, labour-foreman, inspection and See also:

• BRIDGE

bridge See also:

• TENDER

tender services of all cities; and under a law (1894) by which cities and towns may on See also:

• PETITION (Lat. for " seeking " or " praying ")

petition enlarge the application of _their civil service rules . Various other public services, including even common labourers of the larger towns, are rapidly passing under civil service regulation . Veterans of the Civil War have privileges in the See also:

• ADMINISTRATION (Lat. administrare, to serve)

administration of the state service . In the settlement of labour disputes conciliatory methods were successful in the formative period, when the parties to disputes adopted customary attitudes of hostility and fought to the end unless they were reconciled by the Board to a final agreement or to an agreement to arbitrate.' In this earlier period (before 1900), thanks to theefforts of the board there was an increase in the frequency of See also:

• APPEAL

appeal to arbitration, and settlements by See also:

• COMPROMISE (pronounced compromize; through Fr. from Lat. compromittere)

compromise were often made . Afterwards the number of arbitrations by the board increased in number: from 1900 to 1908 (inclusive), of 568 controversies submitted to the board, 525 were settled by an See also:

• AWARD (from O. Fr. ewart, or esguart, cf. " reward ")

award and 43 by an induced agreement . In the same period the See also:

• MEDIATION (Lat. medius, middle)

mediation of the Board settled disputes affecting 556o establishments; and in the latter half of this period labour disputes involving hostilities and of the magnitude contemplated by the statute governing the Board of Conciliation and Arbitration had almost disappeared . The See also:

• LAWS

laws See also:

• RELATING

relating to labour are full, but, as compared with those of other states, present few features calling for comment.' In 1899 eight See also:

• HOURS, CANONICAL

hours were made to constitute a See also:

• DAY (O. Eng. dreg, Ger. Tag; according to the New English Dictionary, " in no way related to the Lat. dies")
• DAY, JOHN (1574-1640?)
• DAY, THOMAS (1748-1789)

day's work for all labourers employed by or for any city or town adopting the act at an annual election . Acts have been passed extending the common-law liability of employers, prohibiting the manufacture and sale of sweat-shop clothing, and authorizing cities and towns to provide See also:

• FREE

free lectures and to maintain public See also:

• BATHS

baths, gymnasia and playgrounds . Boston has been a See also:

• LEADER, BENJAMIN WILLIAMS (1831– )

leader in the See also:

• ESTABLISHMENT (0. Fr. establissement, Fr. etablissement, late Norm. Fr. establishement, from O. Fr. establir, Fr. etablir, Lat. stabilire, to make stable)

establishment of municipal baths .

The state controls and largely maintains two beaches magnificently equipped near the city . The Massachusetts railroad commission, though preceded in point of time by that of New Hampshire of 1844, was the real beginning of modern state commissions . Its See also:

• POWERS, HIRAM (1805-1873)

powers do not extend to See also:

• DIRECT

direct and mandatory regulation, being supervisory and advisory only, but it can make recommendations at its discretion, appealing if necessary to the General Court; and it has had great See also:

• INFLUENCE (Late Lat. influentia, from influere, to flow in)

influence and excellent results . The See also:

• TORRENS, ROBERT (1780-1864)
• TORRENS, SIR ROBERT RICHARD (1814-1884)
• TORRENS, WILLIAM TORRENS

Torrens system of land registration was adopted in 1898, and a court created for its administration . In the case of all quasi-public corporations rigid laws exist prohibiting the issue of stock or bonds unless the See also:

• PAR (Lat. par, equal)

par value is first paid in; prohibiting the declaration of any stock or See also:

• SCRIP

scrip See also:

• DIVIDEND (Lat. dividendum, a thing to be divided)

dividend, and requiring that new stock shall be offered to stock-holders at not less than its market value, to be determined by the proper state officials, any shares not so subscribed for to be sold by public See also:

• AUCTION

auction . These laws are to prevent fictitious capitalization and " stock-watering." In the twenty years preceding 1880 6o% of all sentences for See also:

• CRIME (Lat. crimen, accusation)

crime were found traceable to liquor . In 1881 a local See also:

• OPTION (Lat. optio, choice, choosing, optare, to choose)

option law was passed, by which the granting of licences for the sale of liquor was confined to cities and towns voting at the annual election to authorize their issue . In 1888 the number of licences to be granted in municipalities voting in favour of their issue was limited to one for each 1000 inhabitants, except in Boston, where one See also:

• LICENCE (through the French from Lat. licentia, licere, to be lawful)

licence may be issued for every 500 inhabitants . The vote varies from year to year, and it is not unusual for a certain number of municipalities to See also:

• CHANGE (derived through the Fr. from the Late Lat. cambium, cambiare, to barter; the ultimate derivation is probably from the root which appears in the Gr. «a urmu', to bend)

change from " licence " to " no licence," and See also:

• VICE

vice versa . The general result has been that centres of population, especially where the foreign element is large, usually vote for licence, while those in which native population predominates, as'well as the smaller towns, usually vote for prohibition . Through a growing acquiescence in the operation of the local option law, the relative importance of the vote of the Prohibition Party has diminished . Since 1895 indeterminate sentences have been imposed on all convicts sentenced to the state prison otherwise than for life or as habitual criminals; i.e. maximum and minimum terms are established by law and on the expiration of the latter a revocable permit of See also:

• LIBERTY (Lat. libertas, from liber, free)

liberty may be issued .

Execution by See also:

• ELECTRICITY

electricity has been the death See also:

• PENALTY (Lat. poena, punishment)

penalty since 1898 . Stringent legislation controls prison labour . The See also:

• EXTENSION (Lat. ex, out ; tendere, to stretch)

extension of state activity presents some surprising features in view of the strength of local self-sufficiency nurtured by the old system of township government . But this form of pure See also:

• DEMOCRACY (Gr. 3np.oKparia, from S)µos, the people, i.e. the commons, and Kparos, rule)

democracy was in various cases long since inevitably abandoned : by Boston reluctantly in 1822, and subsequently by many other townships or cities, as growing population made See also:

• ACTION

action in town See also:

• MEETING (from " to meet," to come together, assemble, 0. Eng. metals ; cf. Du. moeten, Swed. mota, Goth. gamotjan, &c., derivatives of the Teut. word for a meeting, seen in O. Eng. Wit, moot, an assembly of the people; cf. witanagemot)

meeting unbearably cumbersome . In modern times state activity has encroached on the cities . Especially has the commonwealth undertaken certain noteworthy enterprises as the See also:

• AGENT (from Lat. agere, to act)

agent of the several municipalities in the immediate vicinity of Boston, constituting what is known as the See also:

• METROPOLITAN (Lat. metropolitanus, Gr. µnrpoiroXtrns)

Metropolitan District; as, for example, in bringing water thither from the See also:

• NASHUA

Nashua River at See also:

• CLINTON
• CLINTON, DE WITT (1769-1828)
• CLINTON, GEORGE (1739-1812)
• CLINTON, HENRY FYNES (1781-1852)
• CLINTON, SIR HENRY (c. 1738-1795)

Clinton, 40 M. from Boston, and in the development of a magnificent park.system of See also:

• WOODS, LEONARD (1774-1854)
• WOODS, SIR ALBERT (1816-1904)

woods, fells, river-See also:

• BANKS, GEORGE LINNAEUS (1821-1881)
• BANKS, NATHANIEL PRENTISS (1816–1894)
• BANKS, SIR JOSEPH
• BANKS, THOMAS (1735-1805)

banks and seashore, unrivalled elsewhere in the country . The common-See also:

• WEALTH

wealth joined the city of Boston in the construction of a subway beneath the most congested portion of the city for the passage of electric cars . For the better See also:

• ACCOMMODATION (Lat. accommodare, to make fit, from ad, to, cum, with, and modus, measure)

accommodation of the increasing commerce of the port of Boston, the commonwealth bought a considerable frontage upon the harbour lines and constructed a See also:

• DOCK

dock capable of receiving the largest vessels, and has supplemented the work of the United States government in deepening the approaches to the wharves . It has secured as public reservations the summit and sides of Greylock (3535 ft.) in the north-west corner of the state, and of Wachusett (2108 ft.) near the centre . Since 1885 a large expenditure has been incurred in the abolition of grade 3 For a See also:

• SUMMARY

summary statement of state labour laws in the United States in 1903 see Bulletin 54 of the United States Bureau of Labor, See also:

• SEPTEMBER (Lat. septem, seven)

September 1904; and for a summary of labour laws in force at the end of 1907 see 22nd Annual Report (for 1907) of the U.S . See also:

• COMMISSIONER

Commissioner of Labor (See also:

• WASHINGTON
• WASHINGTON (or WASHINGTON COURT HOUSE)
• WASHINGTON, BOOKER TALIAFERRO (c. 1859– )
• WASHINGTON, BUSHROD (1762-1829)
• WASHINGTON, GEORGE (1732-1799)

Washington, 1908) . ' However, every office-holder was, and every subject might be, required to take (though this was not a condition of the See also:

• FRANCHISE (from 0. Fr. franchise, freedom, franc, free)

franchise) the oaths enjoined by See also:

• PARLIAMENT (Anglo-Lat. parliamentum, Fr. parlement, from parler, to speak)

parliament in the first year of the reign of William and See also:

• MARY
• MARY (1457-1482)
• MARY (1496-1533)
• MARY, QUEEN OF SCOTS

Mary as a substitute for the oaths of See also:

• ALLEGIANCE (Mid. Eng. ligeaunce; med. Lat. ligeantia, &c.; the al- was probably added through confusion with another legal term, allegeance, an allegation; the Fr. allegeance comes from the English; the word is formed from " liege," of which the derivatio

Allegiance and Supremacy; and the same still applies to the See also:

• SIGNING

signing of the Declaration .

2 From 1887-1900, out of 290 cases settled, only 107 were formal arbitrations, 124 agreements were effected by the mediation of the Board, too were effected otherwise while proceedings were pending, and in 59 cases the Board interposed when the parties preferred hostilities . crossings of railways and highways,' and in 1894 the commonwealth began the construction and See also:

• MAINTENANCE (Fr. maintenance, from maintenir, to maintain, support, Lat. manu tenere, to hold in the hand)

maintenance of state highways ? Since 1885, in Boston, and since 1894, in Fall River, the administration of the city police departments, including the ranting of liquor licences, has been in the hands of state commissioners (one commissioner in Boston, a board in Fall River) appointed by the governor . But though in each case the result has been an improved administration, it has been generally conceded that only most exceptional circumstances can justify such interference with local self-government, and later attempts to extend the practice have failed . The See also:

• REFERENDUM

referendum has been sparingly used in matters of local concern . Beginning in 1892 various townships and cities, numbering 18 in 1903, adopted municipal ownership and operation of lighting works . The gasworks have been notably more successful than the electric plants . In Massachusetts, as in New England generally, the word " town " is used, officially and colloquially, to designate a township, and during the colonial era the New England town-meeting was a notable school for education in self-government . The members of the first See also:

• GROUP

group of settlers in these colonies were mostly small farmers, be-longed to the same church, and dwelt in a See also:

• VILLAGE

village for protection from the See also:

• INDIANS, NORTH AMERICAN

Indians . They adapted to these conditions some of the methods for managing local affairs with which they had been See also:

• FAMILIAR (through the Fr. familier, from Lat. familiaris, of or belonging to the familia, family)

familiar in England, and called the resultant institution a town . The territorial extent of each town was determined by its See also:

• GRANT (from A.-Fr. graunter, O. Fr. greanter for creanter, popular Lat. creantare, for credentare, to entrust, Lat. credere, to believe, trust)
• GRANT, ANNE (1755-1838)
• GRANT, CHARLES (1746-1823)
• GRANT, GEORGE MONRO (1835–1902)
• GRANT, JAMES (1822–1887)
• GRANT, JAMES AUGUSTUS (1827–1892)
• GRANT, ROBERT (1814-1892)
• GRANT, SIR ALEXANDER
• GRANT, SIR FRANCIS (1803-1878)
• GRANT, SIR JAMES HOPE (1808–1895)
• GRANT, SIR PATRICK (1804-1895)
• GRANT, U
• GRANT, ULYSSES SIMPSON (1822-1885)

grant or grants from the general court, which the towns served as agents in the management of land . A settlement or " See also:

• PLANTATION (Lat. plantare, to plant)

plantation " was some-times incorporated first as a " district " and later as a town, the difference being that the latter had the right of corporate See also:

• REPRESENTATION

representation in the general court, while the former had no such right .

The towns elected (until 1856) the deputies to the general court, and were the administrative See also:

• UNITS, DIMENSIONS OF
• UNITS, PHYSICAL

units for the See also:

• ASSESSMENT, (from Lat. assessare, to sit beside, to judge)

assessment and collection of taxes, maintaining churches and schools, organizing and training the See also:

• MILITIA (Fr. milice, Ger. Miliz, from Lat. miles, soldier, militia, military service)

militia, preserving the peace, caring for the poor, building and repairing roads and See also:

• BRIDGES
• BRIDGES, ROBERT (1844– )

bridges, and recording deeds, births, deaths and marriages; and to discuss questions relating to these matters as well as other matters of peculiarly local concern, to determine the amount of taxes for town purposes, and to elect officers . All the citizens were expected to attend the annual town-meeting, and such male inhabitants as were not citizens were privileged to attend and td propose and discuss See also:

• MEASURES

measures, although they had no right to vote . Generally several villages have grown up in the same town," and some of the more populous " towns," usually those in which manufacturing has become more important than farming, have been incorporated as " cities "; thus either a town or a city may now include a farming country and various small villages . Although the tendency in Massachusetts is towards chartering as cities " towns " which have a population of 12,000 or more, the democratic institution of the town-meeting persists in many large municipalities which are still technically towns.3 Most " towns " hold their annual meeting in See also:

• MARCH
• MARCH (1) (from Fr. marcher, to walk; the earliest sense in French appears to be " to trample," and the origin has usually been found in the Lat. marcus, hammer; Low Lat. marcare, to hammer; hence to beat the road with the regular tread of a soldier: cf.
• MARCH, AUZIAS (c. "1395-1458)
• MARCH, EARLS OF
• MARCH, FRANCIS ANDREW (1825– )

March, but some hold them in See also:

• FEBRUARY

February and others in See also:

• APRIL

April . In the larger " towns " the officers elected at this meeting may consist of five, seven or nine selectmen, a clerk, a treasurer, three or more assessors, three or more overseers of the poor, one or more collectors of taxes, one or more auditors, one or more surveyors of highways, a road commissioner, a See also:

• SEWER

sewer commissioner, a board of health, one or more constables, two or more See also:

• FIELD (a word common to many West German languages, cf. Ger. Feld, Dutch veld, possibly cognate with O.E. f olde, the earth, and ultimately with root of the Gr. irAaror, broad)
• FIELD, CYRUS WEST (1819-1892)
• FIELD, DAVID DUDLEY (18o5-1894)
• FIELD, EUGENE (1850-1895)
• FIELD, FREDERICK (18o1—1885)
• FIELD, HENRY MARTYN (1822-1907)
• FIELD, JOHN (1782—1837)
• FIELD, MARSHALL (183 1906)
• FIELD, NATHAN (1587—1633)
• FIELD, STEPHEN JOHNSON (1816-1899)
• FIELD, WILLIAM VENTRIS FIELD, BARON (1813-1907)

field drivers, two or more fence viewers, and a See also:

• TREE (0. Eng. treo, treow, cf. Dan. tree, Swed. Odd, tree, trd, timber; allied forms are found in Russ. drevo, Gr. opus, oak, and 36pv, spear, Welsh derw, Irish darog, oak, and Skr. dare, wood)
• TREE, SIR HERBERT BEERBOHM (1853- )

tree See also:

• WARDEN

warden; but in the smaller " towns " the number of selectmen may be limited to three, the selectmen may assess the taxes, be overseers of the poor, and act as a board of health, and the treasurer or See also:

• CONSTABLE (0. Fr. connestable, Fr. connetable, Med. Lat. comestabilis, conestabilis, constabularius, from the Lat. comes stabuli, count of the stable)
• CONSTABLE, ARCHIBALD (1774-1827)
• CONSTABLE, HENRY (1562-1613)
• CONSTABLE, JOHN (1776-1837)
• CONSTABLE, SIR MARMADUKE (c. 1455-1518)

constable may collect the taxes . The See also:

• TERM

term of all these officers may be limited to one year, or the selectmen, clerk, assessors and overseers of the poor may be elected for a term of three years, in which case a part only of the selectmen, assessors and overseers of the poor are elected each year . The selectmen have the general management of a " town's " affairs during the See also:

• INTERVAL

interval between town-meetings . They may See also:

• CALL (from Anglo-Saxon ceallian, a common Teutonic word, cf. Dutch kallen, to talk or chatter)

call See also:

• SPECIAL

special town-meetings; they appoint election officers and may appoint additional constables or ' The usual See also:

• ALLOTMENT (from O. Fr. a and toter, to divide by lot)

allotment of the cost of this work is as follows: 65 % is paid by the railway See also:

• COMPANY

company, 25 % by the commonwealth and to % by the See also:

• MUNICIPALITY

municipality in which the See also:

• CROSSING

crossing is located . 2 The cost was apportioned between the commonwealth and the local government in the proportion of 3 to 1 . 3 Boston remained a township, governed by town-meetings, until 1822, when it had a population of some 47,000 . The government of See also:

• BROOKLINE

Brookline (pop. in 1905, 23,436) is an interesting example of the See also:

• ADAPTATION (from Lat. adaptare. to fit to)

adaptation of the township system to urban conditions . The town is frequently referred to as a model residential suburb; its budgets are very large, its schools are excellent, and, among other things, it has established a township gymnasium .

The town See also:

• HALL
• HALL (generally known as SCHWABISCH-HALL, tc distinguish it from the small town of Hall in Tirol and Bad-Hall, a health resort in Upper Austria)
• HALL (O.E. heall, a common Teutonic word, cf. Ger. Halle)
• HALL, BASIL (1788-1844)
• HALL, CARL CHRISTIAN (1812–1888)
• HALL, CHARLES FRANCIS (1821-1871)
• HALL, CHRISTOPHER NEWMAN (1816—19oz)
• HALL, EDWARD (c. 1498-1547)
• HALL, FITZEDWARD (1825-1901)
• HALL, ISAAC HOLLISTER (1837-1896)
• HALL, JAMES (1793–1868)
• HALL, JAMES (1811–1898)
• HALL, JOSEPH (1574-1656)
• HALL, MARSHALL (1790-1857)
• HALL, ROBERT (1764-1831)
• HALL, SAMUEL CARTER (5800-5889)
• HALL, SIR JAMES (1761-1832)
• HALL, WILLIAM EDWARD (1835-1894)

hall is not large enough for an assemblage of all the voters, but actually the attendance is usually limited to about 200, and since 1901 there has been in force a kind of referendum, under which any measure passed by a town-meeting attended by 700 or more voters may be referred, upon petition of too legal voters, to a regular vote at the polls . Much of the work of the town-meetings is done through special committees.public officers, and such minor officials as inspectors of See also:

• MILK (0. Eng. meoluc; from a common Indo-European root, cf. Lat. mulgere, Gr. ?t dXyetv)

milk, inspectors of buildings, gauger of measures, cullers of staves and hoops, fish warden and forester . A school committee consisting of any number of members divisible by three is chosen, one-third each year, at the annual town-meeting or at a special meeting which is held in the same See also:

• MONTH
• MONTH (a common Teutonic word, cf. Ger. Mond, Du. maand, Dan. maaned, &c., and cognate with Lat. mensis, Gr. µi7v, &c., in other branches of the Indo-Germanic family; all ultimately from the root seen in the word for the moon in nearly all those languages

month . Any " town " having a village or district within its limits that contains woo inhabitants or more may authorize that village or district to establish a See also:

• SEPARATE

separate organization for lighting its streets, building and maintaining sidewalks, and employing a watchman or policeman, the officers of such organization to include at least a prudential committee and a clerk . All laws relative to " towns " are applied to " cities " in so far as they are not inconsistent with general or special laws relative to the latter, and the powers of the selectmen are vested in the See also:

• MAYOR (Lat. major, greater)
• MAYOR, JOHN EYTON BICKERSTETH (1825– )

mayor and aldermen . Education.—For cities of above 8000 inhabitants (for which alone See also:

• COMPARATIVE

comparative statistics are annually available), in 1902–1903 the ratio of average attendance to school enrolment, the average number of days' attendance of each See also:

• PUPIL (Lat. pupillus, orphan, minor, dim. of pupus, boy, allied to puer, from root pm- or peu-, to beget, cf. "pupa," Lat. for " doll," the name given to the stage intervening between the larval and imaginal stages in certain insects)

pupil enrolled, and the value of school property per capita of pupils in average attendance were higher than in any other state; the average length of the school term was slightly exceeded in eight states; and the total cost of the schools per capita of pupils in average attendance ($39.05) was exceeded in six other states . In 1905–Igo6 the percentage of average attendance in the public schools to the number of children (between 5 and 15 years) in the state was 8o; in Barnstable county it was 95, and in Plymouth 92; and the lowest See also:

• RATE

rate of any county was 68, that of See also:

• BRISTOL
• BRISTOL, EARLS AND MARQUESSES OF
• BRISTOL, GEORGE DIGBY, 2ND EARL OF1 (1612-1677)
• BRISTOL, JOHN DIGBY, 1ST EARL OF 6 (1580-1653)

Bristol . In the same year the amount of the various school taxes and other contributions was $30.53 for each child in the average member-ship of the public schools, and the highest amount for each child in any county was $35.77 in See also:

• SUFFOLK
• SUFFOLK, CHARLES BRANDON, 1ST DUKE OF (c. 1484–'545)
• SUFFOLK, EARLS AND DUKES OF
• SUFFOLK, THOMAS HOWARD, 1ST EARL OF (1561-1626)
• SUFFOLK, WILLIAM DE LA POLE

Suffolk county, and in any township or city $68•or—in Lincoln . The school system is not one of marked state centralization—as contrasted, e.g. with New York . A state board of education has general See also:

• CONTROL (Fr. contrdle, older form contre rolle, from Med. Lat. contra-rotulus, a counter roll or copy of a document used to check the original; there is no instance in English of the use of " control " in this, its literal, meaning)

control, its secretary acting as See also:

• SUPERINTENDENT

superintendent of the state system in See also:

• CONJUNCTION (from Lat. conjungere, to join together)

conjunction with local superintendents and committees . Women are eligible for these positions, and among the teachers in the schools they are greatly in excess over men (more than Io to I), especially in lower grades . No recognition exists in the schools of See also:

• RACE

race, colour or See also:

• RELIGION
• RELIGION, FOLKLORE, CUSTOM

religion .

The proportion of the child population that attends schools is equalled in but two or three states east of the See also:

• MISSISSIPPI

Mississippi river . The services of See also:

• HORACE [QuINTus HORATIUS FLACCUS] (65-8 B.C.)

Horace See also:

• MANN, HORACE (1796-1859)

Mann (q.v.) as secretary of the state board (1837–1848) were productive of almost revolutionary benefits not only to Massachusetts but to the entire country . His reforms, which reached every part of the school system, were fortunately introduced just at the beginning of railway and city growth . Since 185o truant and compulsory attendance laws (the first compulsory education law was passed in 1642) have been enforced in conjunction with laws against child labour . In 190o the average period of schooling per inhabitant for the United States was 4.3 years, for Massachusetts 7 years . (The same year the ratio of wealth productivity was as 66 to 37.) Massachusetts stands " foremost in the Union in the universality of its See also:

• PROVISION (Lat. provisio)

provision for secondary education."4 The laws practically offer such education free to every child of the commonwealth . Illiterate persons not less than ten years of age constituted in 1900 5.9 % of the population; and o•8, 14.6, Io•7 % respectively of native whites, foreign-born whites and negroes . More See also:

• PATENTS

patents are issued, relatively, to citizens of Massachusetts than to those of any other state except Connecticut . Post office statistics indicate a similarly high average of intelligence . The public school system includes common, high and normal schools, and various evening, industrial and truant schools . Many townships and cities maintain free evening schools . In 1894 See also:

• MANUAL

manual training was made a part of the curriculum in all municipalities having 20,000 inhabitants .

There are also many private business colleges, See also:

• ACADEMIC

academic schools and See also:

• COLLEGE (Collegium)

college-preparatory schools . The high schools enjoy an exceptional reputation . An unusual See also:

• PRO

pro-portion of teachers in the public schools are graduates of the state normal schools, of which the first were founded in 1839 at See also:

• LEXINGTON
• LEXINGTON, BARON

Lexington and See also:

• BARRE
• BARRE, ISAAC (1726-1802)

Barre, the former being the first normal school of the United E . G . Brown, in Monographs on Education in the United States prepared for the See also:

• PARIS
• PARIS (also called ALEXANDROS)
• PARIS, ALEXIS PAULIN (1800-x881)
• PARIS, BRUNO PAULIN GASTON (1839-1903)
• PARIS, FRANCOIS DE (169o-1727)
• PARIS, LOUIS PHILIPPE ALBERT
• PARIS, TREATIES OF (1814-1815)

Paris Exposition of 1900 and edited by N . M . See also:

• BUTLER
• BUTLER (or BOTELER), SAMUEL (1612–168o)
• BUTLER (through the O. Fr. bouteillier, from the Late Lat. buticularius, buticula, a bottle)
• BUTLER, ALBAN (1710-1773)
• BUTLER, BENJAMIN FRANKLIN (1818-1893)
• BUTLER, CHARLES (1750–1832)
• BUTLER, GEORGE (1774-1853)
• BUTLER, JOSEPH (1692-1752)
• BUTLER, NICHOLAS MURRAY (1862– )
• BUTLER, SAMUEL (1774-1839)
• BUTLER, SAMUEL (1835-1902)
• BUTLER, SIR WILLIAM FRANCIS (1838– )
• BUTLER, WILLIAM ARCHER (1814-1848)

Butler . States.' These two schools were removed subsequently to Framing-See also:

• HAM

ham (1853) and Westfield (1844), where they are still active; while others flourish at Bridgewater (1840), Salem (1854), Worcester (1874), Fitchburg (1895), North Adams (1897), Hyannis (1897) and Lowell (1897), that at See also:

• FRAMINGHAM

Framingham being open to women only . There is also a state normal See also:

• ART

art school at Boston (1873) for both sexes . The commonwealth contributes to the support of textile schools in cities in which 450,000 spindles are in operation . Such schools exist (1909) in Lowell, Fall River and New Bedford . The common-wealth also maintains aboard a national ship a nautical training school (1891) for instruction in the See also:

• SCIENCE (Lat. scientia, from scire; to learn, know)

science and practice of navigation .

During the See also:

• SPANISH

Spanish-American War of 1898 more than half of the graduates and cadets of the school enlisted in the United States service . There are several See also:

• HUNDRED

hundred private schools, whose pupils constituted in 1905–1906 15.7 % of the total school-enrolment of the state . Of higher See also:

• ACADEMIES

academies and college-preparatory schools there are scores . Among those for boys See also:

• PHILLIPS
• PHILLIPS, ADELAIDE (1833-1882)
• PHILLIPS, EDWARD (163o-1696)
• PHILLIPS, JOHN (1800—1874)
• PHILLIPS, SAMUEL (1814—1854)
• PHILLIPS, STEPHEN (1868– )
• PHILLIPS, THOMAS (1770-1845)
• PHILLIPS, WENDELL (1811-1884)

Phillips See also:

• ACADEMY, GREEK
• ACADEMY, ROYAL

Academy, at See also:

• ANDOVER

Andover; the Groton school, and the See also:

• MOUNT, WILLIAM SIDNEY (1807-1868)

Mount See also:

• HERMON

Hermon school are well-known examples . For girls the largest school is the See also:

• NORTHFIELD

Northfield See also:

• SEMINARY (Lat. seminarium, from semen, seed)

Seminary at East Northfield . In Boston and in the towns in its environs are various famous schools, among them the boys' classical school in Boston, founded in 1635, one of the See also:

• OLDEST

oldest secondary schools in the country . The leading educational institution of the state, as it is the oldest and most famous of the country, is Harvard University (founded 1636) at Cambridge . In the extreme north-west of the state, at Williamstown, is Williams College (1793), and in the Connecticut Valley is See also:

• AMHERST
• AMHERST, JEFFREY AMHERST, BARON (1717-1797)

Amherst College (1821), both of these unsectarian . Boston University (Methodist Episcopal, 1867); Tufts College (1852), a few miles from Boston in Medford, originally a Universalist school; See also:

• CLARK, FRANCIS EDWARD (1851- )
• CLARK, GEORGE ROGERS (1752—1818)
• CLARK, JOHN BATES (1847— )
• CLARK, JOSIAH LATIMER (1822—1898)
• CLARK, SIR ANDREW
• CLARK, SIR JAMES (1788—1870)
• CLARK, THOMAS (1801—1867)
• CLARK, WILLIAM (1770-1838)
• CLARK, WILLIAM GEORGE (1821—1878)

Clark University (1889, devoted wholly to See also:

• GRADUATE (Med. Lat. graduale, to admit to an academical degree, gradus)

graduate instruction until 1902, when Clark College was added), at Worcester, are important institutions . Two Roman Catholic schools are maintained—Boston College (1863) and the College of the See also:

• HOLY

Holy See also:

• CROSS

Cross (1843), at Worcester . Of various institutions for the education of women, Mount Holyoke (1837) at South Hadley, See also:

• SMITH
• SMITH, ADAM (1723–1790)
• SMITH, ALEXANDER (183o-1867)
• SMITH, ANDREW JACKSON (1815-1897)
• SMITH, CHARLES EMORY (1842–1908)
• SMITH, CHARLES FERGUSON (1807–1862)
• SMITH, CHARLOTTE (1749-1806)
• SMITH, COLVIN (1795—1875)
• SMITH, EDMUND KIRBY (1824-1893)
• SMITH, G
• SMITH, GEORGE (1789-1846)
• SMITH, GEORGE (184o-1876)
• SMITH, GEORGE ADAM (1856- )
• SMITH, GERRIT (1797–1874)
• SMITH, GOLDWIN (1823-191o)
• SMITH, HENRY BOYNTON (1815-1877)
• SMITH, HENRY JOHN STEPHEN (1826-1883)
• SMITH, HENRY PRESERVED (1847– )
• SMITH, JAMES (1775–1839)
• SMITH, JOHN (1579-1631)
• SMITH, JOHN RAPHAEL (1752–1812)
• SMITH, JOSEPH, JR
• SMITH, MORGAN LEWIS (1822–1874)
• SMITH, RICHARD BAIRD (1818-1861)
• SMITH, ROBERT (1689-1768)
• SMITH, SIR HENRY GEORGE WAKELYN
• SMITH, SIR THOMAS (1513-1577)
• SMITH, SIR WILLIAM (1813-1893)
• SMITH, SIR WILLIAM SIDNEY (1764-1840)
• SMITH, SYDNEY (1771-1845)
• SMITH, THOMAS SOUTHWOOD (1788-1861)
• SMITH, WILLIAM (1769-1839)
• SMITH, WILLIAM (c. 1730-1819)
• SMITH, WILLIAM (fl. 1596)
• SMITH, WILLIAM FARRAR (1824—1903)
• SMITH, WILLIAM HENRY (1808—1872)
• SMITH, WILLIAM HENRY (1825—1891)
• SMITH, WILLIAM ROBERTSON (1846-'894)

Smith College (1875) at Northampton, See also:

• WELLESLEY
• WELLESLEY, RICHARD COLLEY WESLEY (or WELLESLEY)

Wellesley College (1875) at Wellesley near Boston, See also:

• RADCLIFFE
• RADCLIFFE, ANN (1764-1823)
• RADCLIFFE, JOHN (1650-1714)
• RADCLIFFE, SIR GEORGE (1593-1657)

Radcliffe College (1879) in connexion with Harvard at Cambridge and See also:

• SIMMONS, EDWARD EMERSON (1852– )

Simmons College (1899) at Boston, are of national repute . The last emphasizes scientific instruction in domestic econorhy .

For agricultural students the state supports a school at Amherst (1867), and Harvard University the Bussey Institution . In technological science special instruction is given—in addition to the scientific departments of the schools already mentioned—in the Worcester See also:

• POLYTECHNIC (Gr. aroWus, many, and rEXvn, an art)

Polytechnic See also:

• INSTITUTE (from Lat. instituere, to establish or set up)

Institute (1865), and the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (opened in 1865) . There are schools of See also:

• THEOLOGY

theology at Cambridge (Protestant Episcopal), Newton (Baptist) and Waltham (New Church), as well as in connexion with Boston University (Methodist), Tufts College (Universalist) and Harvard (non-sectarian, and the affiliated Congregational Andover Theological Seminary at Cambridge) . Law and medical schools are maintained in Boston and Harvard See also:

• UNIVERSITIES

universities . Public Institutions.—Massachusetts was in 1903, in proportion to the population, more richly provided with public collections of books than any other state: in that year she had nearly a seventh of all books in public, society and school See also:

• LIBRARIES

libraries in the country, and a much larger See also:

• SUPPLY (through Fr. from Lat. supplere, to fill up)

supply of books per capita (2.56) than any other state . The rate for New York, the only state having a larger number of books in such libraries, being only 1.19 . The Boston public library, exceeded in size in the United States by the library of See also:

• CONGRESS (Lat. congressus, coming together, from congredi; cum, with, and gradus, step)

Congress at Washington—and probably first, because of the large number of duplicates in the library of Congress—and the largest free municipal library in the world; the library of Harvard, extremely well chosen and valuable for See also:

• RESEARCH (O. Fr. recerche, from recercher, re- and cercer, mod. chercher, to search; Late Lat. circare, to go round in a circle, to explore)

research; the collections of the Massachusetts Historical Society (1791) ; the Boston See also:

• ATHENAEUM

Athenaeum (1807); the State Library (1826); the New England Historic Genealogical Society (1845); the Congregational Library; the American Academy of Arts and Sciences (1780); and the Boston Society of Natural History (1830), all in Boston, leave it easily unrivalled, unless by Washington, as the best research centre of the country . The collections of the American Antiquarian Society (1812) at Worcester are also notable . Massachusetts led, about 1850, in the See also:

• FOUNDING (from Lat. fundere, to pour)

founding of town and city libraries supported by public taxes, and by 1880 had established more of such institutions than existed in all other states combined . In 1900 out of 353 towns and cities ' This is an especially See also:

• HONOURABLE (Fr. honorable, from Lat. honorabilis, worthy of honour)

honourable distinction, for William T . See also:

• HARRIS, GEORGE, 1ST BARON (1746–1829)
• HARRIS, JAMES (1709-1780)
• HARRIS, JOEL CHANDLER (1848-1908)
• HARRIS, JOHN (c. 1666-1719)
• HARRIS, SIR WILLIAM SNOW
• HARRIS, THOMAS LAKE (1823-1906)
• HARRIS, WILLIAM TORREY (1835-1909)

Harris has said that " The history of education since the time of Horace Mann is very largely an See also:

• ACCOUNT
• ACCOUNT (through O. Fr. acont, Late Lat. comptum, cornputare, to calculate)

account of the successive modifications introduced into elementary schools through the direct or indirect influence of the normal school."only five, representing less than half of 1 %, were without free library facilities, and three of these five had association libraries charging only a small See also:

• FEE

fee . The state is very well supplied with charitable and reformatory institutions, in which noteworthy methods have been employed with success .

The state institutions, each governed by a board of trustees, and all under the supervision of the state board of charity, include a state See also:

• HOSPITAL (Lat. haspitalis, the adjective of hospes, host or guest)

hospital at Tewksbury, for paupers (1866); a state farm at Bridgewater (1887) for paupers and See also:

• PETTY, SIR WILLIAM (1623-1687)

petty criminals; the Lyman school for boys at See also:

• WESTBORO

Westboro, a reformatory for male criminals under fifteen years of age sentenced to imprisonment for terms less than life in connexion with which a very successful farm is maintained for the younger boys at See also:

• BERLIN
• BERLIN, CONGRESS AND TREATY OF
• BERLIN, ISAIAH (1725–1799)

Berlin; an industrial school for girls at See also:

• LANCASTER
• LANCASTER, HOUSE OF
• LANCASTER, JOHN OF GAUNT
• LANCASTER, JOSEPH (1778-1838)
• LANCASTER, SIR JAMES (f1. 1591—1618)
• LANCASTER, THOMAS, EARL OF (c. 1277-1322)

Lancaster, also a reformatory school—a third reformatory school for boys was planned in 1909; a state See also:

• SANATORIUM (a modern Latinism, formed from sanare, to cure, restore to health, sanus, whole, healthy, well; often wrongly spelled sanatarium or sanitarium)

sanatorium at See also:

• RUTLAND
• RUTLAND, EARLS AND DUKES OF
• RUTLAND, JOHN JAMES ROBERT MANNERS, 7TH DUKE OF (1818-1906)

Rutland for tuberculous patients (the first public hospital for such in the United States) and a hospital school at See also:

• CANTON
• CANTON (borrowed from the Ital. cantone, a corner or angle)
• CANTON (more correctly KWANG-CHOW Fu)
• CANTON, JOHN (1718-1772)

Canton for the care and instruction of crippled and deformed children . Three more hospitals for consumptives were planned in 1909 . Under the supervision of the state board of insanity, and each under the government of a board of seven trustees (of whom two are women) are state hospitals for the insane at Worcester (1833), Taunton, Northampton, See also:

• DANVERS

Danvers, Westboro and Medford, a state colony for the insane at See also:

• GARDNER
• GARDNER, PERCY (1846– )

Gardner, a state hospital for epileptics at See also:

• PALMER
• PALMER, EDWARD HENRY (1840-1882)
• PALMER, ERASTUS DOW (1817-1904)
• PALMER, GEORGE (1818-1897)
• PALMER, JOHN
• PALMER, RAY (1808-1887)
• PALMER, SAMUEL (1805-1881)
• PALMER, SIR CHARLES MARK, BART

Palmer, a state school for the feeble-minded at Waltham (governed by six trustees), a state school at Wrentham, state " hospital cottages for children " (1882) at Baldwinville (governed by five trustees), and the Foxboro state hospital for dipsomaniacs and insane . There are also semi-state institutions for the insane at Waverley, Barre, Wrentham and Baldwinville, and nineteen small private institutions, all under the supervision of the state board of insanity . Under the supervision of a board of prison commissioners, which appoints the superintendent and warden of each, are a reformatory prison for women at Sherborn (1877), a state reformatory for men at See also:

• CONCORD
• CONCORD, BOOK OF (Liber Concordiae)

Concord (1884), a state prison at Boston (Charlestown), and a prison See also:

• CAMP (from Lat. campus, field)

camp and hospital at Rutland (1905) . There is a prison department at the state farm which receives misdemeanants . Other institutions receiving state aid, each governed by trustees appointed by the governor, are the Massachusetts general hospital at Boston, the Massachusetts charitable eye and See also:

• EAR (common Teut.; O.E. are, Ger. Ohr, Du. oor, akin to Lat. auris, Gr. ovs)

ear infirmary at Boston, the Massachusetts homoeopathic hospital at Boston, the See also:

• PERKINS, CHARLES CALLAHAN (1823-1886)
• PERKINS, JACOB (1766-1849)

Perkins Institution and Massachusetts school for the See also:

• BLIND, MATHILDE (1841—1896)

blind at South Boston and the soldiers' home in Massachusetts at Boston . The Horace Mann school in Boston, a public day school for the See also:

• DEAF

deaf, the New England industrial school for deaf mutes at Beverly and the See also:

• CLARKE, ADAM (1762?—1832)
• CLARKE, CHARLES COWDEN (1787-1877)
• CLARKE, EDWARD DANIEL (1769–1822)
• CLARKE, JAMES FREEMAN (1810–1888)
• CLARKE, JOHN SLEEPER (1833–1899)
• CLARKE, MARCUS ANDREW HISLOP (1846–1881)
• CLARKE, MARY ANNE (c.1776–1852)
• CLARKE, SAMUEL (1675–1729)
• CLARKE, SIR ANDREW (1824-1902)
• CLARKE, SIR EDWARD GEORGE (1841– )
• CLARKE, THOMAS SHIELDS (1866- )
• CLARKE, WILLIAM BRANWHITE (1798-1878)

Clarke school for the deaf at Northampton are maintained in part by the state . Finally, many private charitable corporations (about 500 in 1905) report to the state board of charity, and town and city almshouses (205 in 1904) are subject to visitation . The Perkins Institution is memorable for its association with the fame of S . G . See also:

• HOWE
• HOWE, EIJAS (1819 — 1867)
• HOWE, JOHN (1630-17o6)
• HOWE, JOSEPH (1804–1873)
• HOWE, JULIA WARD (1819–1910)
• HOWE, RICHARD HOWE, EARL (1726-1799)
• HOWE, SAMUEL GRIDLEY (1801-1876)
• HOWE, WILLIAM HOWE, 5TH VISCOUNT (1729-1814)

Howe (q.v.), whose reforms in charity methods were felt through all the charitable interests of the state .

The See also:

• NET

net yearly cost of support and See also:

• RELIEF

relief from 1884 to 1904 averaged $2,136,653, exclusive of See also:

• VAGRANCY (formed from " vagrant," wandering, unsettled; this word appears in Anglo-Fr. as wakerant and O.Fr. as wancrant, and is probably of Teut. origin, cf. M.L.G. welkern, to walk about; it is allied to Eng. " walk," and is not to be directly referred

vagrancy cases (average $31,714) . The whole number of paupers, besides vagrants, in 1908 was 23.02 per moo of state population, and the cost of relief ($5,104,255) was $1.699 for each inhabitant of the state . The number of sane paupers declined steadily and markedly from 1863 to 1904 . See also:

• FINANCE

Finance.—Massachusetts is a very rich state, and Boston a very wealthy city . The See also:

• DEBT (Lat. debitum, a thing owed)

debt of the state (especially the contingent debt, secured by sinking funds) has been steadily rising since 1888, and especially since 1896, chiefly owing to the erection of important public buildings, the construction of state highways and metropolitan park roadways, the improvement of Boston harbour, the abolition of grade crossings on railways, and the expenses incurred for the Spanish-American War of 1898 . The net direct funded debt (also secured by accumulating sinking funds) in See also:

• DECEMBER (Lat. decent, ten)

December 1908 was $17,669,372 (3.61 millions in 1893) . The average interest on this and the contingent debt ($60,428,223 in December 1908) combined was only 3.35 % . The net debts of towns and cities See also:

• ROSE
• ROSE (Rosa)
• ROSE, GEORGE (1744-1818)
• ROSE, HUGH JAMES (1795—1838)
• ROSE, WILLIAM STEWART (1775-1843)

rose in the years 1885–1908 from $63,306,213 to $163,558,325 . The county debts in 1908 aggregated $6,076,867 . The assessed valuation of realty in the state in 1908 was $2,799,062,707 and of personalty $I,775,073,438 . No other state has given so vigorous a test of the See also:

• ORDINARY (med. Lat. ordinarius, Fr. ordinaire)

ordinary American general-property tax, and the results have been as discouraging as elsewhere . The " dooming " See also:

• PROCESS

process (i.e. estimation by assessors, without relief for over-valuation except for excess more than 50 % above the proper valuation) was introduced in 1868 as a method of securing returns of personalty .

But the most rigorous application of the doomage law has only proved its complete futility as an effort to reach unascertained corporate and personal property.' Various special 2 In 1869 the personalty valuation was 60 % that of realty; but it steadily See also:

• FELL
• FELL, JOHN (1625-1686)

fell thereafter, amounting in 1893 to 32 % . From 1874– methods are used for the See also:

• TAXATION
• TAXATION (from " tax," derived, through the French, from Lat. taxare, to appraise, which again is connected with the same root as tangere, to touch)

taxation of banks, insurance companies, railways, tramways, See also:

• TRUST

trust companies and corporations, some of them noteworthy . In the case of corporations realty and machinery are taxed generally by the local authorities, and stock values by the commonwealth . The Boston stock See also:

• EXCHANGE

exchange is the second of the country in the extent of the securities in which it deals . The proportion of holders of U.S. bonds among the total population is higher than that in any other state . History.—It is possible that the coasts of Massachusetts were visited by the Northmen, and by the earliest navigators who followed See also:

• CABOT, GEORGE (1751–1823)
• CABOT, JOHN [GIOVANNI CABOTO] (1450-1498)

Cabot, but this is only conjecture . In 1602 See also:

• BARTHOLOMEW, JOHN (1831-1893)
• BARTHOLOMEW, SAINT

Bartholomew See also:

• GOSNOLD, BARTHOLOMEW (d. 1607)

Gosnold landed at and named Cape Cod and coasted as far south as the present No-See also:

• MAN
• MAN, ISLE OF (anc. Mona)

Man's Land, which he named See also:

• MARTIN (Martinus)
• MARTIN, BON LOUIS HENRI (1810-1883)
• MARTIN, CLAUD (1735-1800)
• MARTIN, FRANCOIS XAVIER (1762-1846)
• MARTIN, HOMER DODGE (1836-1897)
• MARTIN, JOHN (1789-1854)
• MARTIN, LUTHER (1748-1826)
• MARTIN, SIR THEODORE (1816-1909)
• MARTIN, SIR WILLIAM FANSHAWE (1801–1895)
• MARTIN, ST (c. 316-400)
• MARTIN, WILLIAM (1767-1810)

Martin's or Martha's Vineyard, a name later transferred to a neighbouring larger island . Pring and See also:

• CHAMPLAIN
• CHAMPLAIN, SAMUEL DE (1567-1635)

Champlain at a later date coasted along what is now Massachusetts, but the See also:

• MAP
• MAP (or MAPES), WALTER (d. c. 1208/9)

map of Champlain is hardly recognizable . The first sufficient explorations for cartographical See also:

• RECORD (Lat. recordari, to recall to mind, from cor, heart or mind)

record were made by See also:

• JOHN
• JOHN (1167–1216)
• JOHN (1290-c. 1320)
• JOHN (1296-1346)
• JOHN (1371–1419)
• JOHN (1468-1532)
• JOHN (1801-1873)
• JOHN (Heb. llni')
• JOHN (ZAPOLYA) (1487-1540)
• JOHN, 4TH MARQUESS OF TWEEDDALE (c. 1695-1762)
• JOHN, DON (1545-1578)
• JOHN, DON (1629–1679)
• JOHN, GOSPEL OF ST
• JOHN, or HAYS (1513–1571)
• JOHN, THE APOSTLE
• JOHN, THE EPISTLES OF

John Smith in 1614, and his map was long the basis—particularly in its nomenclature—of later maps . Permanency of occupation, however, See also:

• DATES

dates from the voyage of the " See also:

• MAYFLOWER

Mayflower," which brought about a hundred men, women and children who had mostly belonged to an English See also:

• SECT

sect of Separatists, originating in See also:

• YORKSHIRE

Yorkshire, but who had passed a period of See also:

• EXILE (Lat. exsilium or exilium, from exsul or exul, which is derived from ex, out of, and the root sal, to go, seen in salire, to leap, consul, &c.; the connexion with solum, soil, country is now generally considered wrong)

exile for religion's See also:

• SAKE

sake in See also:

• HOLLAND
• HOLLAND, CHARLES (1733–1769)
• HOLLAND, COUNTY AND PROVINCE OF
• HOLLAND, HENRY FOX, 1ST BARON (1705–1774)
• HOLLAND, HENRY RICH, 1ST EARL OF (1S9o-,649)
• HOLLAND, HENRY RICHARD VASSALL FOX, 3RD
• HOLLAND, JOSIAH GILBERT (1819-1881)
• HOLLAND, PHILEMON (1552-1637)
• HOLLAND, RICHARD, or RICHARD DE HOLANDE (fl. 1450)
• HOLLAND, SIR HENRY, BART

Holland . In the early winter of '62o they made the coast of Cape Cod; they had intended to make their landing farther south, within the See also:

• JURISDICTION
• JURISDICTION, CRIMINAL LAW, DIVORCE

jurisdiction of the See also:

• VIRGINIA
• VIRGINIA, or VERGINIA
• VIRGINIA, UNIVERSITY OF

Virginia Company, which had granted them a patent; but stress of weather prevented their doing so . Finding themselves without See also:

• WARRANT (Med. Lat. warantum; O. Fr. garant, warant, derived from O.H.G. root represented in modern German bygewdhren)

warrant in a region beyond their patent, and threatened with the desertion of disaffected members of their company (probably all servants or men of the " lesser " sort) unless concessions were made to these, they See also:

• DREW
• DREW, SAMUEL (1765-1833)

drew up and signed before landing a democratic compact of government which is accounted the earliest written constitution in history.' After some exploration of the coast they made a permanent landing on the 21st .of December 162o (N.S.) at Plymouth, a harbour which had already been so named by John Smith in his maps of 1614 and 1616 .

During the first winter nearly one-half their number died from exposure, and the relations of the survivors with their partners of the London Company, who had insisted that for seven years the plantation should be managed as a See also:

• JOINT (through Fr. from Lat. junctum, jungere, to join)

joint stock company, were unsatisfactory . However, about See also:

• THIRTY

thirty-five new colonists arrived in 1622 and ninety-six more in 1623 . The See also:

• ABANDONMENT (Fr. abandonnement, from abandonner, to abandon, relinquish; abandonner was originally equivalent to mettred banddn, to leave to the jurisdiction, i.e. of another, bandon being from Low Latin bandum, bannum, order, decree, " ban ")

abandonment of the communal system was begun in the latter year, and with the See also:

• DISSOLUTION (from Lat. dissolvere, to break up into parts)

dissolution of the partner-ship with the adventurers of the London Company in 1627 Plymouth became a corporate colony with its chief authority vested in the whole body of freemen convened in the General Court . Upon the death of the first governor, John See also:

• CARVER, JOHN (x575?-1621)
• CARVER, JONATHAN (c. 1725-1780)

Carver, in the spring of 1621, the General Court See also:

• CHOSE (Fr. for " thing ")

chose William See also:

• BRADFORD
• BRADFORD, JOHN (1510?—1555)
• BRADFORD, WILLIAM (1590—1657)
• BRADFORD, WILLIAM (1663—1752)
• BRADFORD, WILLIAM (1827—1892)

Bradford as his successor, and with him was chosen one assistant: The subsequent elections were annual, and within a few years the number of assistants was increased to seven . The General Court was the legislature and the electorate; the governor and assistants were the executive and the judiciary . The whole body of freemen composed the General Court until other towns than Plymouth had been organized, the first of which were Scituate in '636 and See also:

• DUXBURY

Duxbury in 1637, and then the representative form of government was adopted and there was a See also:

• GRADUAL (Med. Lat. gradualis, of or belonging to steps or degrees; gradus, step)

gradual differentiation between Plymouth the town and Plymouth the 1882 the assessment of realty increased nearly twelve times as much as personalty . In the intervening period the assessed valuation of realty in Boston increased more than t00%, while that of personalty slightly diminished (the corresponding figures for the entire United States from 186o to 1890 being '72% and '2%), yet the most competent business and See also:

• EXPERT (Lat. expertus, from experiri, to try)

expert opinions regarded the true value of personalty as at least equal to and most likely twice as great as that of realty . ' In this document, whose democracy is characteristic of See also:

• DIFFERENCES, CALCULUS OF (Theory of Finite Differences)

differences between the Plymouth Colony and that of Massachusetts Bay, the signatories " solemnly and mutually . . . See also:

• COVENANT
• COVENANT (an O. Fr. form, later convenant, from convenir, to agree, Lat. convenire)

covenant and combine ourselves together into a civil body politic, for our better ordering and preservation and furtherance of the ends aforesaid; and by virtue hereof to enact, constitute and See also:

• FRAME

frame—[laws]—unto which we promise all due submission and obedience." This was signed 11/21 of See also:

• NOVEMBER (Lat. novem, nine)

November '62o by 41 persons.colony . When it had become known that the colony was within the territory of the New England Council, John See also:

• PIERCE, FRANKLIN (1804—1869)

Pierce, in 1621, procured from that body a grant which made the colonists its tenants . A year later Pierce surrendered this and procured another, which in effect made him proprietor of the colony, but he was twice shipwrecked and was forced to assign to the adventurers his second patent . In 1629 Governor Bradford procured from the same council a definite grant of the See also:

• TRACT (from Lat. tractare, to treat of a matter, through Provencal tractat and Ital. trattato)

tract which corresponds to the south-eastern portion of the present state .

But all attempts to procure a royal See also:

• CHARTER (Lat. charta, carta, from Gr. Xap-rns, originally for papyrus, material for writing, thence transferred to paper and from this material to the document, in O. Eng. boc, book)

charter for Plymouth Colony were unsuccessful, and in 1691 it was annexed to the Colony of Massachusetts Bay under what is termed the Provincial Charter . See also:

• KING
• KING (O. Eng. cyning, abbreviated into cyng, cing; cf. O. H. G. chun- kuning, chun- kunig, M.H.G. kiinic, kiinec, kiinc, Mod. Ger. Konig, O. Norse konungr, kongr, Swed. konung, kung)
• KING [OF OCKHAM], PETER KING, 1ST BARON (1669-1734)
• KING, CHARLES WILLIAM (1818-1888)
• KING, CLARENCE (1842–1901)
• KING, EDWARD (1612–1637)
• KING, EDWARD (1829–1910)
• KING, HENRY (1591-1669)
• KING, RUFUS (1755–1827)
• KING, THOMAS (1730–1805)
• KING, WILLIAM (1650-1729)
• KING, WILLIAM (1663–1712)

King See also:

• JAMES
• JAMES (Gr. 'IlrKw,l3or, the Heb. Ya`akob or Jacob)
• JAMES (JAMES FRANCIS EDWARD STUART) (1688-1766)
• JAMES, 2ND EARL OF DOUGLAS AND MAR(c. 1358–1388)
• JAMES, DAVID (1839-1893)
• JAMES, EPISTLE OF
• JAMES, GEORGE PAYNE RAINSFOP
• JAMES, HENRY (1843— )
• JAMES, JOHN ANGELL (1785-1859)
• JAMES, THOMAS (c. 1573–1629)
• JAMES, WILLIAM (1842–1910)
• JAMES, WILLIAM (d. 1827)

James having by patent in 162o created a Council for New England to whom he made a large grant of territory, the council in 1628 made a sub-grant, confirmed by a royal charter that passed the See also:

• SEALS

seals on the 4th of March 1629, to the "Governor and Company of the Massachusetts Bay in Newe England." There had been various minor expeditions during the few years since Smith was on the coast before this company, in the Puritan interests, had sent over John See also:

• ENDECOTT, JOHN (c. 1588-1665)

Endecott with a party in 1628 to what is now Salem . In 1630 the government of the company, with questionable right (for the charter seems evidently to have contemplated the residence of the company in England), transferred itself to their territory, and under the leadership of John See also:

• WINTHROP
• WINTHROP, JOHN (1588-1649)
• WINTHROP, JOHN (1606-1676)
• WINTHROP, ROBERT CHARLES (1809-1894)

Winthrop laid the See also:

• FOUNDATIONS

foundations anew of the Massachusetts colony, when they first settled Boston in the autumn of that year . Winthrop served repeatedly, though not continuously, as governor of the colony till his death in 1649, his rejection in 1636 being due to a party of theological revolt which chose See also:

• HENRY
• HENRY (1129-1195)
• HENRY (c. 1108-1139)
• HENRY (c. 1174–1216)
• HENRY (Fr. Henri; Span. Enrique; Ger. Heinrich; Mid. H. Ger. Heinrich and Heimrich; O.H.G. Haimi- or Heimirih, i.e. " prince, or chief of the house," from O.H.G. heim, the Eng. home, and rih, Goth. reiks; compare Lat. rex " king "—" rich," therefore " mig
• HENRY, EDWARD LAMSON (1841– )
• HENRY, JAMES (1798-1876)
• HENRY, JOSEPH (1797-1878)
• HENRY, MATTHEW (1662-1714)
• HENRY, PATRICK (1736–1799)
• HENRY, PRINCE OF BATTENBERG (1858-1896)
• HENRY, ROBERT (1718-1790)
• HENRY, VICTOR (1850– )
• HENRY, WILLIAM (1795-1836)

Henry See also:

• VANE (formerly spelt " fane," i.e. pennon, flag; cf. Ger. Feline, Du. vaan, Fr. girouette, Ital. banderuola, Ger. Wellerfahne)
• VANE, SIR HENRY (1589-1654)
• VANE, SIR HENRY (1613-1662)

Vane (afterwards See also:

• SIR

Sir Henry) to the office . This was an incident in a famous See also:

• EPISODE

episode, important rather as a symptom than in itself, namely, the Antinomian controversy, " New England's earliest protest against form'alas," in which Vane and Ann See also:

• HUTCHINSON
• HUTCHINSON, ANNE (c. 1600-1643)
• HUTCHINSON, JOHN (1615-1664)
• HUTCHINSON, JOHN (1674-1737)
• HUTCHINSON, SIR JONATHAN (1828– )
• HUTCHINSON, THOMAS (1711-1780)

Hutchinson took the See also:

• LEAD
• LEAD (pronounced iced)

lead in criticizing the See also:

• OFFICIAL (Late Lat. QJicialis, for class. Lat. apparitor, from officium, office, duty)

official orthodoxy of the colony . The magistrates successfully asserted themselves to the discomfiture of their critics (Ann Hutchinson being banished), and this was characteristic of the colony's early history . The charter gave the company control over the See also:

• ADMISSION

admission of " free-men " (co-partners in the enterprise, and voters), " full and See also:

• ABSOLUTE (Lat. absolvere, to loose, set free)

absolute power and authority to correct, punish and See also:

• RULE

rule " subjects settling in the territory comprised in their grant, and power to " resist . . . by all fitting ways and means whatever " all persons attempting the "destruction, invasion, detriment or annoyance " of the plantation . Some writers deny the company's right under this See also:

• INSTRUMENT (Lat. instrumentum, from insincere, to build up, furnish, arrange, prepare)

instrument to rule as they proceeded to do; but at any rate what they did was to make the suffrage dependent on stringent religious tests, and to repress with determined zeal all theological " vagaries " and " whimsies." See also:

• CRITICISM
• CRITICISM (from the Gr. KpiTrlS, a judge, Kpivew, to decide, to give an authoritative opinion)

Criticism of church or magistrates was not tolerated . Laws were modelled closely on the See also:

• BIBLE
• BIBLE, ENGLISH

Bible . The See also:

• CLERGY (M.E. clergie, O. Fr. clergie, from Low Lat. form clericia [Skean, by assimilation with O. Fr. clergie, Fr. clerge,from Low Lat. clericatus)
• CLERGY, BENEFIT OF

clergy were a ruling class . The government was frankly theocratic .

Said Winthrop (1637): " We see not that any should have authority to set up any other exercises besides what authority See also:

• BATH
• BATH, THOMAS THYNNE
• BATH, WILLIAM

bath already set up "; and a See also:

• SYNOD
• SYNOD (Gr. vbvobos)

synod at Cambridge in 1637 catalogued eighty-two " opinions, some blasphemous, others erroneous and all unsafe," besides nine " unwholesome expressions," all of which were consigned " to the See also:

• DEVIL (Gr. &a,3oXos, " slanderer," from &ctflisXX sty, to slander)

devil of See also:

• HELL (0. Eng. hel, a Teutonic word from a root meaning " to cover," cf. Ger. Holle, Dutch hel)

hell from whence they came." Another synod at Cambridge in 1647 more formally established the principle of state control . The legislation against Baptists (about 2644-1678) and the persecution of the See also:

• QUAKERS

Quakers (especially 1656-1662) partook of the brutality of the time, including scourging, See also:

• BORING

boring of See also:

• TONGUES, GIFT OF, or GLOSSOLALIA (yXwova, tongue, aXeiv, speak)

tongues, cutting of ears and in rare cases capital See also:

• PUNISHMENT (from Lat. punire, to punish, from poena, punishment, Gr. 7rocvil)

punishment . It cannot be denied that men like See also:

• ROGER (d. 1139)
• ROGER (d. 1181)

Roger Williams and some of the persecuted Quakers, though undeniably contentious and aggressive in their conscientious dissent, showed a spirit which to-day seems sweeter in tolerance and humanity than that of the See also:

• PURI, or JAGANNATH

Puri-tans . And it seems necessary to emphasize these facts because until about 187o it was almost unchallenged tradition to regard the men of Massachusetts Bay as seekers and champions of " religious liberty." They left ,England, indeed, for liberty to discard the " poperies " of the English Church, and once in Massachusetts they even discarded far more than those " poperies." But religious liberty in our modern sense they did not seek for themselves, nor See also:

• ACCORD (from Fr. accorder, to agree)

accord to others; they abhorred it, they trampled on it, and their own lives they subjected to all the rigid restrictions to which they subjected others . They were narrow but strong; no better example can be imagined of what the French call " the defects of one's qualities." Their failures were small compared with those of their contemporaries in England and elsewhere in Europe, and public opinion did not long sustain violent persecution of opinion . More than once mobs freed Quaker prisoners . Also it is to be said that with the single exception of religious toleration the record of the state in devotion to human rights has been from the first a splendid one, whether in human principles of criminal law, or in the See also:

• DEFENCE
• DEFENCE (Lat. defendere, to defend)

defence of the civil rights commonly declared in American constitutions . It was once generally assumed that the repression practised attained its end of securing harmony of opinion . The fact seems to be that intellectual See also:

• SPECULATION

speculation was as strong in America as in Puritan England; the See also:

• ASSUMPTION, FEAST OF

assumption that the See also:

• INHIBITION (from Lat. inhibere, to restrain, prevent)

inhibition of its expression was good seems wholly gratuitous, and contrary to general convictions underlying modern freedom of speech . A safer opinion is probably that " the spiritual growth of Massachusetts withered under the See also:

• SHADOW (0. Eng. Schadewe, sceadu; a form of " shade "; connected with Gr. 6-Ore's, darkness)

shadow of dominant orthodoxy; the colony was only saved from See also:

• MENTAL

mental See also:

• ATROPHY (Gr. It- priv., rpo4, nourishment)

atrophy by its vigorous See also:

• POLITICAL

political life " (J . A . See also:

• DOYLE, JOHN ANDREW (1844-1907)
• DOYLE, RICHARD (1824-1883)
• DOYLE, SIR ARTHUR CONAN (1859- )
• DOYLE, SIR FRANCIS HASTINGS CHARLES

Doyle) .

In literature the second half of the 17th century is a sterile See also:

• WASTE (O. Fr. wast, guast, gast, gaste; Lat. vastus, vast, desolate)

waste of forbidding theology; and its life, judged by the present day, singularly sombre . In addition to the few persons banished to Rhode Island, theological and political differences led many to emigrate thither . Others, discontented with Massachusetts See also:

• AUTOCRACY (Gr. abroepareca, absolute power)

autocracy and wishing, too, " to secure more See also:

• ROOM

room," went to Connecticut (q.v.) where they established a See also:

• BULWARK (a word probably of Scandinavian origin, from bol or bole, a tree-trunk, and werk, work, in Ger. Bollwerk, which has also been derived from an old German bolen, to throw, and so a machine for throwing missiles)

bulwark against the Dutch of New York . A See also:

• WITCHCRAFT

witchcraft scare (at its worst in 1691–1697, though the earliest Connecticut case was in 1646–1647 and the earliest in Boston in 1648) led to another tragedy of See also:

• IGNORANCE (Lat. ignorantia, from ignorare, not to know); want of knowledge, a state of mind which in law has important consequences. A well-known legal maxim runs: ignorantia juris non excusat ("ignorance of the law does not excuse")

ignorance . In all thirty-two persons were executed (according to W . F . See also:

• POOLE
• POOLE, MATTHEW (1624-1699)
• POOLE, PAUL FALCONER (1806-1879)
• POOLE, REGINALD STUART (1832-1895)

Poole, about a thousandth part of those executed for witchcraft in the British Isles in the 16th and 17th centuries) . Salem was the See also:

• SCENE (Fr. scene, Lat. scaena, Gr. oflvil, a tent or booth, a stage or scene)

scene of the greatest excitement in 1691–1692 . Exceptionally honourable to the early colonists was their aevotion to education (see HARVARD UNIVERSITY and BOSTON) . Massachusetts Bay had a large learned element; it is supposed that about 1640 there was an See also:

• OXFORD
• OXFORD, EARLS OF
• OXFORD, EDWARD DE VERE, 17TH EARL
• OXFORD, JOHN DE VERE, 13TH EARL OF (1443-1513)
• OXFORD, PROVISIONS OF
• OXFORD, ROBERT DE VERE, 9TH EARL OF (1362-1392)
• OXFORD, ROBERT HARLEY, 1ST

Oxford or Cambridge graduate to every 250 persons in the colony . The earliest printing in the British-American colonies was done at Cambridge in 1639; it was not until 1674 that the authorities of the colony permitted printing, except at Cambridge . Boston and See also:

• CAM (CAO), DIOGO (fl. 1480-1486)

Cam-bridge remain leading publishing centres to-day .

The first regular newspaper of Boston, the Boston Newsletter, was the See also:

• PIONEER

pioneer of the American newspaper See also:

• PRESS (through Fr. presse from Lat. pressare, frequentative of premere, to crush, squeeze, press)

press . The early history was rendered unquiet at times by See also:

• WARS

wars with the Indians, the chief of which were the Pequot War in 1637, and King See also:

• PHILIP
• PHILIP (Gr.'FiXtrsro , fond of horses, from dn)^eiv, to love, and limos, horse; Lat. Philip pus, whence e.g. M. H. Ger. Philippes, Dutch Filips, and, with dropping of the final s, It. Filippo, Fr. Philippe, Ger. Philipp, Sp. Felipe)
• PHILIP, JOHN (1775-1851)
• PHILIP, KING (c. 1639-1676)
• PHILIP, LANOGRAVE OF HESSE (1504-1567)

Philip's War in 1675–76 ; and for better combining against these enemies, Massachusetts, with Connecticut, New Haven and New Plymouth, formed a confederacy in 1643, considered the prototype of the larger union of the colonies which conducted the War of American Independence (1775–83) . The struggle with the See also:

• CROWN

Crown, which ended in independence, began at the See also:

• FOUNDATION (Lat. fundatio, from fundare, to found)

foundation of the colony, with assumptions of power under the charter which the colonial government was always trying to maintain, and the crown was as assiduously endeavouring to counteract . After more than half a century of struggle, the crown finally annulled the charter of the colony in 1684, though not until 1686 was the old government actually supplanted on the arrival of See also:

• JOSEPH
• JOSEPH, COMTE DE (1785-1870)
• JOSEPH, FATHER (FRANCOIS LECLERC DU TREMBLAY) (1577-1638)

Joseph See also:

• DUDLEY
• DUDLEY, BARONS AND EARLS OF
• DUDLEY, EDMUND (c. 1462—1510)
• DUDLEY, SIR ROBERT (1573—1649)
• DUDLEY, THOMAS (1576-1653)

Dudley, a native of the colony, as See also:

• PRESIDENT (Fr. president, from Lat. praesidens, post-Augustan Lat. for praeses, director, ruler, from praesidere, to sit in front of, preside)

president of a provisional council; later, Sir See also:

• EDMUND
• EDMUND, or EADMUND (c. 980-1016)
• EDMUND, SAINT [EDMUND RICE] (d. 1240)

Edmund See also:

• ANDROS, or ANDRO
• ANDROS, SIR EDMUND (1637-1714)

Andros was sent. over with a commission to unite New York and New England under his rule . The colonists had been for many years almost See also:

• INDEPENDENT

independent ; they made their own laws, the Crown appointed natives as officials, and the colonial See also:

• INTERPRETATION (from Lat. interpretari, to expound, explain, inter pres, an agent, go-between, interpreter; inter, between, and the root pret-, possibly connected with that seen either in Greek 4 p4'ew, to speak, or irpa-rrecv, to do)

interpretation of the old charter had in general been allowed to stand . Massachusetts had excluded the English Book of Common See also:

• PRAYER (from Lat. precari, entreat; Ital. pregaria, Fr. priere)
• PRAYER, BOOK OF COMMON

Prayer, she had restrictedthe franchise, laid the death penalty ,on religious opinions, and passed various other laws repugnant to the Crown, notably to See also:

• CHARLES
• CHARLES (1270-1325)
• CHARLES (1421-1461)
• CHARLES (1525-1574)
• CHARLES (c. 1319-1364)
• CHARLES (Fr. Charles; Span. Carlos; Ital. Carlo; Ger. Karl; derived from O.H.G. Charal,latinized as Carolus, meaning originally " man ": cf. Mod.Ger., Kerl," fellow," A.S. ceorl, Mod. Eng. " churl ")
• CHARLES (KARL EITEL ZEPHYRIN LUDWIG; in Rum. CAROL)
• CHARLES [KARL ALEXANDER] (1712-1780)
• CHARLES, ELIZABETH (1828-1896)
• CHARLES, JACQUES ALEXANDRE CESAR (1746-1823)
• CHARLES, THOMAS (1755-1814)

Charles II. and James II.; she had caused laws and writs to run in her own name, she had neglected to exact the See also:

• OATH (0. Eng. ddh)

oath of allegiance to the sovereign, though carefully exacting an oath of fidelity to her own government, she had protected the regicides, she had coined money with her own See also:

• SEAL
• SEAL, FUR
• SEAL, HAIR

seal, she had blocked legal appeals to the English courts, she had not compelled the observance of the navigation acts . The revocation of the charter aroused the strongest fears of the colonists Andros speedily met determined opposition by measures under-taken relative to taxation and land titles, by efforts to secure a church for Episcopal service, and an attempt to curb the town meetings . His government was supported by a small party (largely an See also:

• ANGLICAN

Anglican Church party), but was intensely unpopular with the bulk of the See also:

• PEOPLE

people; and—it is a disputed question, whether before or after See also:

• NEWS

news arrived of the landing in England of William of See also:

• ORANGE
• ORANGE (Citrus Aurantium)
• ORANGE, HOUSE OF

Orange—in April 1689 the citizens of Boston rose in revolution, deposed Andros, imprisoned him and re-established their old colonial form of government . Then came a struggle, carried on in England by Increase See also:

• MATHER, COTTON (1663-1728)
• MATHER, INCREASE (1639-1723)
• MATHER, RICHARD (1596-1668)

Mather as agent (1688–1692) of the colony, to secure such a form of government under a new charter as would preserve as many as possible of their old liberties . Plymouth Colony, acting through its agent in London, endeavoured to secure a separate existence by royal charter, but accepted finally union with Massachusetts when association with New York became the probable alter-native . The See also:

• PROVINCE
• PROVINCE (Lat. provincia; perhaps a contraction of providentia)

province of Maine was also united in the new provincial charter of 1691, and Sir William Phips came over with it, commissioned as the first royal governor . As has been mentioned already, the new charter softened religious tests for office and the suffrage, and accorded " liberty of See also:

• CONSCIENCE (Lat. con-scientia, literally " knowledge of a thing shared with another person " or " complete knowledge," and derivatively " consciousness in general)
• CONSCIENCE, HENDRIK (1812-1883)

conscience " except to Roman Catholics .

The old religious exclusiveness had already been greatly lessened: the clergy were less powerful, See also:

• HERESY

heresy had thrived under repression, Anglican churchmen had come to the colony and were See also:

• BORNE, KARL LUDWIG (1786–1837)

borne with perforce, devotion to trade and commerce had weakened theological tests in favour of ideals of See also:

• MERE
• MERE, ADALBERT (1838-1909)

mere good order and prosperity, and a spirit of toleration had grown . Throughout the continuance of the government under the provincial charter, there was a See also:

• CONSTANT, BENJAMIN (1845-1902)

constant struggle between a See also:

• PREROGATIVE

prerogative party, headed by the royal governor, and a popular party who cherished recollections of their See also:

• PRACTICAL

practical independence under the colonial charter, and who were See also:

• NURSING

nursing the sentiments which finally took the form of resistance in 1775 . The inter-charter period, 1686–1691, is of great importance in this connexion . The popular See also:

• MAJORITY (Fr. majorite; Med. Lat. majoritas; Lat. major, greater)

majority kept up the feeling of hostility to the royal authority in recurrent combats in the legislative See also:

• ASSEMBLY, UNLAWFUL

assembly over the See also:

• SALARY

salary to be voted to the governor; though these antagonisms were from time to time forgotten in the wars with the French and Indians . During the See also:

• EARL

earl of Bellomont's administration, New York was again united with Massachusetts under the same executive (1697–1701) . The scenes of the recurrent wars were mostly distant from Massachusetts proper, either in Maine or on Canadian or See also:

• ACADIAN

Acadian territory, although some See also:

• SAVAGE
• SAVAGE, MINOT JUDSON (1841– )
• SAVAGE, RICHARD (d. 1743)

savage inroads of the Indians were now and then made on the exposed frontier towns, as, for instance, upon Deerfield in 1704 and upon Haverhill in 1708 . Phips, who had succeeded in an attack on Port Royal, had ignominiously failed when he led the Massachusetts fleet against See also:

• QUEBEC

Quebec in 169o; and the later expedition of 1711 was no less a failure . The most See also:

• NOTE
• NOTE (Lat. nota, mark, sign, from noscere, to know)

note-worthy administration was that of William See also:

• SHIRLEY (or SHERLEY), JAMES (1596-1666)
• SHIRLEY (or SHERLEY), SIR ANTHONY (1565-c. 1635)
• SHIRLEY, WILLIAM (1694-1771)

Shirley (1741–1749 and 1753–1756), who at one time was the commanding officer of the British forces in North America . He made a brilliant success of the expedition against See also:

• LOUISBURG

Louisburg in 1745, William Pepperell, a Maine officer, being in immediate command . Shirley with Massachusetts troops also took part in the See also:

• OSWEGO

Oswego expedition of 1755; and Massachusetts proposed, and See also:

• LENT (0. Eng. lenclen, " spring," M. Eng. lenten, lente, lent; cf. Dut. lente, Ger. Lenz, " spring," 0. H. Ger. lenzin, lengizin, lenzo, probably from the same root as " long " and referring to " the lengthening days ")

lent the chief assistance in the expedition of Nova See also:

• SCOTIA (Gr. o'Karca, shadow or darkness)

Scotia in 1755 which ended in the removal of the Acadians . Her officers and troops also played an important part in the Crown Point and second Louisburg expedition (1758) . The first decided protests against the exercise of sovereign power by the crown, the first general moral and political revolt that marked the approach of the American War of Independence, took place in Massachusetts; so that the most striking events in the general history of the colonies as a whole from 1760 to 1975 are an intimate part of her See also:

• ANNALS (Annales, from annus, a year)

annals .

The beginning of the active opposition to the crown may be placed in the resistance, led by James See also:

• OTIS, HARRISON GRAY (1765-1848)
• OTIS, JAMES (1725–1783)

Otis, to the issuing of writs (after 1752, Otis's famous See also:

• ARGUMENT

argument against them being made in 176o-1761) to compel citizens to assist the See also:

• REVENUE
• REVENUE (0. Fr. revenu, from revenir, to return)

revenue officers; followed later by the outburst of feeling at the See also:

• IMPOSITION (from Lat. imponere, to place or lay upon)

imposition of the See also:

• STAMP (from " to stamp," to strike or tread heavily, hence to impress, O. Eng. stempen, Du. stampen, Ger. stampfen, whence, O. Fr. estamper, mod. etamper)

Stamp Act (1765), when Massachusetts took the lead in confronting the royal power . The See also:

• GOVERNORS

governors put in office at this time by the crown were not of conciliatory temperaments, and the measures instituted in parliament (see UNITED STATES) served to increase bitterness of feeling . Royal troops sent to Boston (several regiments, 1768) irritated the populace, who were highly excited at the time, until in an outbreak on the 5th of March 1770 a See also:

• FILE

file of See also:

• GARRISON
• GARRISON, WILLIAM LLOYD (1805-1879)

garrison troops shot down in self-defence a few citizens in a See also:

• CROWD, CROUTH, CROWTH

crowd which assailed them . This is known as the " Boston See also:

• MASSACRE

Massacre." The merchants combined to prevent the importation of goods which by law would yield the crown a revenue; and the patriots—as the See also:

• ANTI, or CAMPA

anti-prerogative party called themselves—under the lead of Samuel Adams, instituted regular communication between the different towns, and after-wards, following the initiative of Virginia, with the other colonies, through " committees of See also:

• CORRESPONDENCE
• CORRESPONDENCE (from med. scholastic Lat. correspondentia, corrcspondere, compounded of Lat. cum, with, and respond ere, to answer; cf. Fr. correspondance)

correspondence "; a method of the utmost See also:

• ADVANTAGE

advantage thereafter in forcing on the revolution by intensifying and unifying the resistance of the colony, and by inducing the co-operation of other colonies . In 1793 (Dec . 16) a party of citizens, disguised as Indians and instigated by popular meetings, boarded some See also:

• TEA (Chinese cha, Amoy dialect t€)

tea-ships in the harbour of Boston, and to prevent the landing of their taxable cargoes threw them into the sea; this incident is known in history as the " Boston tea-party." Parliament in See also:

• RETALIATION

retaliation closed the port of Boston (1994), a proceeding which only aroused more See also:

• BITTER, KARL THEODORE FRANCIS (1867– )

bitter feeling in the country towns and enlisted the sympathy of the other colonies . The governorship was now given to General See also:

• THOMAS
• THOMAS (c. 1654-1720)
• THOMAS (d. 110o)
• THOMAS, ARTHUR GORING (1850-1892)
• THOMAS, CHARLES LOUIS AMBROISE (1811-1896)
• THOMAS, GEORGE (c. 1756-1802)
• THOMAS, GEORGE HENRY (1816-187o)
• THOMAS, ISAIAH (1749-1831)
• THOMAS, PIERRE (1634-1698)
• THOMAS, SIDNEY GILCHRIST (1850-1885)
• THOMAS, ST
• THOMAS, THEODORE (1835-1905)
• THOMAS, WILLIAM (d. 1554)

Thomas See also:

• GAGE
• GAGE, LYMAN JUDSON (1836– )
• GAGE, THOMAS (1721–1787)

Gage, who commanded the troops which had been sent to Boston . Everything foreboded an outbreak . Most of the families of the highest social position were averse to extreme measures; a large number were not won over and became expatriated See also:

• LOYALISTS

loyalists . The popular See also:

• AGITATORS, or ADJUTATORS

agitators, headed by Samuel Adams—with whom John See also:

• HANCOCK
• HANCOCK, JOHN (1737–1793)
• HANCOCK, WINFIELD SCOTT (1824-1886)

Hancock, an opulent See also:

• MERCHANT (O. Fr. marcheant, modern marchand; from Lat. mercari, to trade, merx, goods, merchandise)

merchant and one of the few of the richer people who deserted the crown, leagued himself—forced on the movement, which became war in April 1775, when Gage sent an expedition to Concord and Lexington to destroy military stores accumulated by the patriots and to See also:

• CAPTURE (from Lat. capere, to take; Fr. prise maritime; Ger. Wegnahme)

capture Adams and Hancock, temporarily staying at Lexington . This detachment, commanded by See also:

• LORD
• LORD (O. Eng. hldford, i.e. hldfweard, the warder or keeper of bread, hlIf, loaf; the word is not represented in any other Teutonic language)
• LORD, JOHN (1810-1894)

Lord See also:

• PERCY (FAMILY)
• PERCY, SIR HENRY
• PERCY, THOMAS (1729-1811)
• PERCY, THOMAS (c. 156o-16os)

Percy, was assaulted, and returned with heavy loss . The country towns now poured their militia into Cambridge, opposite Boston; troops came from neighbouring colonies, and Artemas See also:

• WARD
• WARD, ADOLPHUS WILLIAM (1837- )
• WARD, ARTEMUS
• WARD, EDWARD MATTHEW (1816-1879)
• WARD, ELIZABETH STUART PHELPS (1844-1911)
• WARD, JAMES (1769--1859)
• WARD, JAMES (1843– )
• WARD, JOHN QUINCY ADAMS (1830-1910)
• WARD, LESTER FRANK (1841– )
• WARD, MARY AUGUSTA [MRS HUMPHRY WARD]
• WARD, WILLIAM (1766-1826)
• WARD, WILLIAM GEORGE (1812-1882)

Ward, a Massachusetts general, was placed in command of the irregular force, which with See also:

• SUPERIOR

superior See also:

• NUMBERS, BOOK OF
• NUMBERS, PARTITION OF

numbers at once shut the_ royal See also:

• ARMY
• ARMY (from Fr. armee, Lat. armata)

army up in Boston .

An attempt of the provincials to seize and hold a commanding hill in Charles-town brought on the See also:

• BATTLE

battle of Bunker Hill (June 17, 1775), in which the provincials were driven from the ground, although they lost much less heavily than the royal troops . Washington, chosen by the See also:

• CONTINENTAL

Continental Congress to command the army, arrived in Cambridge in See also:

• JULY

July 1775, and stretching his lines around Boston, forced its evacuation in March 1776 . The state was not again the scene of any conflict during the war . Generals Henry See also:

• KNOX, HENRY (1750-1806)
• KNOX, JOHN (c. 1505–1572)
• KNOX, PHILANDER CHASE (1853– )

Knox and See also:

• BENJAMIN
• BENJAMIN, JUDAHPHILIP (1811-1884)

Benjamin Lincoln were the most distinguished officers contributed by the state to the revolutionary army . Out of an assessment at one time upon the states of $5,000,000 for the expenses of the war, Massachusetts was charged with $82o,000, the next highest being $800,000 for Virginia . Of the 231,791 troops sent by all the colonies into the field, reckoning by annual terms, Massachusetts sent 67,907, the next highest being 31,939 from Connecticut, Virginia furnishing only 26,678; and her proportion of sailors was very much greater still . In every See also:

• CAMPAIGN

campaign in every colony See also:

• SAVE, or SAVA (Ger. Sau; Hungarian Szdva; Lat. Savus)

save in 1779-8o her soldiery were in absolute, and still more in relative, number greater than those of any other colony . After the outbreak of the war a somewhat indefinite, heterogeneous provisional government was in power till a constitution was adopted in 1780, when John Hancock became the first governor . Governor James See also:

• BOWDOIN, JAMES (1726—1790)

Bowdoin in 1786-1787 put down with clemency an almost bloodless insurrection in the western counties (there was strong disaffection, however, as far east as Middlesex), known as the See also:

• SHAYS, DANIEL (1747–1825)

Shays See also:

• REBELLION

Rebellion, significant of the rife ideas of popular power, the economic See also:

• DISTRESS

distress, and the unsettled political conditions of the years of the See also:

• CONFEDERATION (Fr. confederation, Lat. confoederatio, from foedus, a league, foederare, to form a league)

Confederation . See also:

• DANIEL
• DANIEL (DANIL)
• DANIEL, BOOK
• DANIEL, GABRIEL (1649-1728)

Daniel Shays (1747-1825), the leader, was a brave Revolutionary See also:

• CAPTAIN (derived from Lat. ca put, head, through the Low Lat. capitanus)

captain of no special personal importance . The state debt was large, taxation was heavy, and industry was unsettled; worthless paper money was in circulation, yet some men demanded more; debtors were made desperate by See also:

• PROSECUTION

prosecution; the state government seemed weak, the Federal government contemptibly so; the local courts would not, or from intimidation feared to, punish the turbulent, and demagogues encouraged ideas of popular power . A See also:

• CONVENTION (Lat. conventio, an assembly or agreement, from convenire, to come together)
• CONVENTION, THE NATIONAL

convention of delegates representing the malcontents of numerous towns in Worcester county met at Worcester on the 15th of See also:

• AUGUST (originally Sextilis)

August 1786 to consider grievances, and a See also:

• WEEK (from A.S. wicu, Germanic *wikon, probably=change, turn)

week later a similar convention assembled at See also:

• HATFIELD

Hatfield, Hampshire county .

Encouraged by these and other conventions in order to obstruct the collection of debts and taxes, a See also:

• MOB

mob prevented a session of the Court of Common Pleas and General Sessions of the Peace at Northampton on the 29th of August, and in September other mobs prevented the same court from sitting in Worcester, Middlesex and Berkshire counties . About i 000 insurgents under Shays assembled at Springfield on the 26th of September to prevent the sitting there of the Supreme Court, from which they feared indictments . To protect the court and the national See also:

• ARSENAL

arsenal at Springfield, for which the Federal government was powerless to provide a guard, See also:

• MAJOR
• MAJOR (Lat. for " greater ")
• MAJOR (or MAIR), JOHN (1470-1550)

Major-General William Shepard (1737-1817) ordered out the militia, called for See also:

• VOLUNTEERS

volunteers, and supplied them with arms from the arsenal, and the court sat for three days . The Federal government now attempted to enlist recruits, ostensibly to protect the western frontier from the Indians, but actually for the suppression of the insurrection; but the See also:

• PLAN
• PLAN (from Lat. planes, flat)

plan failed from lack of funds, and the insurgents continued to interrupt the See also:

• PROCEDURE (Fr. procedure, from Lat. procedere, to go for-ward)

procedure of the courts . In See also:

• JANUARY

January 1787, however, Governor Bowdoin raised an army of 4400 men and placed it under the command of Major-General Benjamin Lincoln (1733-1810) . While Lincoln was at Worcester Shays planned to capture the arsenal at Springfield, but on the 25th of January Shepard's men fired upon Shays's followers, killing four and putting the See also:

• REST (O. Eng. rest, reste, bed, cognate with other Teutonic forms, e.g. Ger. Rast, Riiste, rest, and probably Gothic Rasta, league, i.e. resting or stopping place)

rest to See also:

• FLIGHT

flight . Lincoln pursued them to Petersham, Worcester county, where on the 4th of February he routed them and took 150 prisoners . Subsequently the insurgents gathered in small bands See also:

• ILL

ill Berkshire county; but here, a See also:

• LEAGUE

league having been formed to assist the government, 84 insurgents were captured at West See also:

• STOCKBRIDGE

Stockbridge, and the insurrection practically terminated in an action at See also:

• SHEFFIELD
• SHEFFIELD, JOHN BAKER HOLROYD, 1ST EARL

Sheffield on the 27th of February, in which the insurgents lost 2 killed and 30 wounded and the militia 2 killed and 1 wounded . Two of the insurgent leaders, Daniel Shays and See also:

• ELI (Hebrew for "high"? i Sam. chaps. i.-iv.)

Eli See also:

• PARSONS
• PARSONS (or PERSONS), ROBERT (1546-161o)
• PARSONS, THEOPHILUS (1750-1813)

Parsons, escaped to Vermont soon after the rout at Petersham . Fourteen other insurgents who were tried by the Supreme Court in the spring of 1787 were found guilty of See also:

• TREASON (Fr. trahison, Lat. traditio)

treason and sentenced to death . They were, however, held rather as hostages for the good behaviour of worse offenders who had escaped, and were pardoned in September . In February 1788 Shays and Parsons petitioned for See also:

• PARDON (through the Fr. from Late Lat. perdonare, to remit a debt or other obligation on a penalty)

pardon, and this was granted by the legislature in the following June .

The outcome of the uprising was an encouraging test of See also:

• LOYALTY

loyalty to the commonwealth; and the insurrection is regarded as having been very potent in preparing public opinion throughout the country for the See also:

• ADOPTION (Lat. adoptio, for adoptalio, from adoptare, to choose for oneself)

adoption of a stronger national government . The Federal Constitution was ratified by Massachusetts by only a small majority on the 6th of February 1788, after its rejection had been at one time imminent; but Massachusetts became a strong Federalist state . Indeed, the general interest of her history in the quarter-century after the adoption of the Constitution lies mainly in her connexion with the fortunes of that great political party . Her leading politicians were out of sympathy with the conduct of national affairs (in the conduct of foreign relations, the See also:

• DISTRIBUTION (Lat. distribuere, to deal out)

distribution of political See also:

• PATRON

patron-age, See also:

• NAVAL

naval policy, the question of public debt) from 1804—when See also:

• JEFFERSON
• JEFFERSON, JOSEPH (1829-1905)
• JEFFERSON, THOMAS (1743-1826)

Jefferson's party showed its complete supremacy—onward; and particularly after the passage of the Embargo Act of 1807, which caused great losses to Massachusetts commerce, and, so far from being accepted by her leaders as a proper See also:

• DIPLOMATIC

diplomatic weapon, seemed to them designed in the interests of the Democratic party . The Federalist preference for England over France was strong in Massachusetts, and her sentiment was against the war with England of 1812-15 . New England's discontent culminated in the See also:

• HARTFORD

Hartford Convention (Dec . '8'4), in which Massachusetts men predominated . The state, however, are her full part in the war, and much of its naval success was due to her sailors . During the interval till the outbreak of the Civil War in 1861, Massachusetts held a distinguished place in national life and politics . As a state she may justly be said to have been foremost in the struggle against See also:

• SLAVERY

slavery.' She opposed the policy that led to the Mexican War in '846, although a See also:

• REGIMENT (from Late Latin regimentum, rule, regere, to rule, govern, direct)

regiment was raised in Massachusetts by the personal exertions of See also:

• CALEB (Heb. keleb, " dog ")

Caleb See also:

• CUSHING, CALEB (1800-1879)
• CUSHING, WILLIAM BARKER (1842–1874)

Cushing . The leaders of the ultra non-political abolitionists (who opposed the formation of the Liberty party) were mainly Massachusetts men, notably W . L .

Garrison and Wendell Phillips . The Federalist domination had been succeeded by Whig rule in the state ; but after the death of the great Whig, Daniel See also:

• WEBSTER
• WEBSTER, ALEXANDER (1707-1784)
• WEBSTER, BENJAMIN NOTTINGHAM (1797-1882)
• WEBSTER, DANIEL (1782-1852)
• WEBSTER, JOHN (fl. 1602-1624)
• WEBSTER, NOAH (1758-1843)
• WEBSTER, THOMAS (1773-1844)
• WEBSTER, THOMAS (1800-1886)

Webster, in 1852, all parties disintegrated, re-aligning themselves gradually in an aggressive anti-slavery party and the temporizing Democratic party . First, for many years the Free-Soilers gained strength; then in '855 in an extraordinary party upheaval the Know-Nothings quite See also:

• BROKE, or BROOKE, ARTHUR (d. 1563)
• BROKE, SIR PHILIP BOWES VERE, BART

broke up Democratic, Free-Soil and Whig organizations; the Free-Soilers however captured the Know-Nothing organization and directed it to their own ends; and by their junction with the anti-slavery Whigs there was formed the Republican party . To this the original Free-Soilers contributed as leaders Charles See also:

• SUMNER, CHARLES (1811--1874)
• SUMNER, CHARLES RICHARD (1790-1874)
• SUMNER, EDWIN VOSE (1797-1863)
• SUMNER, JOHN BIRD (1780-1862)
• SUMNER, WILLIAM GRAHAM (1840-1910)

Sumner and C . F . Adams; the Know-Nothings, Henry Wilson and N . P . Banks; and later, the War Democrats, B . F . Butler—all men of mark in the history of the state . Charles Sumner, the most eminent exponent of the new party, was the state's senator in Congress (1851-1874) . The feelings which grew up, and the movements that were fostered till they rendered the Civil War inevitable, received something of the same impulse from Massachusetts which she had given a century before to the feelings and movements forerunning the War of American Independence .

When the war broke out it was her troops who first received hostile fire in See also:

• BALTIMORE
• BALTIMORE, GEORGE CALVERT, 1ST BARON (C. 1580—1632)

Baltimore, and turning their mechanical training to account opened the obstructed railroad to Washington . In the war thus begun she built, equipped and manned many vessels for the Federal See also:

• NAVY

navy, and furnished from 1861 to 1865 26,163 (or, including final credits, probably more than 30,000) men for the navy . During the war all but twelve small townships raised troops in excess of every call, the excess throughout the state amounting in all to more than '5,000 men; while the total recruits to the Federal army (including re-enlistments) numbered, according to the See also:

• ADJUTANT (from Lat. adjutare, to aid)

adjutant-general of the state, 159,165 men, of which less than 7000 were raised by draft ? The state, as such, and the townships spent ' Slavery had existed as a social fact from the earliest years, and legally after 1641; but it was never profitable, and was virtually abolished long before the War of American Independence; still it was never abolished explicitly by Massachusetts, though the slave trade was prohibited in '788, and though a number of negroes were declared free after the adoption of the constitution of 1780 on the strength of the sweeping declaration of human rights in that instrument . s According to the final report of the U.S . Adjutant-General in 1885, the enlistments were 146,730 men, of whom 13,942 died in$42,605,517.19 in the war; and private contributions of citizens are reckoned in addition at about $9,000,000, exclusive of the aid to families of soldiers, paid then and later by the state . Since the close of the war Massachusetts has remained generally steadfast in adherence to the principles of the Republican party, and has continued to develop its resources . Navigation, which was formerly the distinctive feature of its business prosperity, has under the pressure of laws and circumstances given place to manufactures, and the development of carrying facilities on the land rather than on the sea . In the Spanish-American War of '898 Massachusetts furnished 11,780 soldiers and sailors, though her See also:

• QUOTA

quota was but 7388; supplementing from her own See also:

• TREASURY

treasury the pay accorded them by the national government . No statement of the influence which Massachusetts has exerted upon the American people, through intellectual activity, and even through vagary, is complete without an enumeration of the names which, to Americans at least, are the signs of this influence and activity . In science the state can boast of John Winthrop, the most eminent of colonial scientists; Benjamin See also:

• THOMPSON
• THOMPSON, FRANCIS (1860-1907)
• THOMPSON, LAUNT (1833-1894)
• THOMPSON, SIR HENRY, BART
• THOMPSON, SIR JOHN SPARROW (1844-1894)
• THOMPSON, THOMAS PERONNET (1783-1869)
• THOMPSON, WILLIAM HEPWORTH (18ro–1886)

Thompson (See also:

• COUNT (Lat. comes, gen. comitis, Fr. comte, Ital. conte, Span. conde)

Count See also:

• RUMFORD, BENJAMIN THOMPSON, COUNT (1753-1814)

Rumford); Nathaniel See also:

• BOWDITCH, NATHANIEL (1773-1838)

Bowditch, the translator of See also:

• LAPLACE, PIERRE SIMON, MARQUIS DE (1749—1827)

Laplace; Benjamin See also:

• PEIRCE, BENJAMIN (1809-188o)

Peirce and See also:

• MORSE, SAMUEL FINLEY BREESE (1791—1872)

Morse the electrician; not to include an adopted citizen in See also:

• LOUIS
• LOUIS (804–876)
• LOUIS (893–911)
• LOUIS, JOSEPH DOMINIQUE, BARON (1755-1837)
• LOUIS, or LEWIS (from the Frankish Chlodowich, Chlodwig, Latinized as Chlodowius, Lodhuwicus, Lodhuvicus, whence-in the Strassburg oath of 842-0. Fr. Lodhuwigs, then Chlovis, Loys and later Louis, whence Span. Luiz and—through the Angevin kings—Hungarian

Louis See also:

• AGASSIZ, ALEXANDER EMANUEL (1835-191o)
• AGASSIZ, JEAN LOUIS RODOLPHE (1807-1893)

Agassiz . In history, Winthrop and Bradford laid the foundations of her See also:

• STORY, JOHN (c. 1510-1571)
• STORY, JOSEPH (1779-1845)
• STORY, ROBERT HERBERT (1835-1907)
• STORY, WILLIAM WETMORE (1819—1895)

story in the very beginning; but the best example of the colonial period is Thomas Hutchinson, and in later days See also:

• BANCROFT, GEORGE (1800—1891)
• BANCROFT, HUBERT HOWE (1832– )
• BANCROFT, RICHARD (1544–161o)
• BANCROFT, SIR SQUIRE (1841– )

Bancroft, See also:

• SPARKS, JARED (1789-1866)

Sparks, Palfrey, See also:

• PRESCOTT, WILLIAM HICKLING (1796-1859)

Prescott, See also:

• MOTLEY
• MOTLEY, JOHN LOTHROP (1814–1897)

Motley and See also:

• PARKMAN, FRANCIS (1823-1893)

Parkman .

In See also:

• POETRY

poetry, a pioneer of the modern spirit in American See also:

• VERSE (from Lat. versus, literally a line or furrow drawn by turning the plough, from vertere, and afterwards signifying an arrangement of syllables into feet)

verse was See also:

• RICHARD
• RICHARD (d. 1184)
• RICHARD, FRANCOIS MARIE BENJAMIN (18,9-1908)
• RICHARD, HENRY (1812-1888)
• RICHARD, ST

Richard Henry See also:

• DANA, CHARLES ANDERSON (1819–'897)
• DANA, FRANCIS (1743-1811)
• DANA, JAMES DWIGHT (1813-1895)

Dana; and later came See also:

• BRYANT, WILLIAM CULLEN (1794-1878)

Bryant, See also:

• LONGFELLOW, HENRY WADSWORTH (1807-1882)

Longfellow, See also:

• WHITTIER, JOHN GREENLEAF (1807-1892)

Whittier, Lowell and Holmes . In See also:

• PHILOSOPHY (Gr. gthos, fond of, and vo4 (a, wisdom)

philosophy and the science of living, See also:

• JONATHAN
• JONATHAN (Heb. " Yah [weh] gives ")

Jonathan See also:

• EDWARDS, AMELIA ANN BLANDFORD (1831-1892)
• EDWARDS, BELA BATES (18o2-1852)
• EDWARDS, BRYAN (1743–1800)
• EDWARDS, GEORGE (1693–1773)
• EDWARDS, HENRY THOMAS (1837–1884)
• EDWARDS, JONATHAN (1703—1758)
• EDWARDS, LEWIS (1806–1887 )
• EDWARDS, RICHARD (c. 1523–1566)
• EDWARDS, T
• EDWARDS, THOMAS CHARLES (1837–1900)

Edwards, Franklin, See also:

• CHANNING, WILLIAM ELLERY (1780–1842)

Channing, Emerson and See also:

• THEODORE
• THEODORE (602-690)
• THEODORE (Fedor) GRIGORIEVICH ORLOV, COUNT (1741–1796)
• THEODORE (Rus. Fedor, or Feodor)

Theodore See also:

• PARKER, JOHN HENRY (1806-1884)
• PARKER, JOSEPH (183o-1902)
• PARKER, MARTIN (c. 1600-c. 1656)
• PARKER, MATTHEW (1504-1575)
• PARKER, SAMUEL (164o-1688)
• PARKER, SIR GILBERT (1862— )
• PARKER, SIR HYDE, BART
• PARKER, THEODORE (1810-186o)

Parker . In education, Horace Mann; in philanthropy, S . G . Howe . In See also:

• ORATORY (Lat. oratorio, sc. ors; from orare, to speak or pray)

oratory, James Otis, See also:

• FISHER
• FISHER, ALVAN (1792–1863)
• FISHER, GEORGE PARK (1827-1909)
• FISHER, JOHN (c. 1469-1535)
• FISHER, JOHN ARBUTHNOT FISHER, 1ST BARON

Fisher See also:

• AMES
• AMES, FISHER (1758–1808)
• AMES, JOSEPH (1689–1759)
• AMES, OAKES (1804–1873)
• AMES, WILLIAM (1576–1633)

Ames, See also:

• JOSIAH (Heb. yo' shiyydhu, perhaps " Yah [weh] supports ")

Josiah Quincy, junr., Webster, See also:

• CHOATE, JOSEPH HODGES (1832- )
• CHOATE, RUFUS (1799-1859)

Choate, Everett, Sumner, Winthrop and Wendell Phillips; and, in addition, in statesmanship, Samuel Adams, John Adams and John Quincy Adams . In fiction, See also:

• HAWTHORNE, NATHANIEL (1804-1864)

Hawthorne and Mrs See also:

• STOWE, HARRIET ELIZABETH [BEECHER] (1811-1896)

Stowe . In law, Story, Parsons and See also:

• SHAW, GEORGE BERNARD (1856– )
• SHAW, HENRY WHEELER (1818–1885)
• SHAW, LEMUEL (1781–1861)
• SHAW, RICHARD NORMAN (1831– )

Shaw . In See also:

• SCHOLAR, SCHOLARSHIP

scholar-ship, See also:

• TICKNOR, GEORGE (1791—1871)

Ticknor, William M . See also:

• HUNT, ALFRED WILLIAM (183o-1896)
• HUNT, HENRY (1i73-1835)
• HUNT, HENRY JACKSON (1819-1889)
• HUNT, JAMES HENRY LEIGH (1784-1859)
• HUNT, ROBERT (1807-1887)
• HUNT, THOMAS STERRY (1826-1892)
• HUNT, WILLIAM HENRY (1790—1864)
• HUNT, WILLIAM HOLMAN (1827-1910)
• HUNT, WILLIAM MORRIS (1824-1879)

Hunt, Horatio See also:

• GREENOUGH, GEORGE BELLAS (1778-1855)
• GREENOUGH, HORATIO (1805-1852)
• GREENOUGH, JAMES BRADSTREET (1833-1901)

Greenough, W . W . Story and Thomas See also:

• BALL (in Mid. Eng. bal; the word is probably cognate with " bale," Teutonic in origin, cf. also Lat. falls, and Gr. 7raXXa)
• BALL, JOHN (1585-1640)
• BALL, JOHN (1818-1889)
• BALL, JOHN (d. 1381)
• BALL, SIR ALEXANDER JOHN, BART
• BALL, THOMAS (1819- )

Ball .

The " transcendental movement," which sprang out of See also:

• GERMAN
• GERMAN, DUTCH AND SCANDINAVIAN

German affiliations and produced as one of its results the well-known community of Brook Farm (184'-1847), under the leadership of Dr See also:

• GEORGE
• GEORGE, 8TH MARQUESS OF TWEEDDALE (1787-1876)
• GEORGE, HENRY (1839—1897)
• GEORGE, LAKE
• GEORGE, SAINT (d. 303)

George See also:

• RIPLEY
• RIPLEY, GEORGE (1802-1880)

Ripley, was a Massachusetts growth, and in passing away it left, instead of traces of an organization, a sentiment and an aspiration for higher thinking which gave Emerson his following . When Massachusetts was called upon to select for Statuary Hall in the capitol at Washington two figures from the long line of her worthies, she chose as her fittest representatives John Winthrop, the type of See also:

• PURITANISM (Lat. puritas, purity)

Puritanism and state-builder, and Samuel Adams (though here the choice was difficult between Samuel Adams and John Adams) as her greatest leader in the heroic period of the War of Independence . Governors of Plymouth Colony 1620-1621 (Chosen annually by the people) . John Carver . William Bradford 1621-1633 See also:

• EDWARD

Edward See also:

• WINSLOW, EDWARD (1595-1655)

Winslow . 1633-1634 Thomas Prence (or See also:

• PRINCE
• PRINCE (Lat. princeps, from primus capio, " I am the first to take "; Ital. principe, Fr. prince)

Prince) . 1634-1635 William Bradford . 1635-1636 Edward Winslow . 1636-1637 William Bradford . '637-1638 Thomas Prence (or Prince) . 1638-1639 William Bradford . 1639-1644 Edward Winslow .

1644-1645 William Bradford . 1645-1657 Thomas Prence (or Prince) . 1657-1673 Josiah Winslow . . 1673-1680 Thomas See also:

• HINCKLEY

Hinckley . 1680-'686 Sir Edmund Andros . . 1686-1689 Thomas Hinckley . '689-1692 war . These figures are probably less accurate than those of the state . John A . See also:

• ANDREW (Gr. 'AvBp4as, manly)
• ANDREW, JOHN ALBION (1818-1867)

Andrew . . See also:

• ALEXANDER
• ALEXANDER (1461-1506)
• ALEXANDER (ALEXANDER OF BATTENBERG) (1857-1893)
• ALEXANDER (ALEXANDER OsxENOVici) (1876-1903)
• ALEXANDER, ARCHIBALD (1772—1851)
• ALEXANDER, FRANCIS (1800—1881)
• ALEXANDER, GEORGE (1858— )
• ALEXANDER, JOHN WHITE (1856- )
• ALEXANDER, JOSEPH ADDISON (18o9—186o)
• ALEXANDER, SIR JAMES EDWARD (1803—1885)
• ALEXANDER, WILLIAM (1824— )
• ALEXANDER, WILLIAM LINDSAY (1808—1884)

Alexander H . See also:

• BULLOCK, WILLIAM (c. 1657-c. 1740)

Bullock .

William See also:

• CLAFLIN, HORACE BRIGHAM (1811-1885)

Claflin . William B . See also:

• WASHBURN
• WASHBURN, CADWALLADER COLDEN (1818–1882)

Washburn Thomas See also:

• TALBOT (FAMILY)
• TALBOT, MARY ANNE (1778-1808)
• TALBOT, WILLIAM HENRY FOX (1800–1877)

Talbot (acting) William Gaston . Alexander H . See also:

• RICE (Greek 6p6 a, Latin oryza, French riz, Italian riso, Spanish arroz, derived from the Arabic)
• RICE, EDMUND IGNATIUS (1762-1844)
• RICE, JAMES (1843-1882)

Rice Thomas Talbot . John See also:

• DAVIS (or DAVYS), JOHN (1550 ?-16o5)
• DAVIS, ANDREW JACKSON (1826—1910)
• DAVIS, CHARLES HOWARD (1857- )
• DAVIS, CUSHMAN KELLOGG (1838-1900)
• DAVIS, HENRY WILLIAM BANKS (1833- )
• DAVIS, HENRY WINTER (1817-1865)
• DAVIS, JEFFERSON (1808–1889)
• DAVIS, THOMAS OSBORNE (1814–1845)

Davis Long Benjamin F . Butler George D . See also:

• ROBINSON, EDWARD (1794–1863)
• ROBINSON, HENRY CRABB (1777–1867)
• ROBINSON, JOHN (1575–1625)
• ROBINSON, JOHN (1650-1723)
• ROBINSON, JOHN THOMAS ROMNEY (1792–1882)
• ROBINSON, MARY [" Perdita "] (1758–1800)
• ROBINSON, SIR JOHN BEVERLEY, BART
• ROBINSON, SIR JOSEPH BENJAMIN (1845– )
• ROBINSON, THEODORE (1852-1896)

Robinson See also:

• OLIVER, ISAAC (c. 1566--1617)
• OLIVER, PETER (1594-1648)

Oliver Ames . John Q . A . Brackett William E . See also:

• RUSSELL (FAMILY)
• RUSSELL, ISRAEL COOK (1852- )
• RUSSELL, JOHN (1745-1806)
• RUSSELL, JOHN (d. 1494)
• RUSSELL, JOHN RUSSELL, 1ST EARL (1792-1878)
• RUSSELL, JOHN SCOTT (1808–1882)
• RUSSELL, LORD WILLIAM (1639–1683)
• RUSSELL, SIR WILLIAM HOWARD
• RUSSELL, THOMAS (1762-1788)
• RUSSELL, WILLIAM CLARK (1844– )

Russell See also:

• FREDERIC, HAROLD (1856-1898)

Frederic T .

Greenhalge Roger See also:

• WOLCOTT, ROGER (1679-1767)

Wolcott Roger Wolcott W . See also:

• MURRAY
• MURRAY (or MORAY), EARLS OF
• MURRAY (or MORAY), JAMES STUART, EARL OF (c. 1531-1570)
• MURRAY (or MORAY), SIR ROBERT (c. 1600-1673)
• MURRAY, ALEXANDER STUART (1841-1904)
• MURRAY, DAVID (1849– )
• MURRAY, EUSTACE CLARE GRENVILLE (1824–1881)
• MURRAY, JAMES (c. 1719-1794)
• MURRAY, JOHN
• MURRAY, JOHN (1778–1820)
• MURRAY, LINDLEY (1745–1826)
• MURRAY, LORD GEORGE (1694–1760)
• MURRAY, SIR JAMES AUGUSTUS HENRY (1837– )
• MURRAY, SIR JOHN (1841– )

Murray See also:

• CRANE (in Dutch, Kraan; O. Ger. Kraen; cognate, as also the Lat. grus, and consequently the Fr. grue and Span. grulla, with the Gr. dpavos)
• CRANE, STEPHEN (1870-1900)
• CRANE, WALTER (1845– )
• CRANE, WILLIAM HENRY (1845– )

Crane John L . See also:

• BATES, HARRY (1850-1899)
• BATES, HENRY WALTER (1825-1892)
• BATES, JOHN
• BATES, JOSHUA (1788-1864)
• BATES, WILLIAM (1625-1699)

Bates William L . See also:

• DOUGLAS
• DOUGLAS, GAVIN (1474?-1522)
• DOUGLAS, JOHN (1721—1807.)
• DOUGLAS, SIR CHARLES
• DOUGLAS, SIR HOWARD
• DOUGLAS, STEPHEN ARNOLD (18,3–1861)

Douglas See also:

• CURTIS, GEORGE TICKNOR (1812-1894)
• CURTIS, GEORGE WILLIAM (1824-1892)

Curtis L . Guild . Eben S . See also:

• DRAPER
• DRAPER, JOHN WILLIAM (1811-1882)

Draper Republican Democrat Republican Democrat Republican Democrat Republican Democrat Republican Governors of Massachusetts (Under the First Charter—chosen annually) . John Endecott . . 1629-1630 John Winthrop . 1630-1634 Thomas Dudley . 1634-1635 John Haynes 1635-1636 Henry Vane 1636-1637 John Winthrop . 1637-1640 Thomas Dudley .

. 1640-1641 Richard See also:

• BELLINGHAM
• BELLINGHAM, SIR EDWARD (d. 1549)

Bellingham 1641-1642 John Winthrop 1642-1644 John Endecott . 1644-1645 Thomas Dudley . 1645-1646 John Winthrop . 1646-1649 John Endecott . 1649-1650 Thomas Dudley . . 1650-1651 John Endecott . 1651-1654 Richard Bellingham 1654-1655 John Endecott . 1655-1665 Richard Bellingham . . 1665-1672 John Leverett (acting, 1672-1673) . 1672-1679 See also:

• SIMON, ABRAHAM (1622-1692)
• SIMON, JULES FRANCOIS (1814–1896)
• SIMON, RICHARD (1638–1712)
• SIMON, SIR JOHN (1816–1904)
• SIMON, THOMAS (c. 1623-1665)

Simon Bradstreet . 1679-1686 Sir Edmund Andros . . 1686-1689 Simon Bradstreet .

1689-1692 Under Second Charter—appointed by the Crown ? Sir William Phips . William See also:

• STOUGHTON, JOHN (1807-1897)

Stoughton (acting) Richard See also:

• COOTE, SIR EYRE (1726-1783)

Coote, earl of Bellomont William Stoughton (acting) Joseph Dudley William Tailer (acting) Samuel Shute William Dummer (acting) . William See also:

• BURNET
• BURNET, GILBERT (1643-1715)
• BURNET, THOMAS (1635-1715)

Burnet William Dummer (acting) William Tailer (acting) Jonathan See also:

• BELCHER, SIR EDWARD (1799-1877)

Belcher William Shirley . Spencer Phips (acting) William Shirley Spencer Phips (acting) Thomas Pownal . . Thomas Hutchinson (acting) Sir See also:

• FRANCIS
• FRANCIS (FRarrcols) OF SALES, ST (1567-1622)
• FRANCIS (Lat. Franciscus, Ital. Francesco, Span. Francisco, Fr. Francois, Ger. Franz)
• FRANCIS, SIR PHILIP (174o-1818)

Francis See also:

• BERNARD, CHARLES DE
• BERNARD, CLAUDE (1813-1878)
• BERNARD, JACQUES (1658--1718)
• BERNARD, MOUNTAGUE (1S2o—1882)
• BERNARD, SAINT
• BERNARD, SAINT (Iogo-1153)
• BERNARD, SIMON (1779—1839)
• BERNARD, SIR THOMAS, BART

Bernard, See also:

• BART, JEAN (1651-1702)

Bart . . Thomas Hutchinson (acting) Thomas Hutchinson . Thomas Gage 2 . . Under the Constitution . John Hancock . James Bowdoin John Hancock Samuel Adams (acting) Samuel Adams . Increase Sumner .

See also:

• MOSES (Gr. Mwvo c, Mcoo-i3s)
• MOSES, ASSUMPTION OF

Moses Gill (lieut.-governor; acting) Caleb Strong Jas . See also:

• SULLIVAN, JOHN (1740–1795)
• SULLIVAN, SIR ARTHUR SEYMOUR (1842—1900)
• SULLIVAN, THOMAS BARRY (1824-1891)

Sullivan . See also:

• LEVI, HERMANN (1839-1900)
• LEVI, LEONE (1821-1888)

Levi Lincoln (acting) See also:

• CHRISTOPHER, SAINT (Christophorus, Christoferus)

Christopher See also:

• GORE
• GORE, CATHERINE GRACE FRANCES (1799-1861)
• GORE, CHARLES (1853– )

Gore . Elbridge See also:

• GERRY, ELBRIDGE (1744–1814)

Gerry Caleb Strong John See also:

• BROOKS, CHARLES WILLIAM SHIRLEY (1816-1874)
• BROOKS, PHILLIPS (1835-1893)

Brooks William Eustis Levi Lincoln . John Davis . Edward Everett See also:

• MARCUS

Marcus See also:

• MORTON, JAMES DOUGLAS, 4TH EARL OF (c. 1525-1581)
• MORTON, JOHN (c. 1420-1500)
• MORTON, JOHN MADDISON (1811-1891)
• MORTON, LEVI PARSONS (1824- )
• MORTON, OLIVER PERRY (1823-1877)
• MORTON, THOMAS (1564-1659)
• MORTON, THOMAS (c. 1590-1646)

Morton John Davis . . Marcus Morton . George N . See also:

• BRIGGS, CHARLES AUGUSTUS (1841– )
• BRIGGS, HENRY (1556–1630)

Briggs George S . See also:

• BOUTWELL, GEORGE SEWALL (1818-1905)

Boutwell John H . See also:

• CLIFFORD
• CLIFFORD, JOHN (1836- )
• CLIFFORD, WILLIAM KINGDON (1845-1879)

Clifford . Emory Washburn Henry J .

Gardner Nathaniel P . Banks i Endecott, by commission dated the 30th of April 1629, was made " governor of London's plantation in the Massachusetts Bay." Matthew See also:

• CRADOCK

Cradock, first governor of the Company, from the 4th of March 1629 to the loth of See also:

• OCTOBER

October 1629, was succeeded on the latter date by John Winthrop, who, on reaching Salem on the 12th of June 1630 with the charter, superseded Endecott . 2 During three periods, 1701—1702, in February 1715, and from April to August 1757 the affairs of the colony were administered by the Executive Council . 2 General Gage was military governor, Hutchinson remaining nominally civil governor.186r-I866 1866-1869 1869-1872 1872-1874 1874-1875 1875-1876 1876-1879 1879-1880 188o-1883 1883-1884 1884-1887 1887-1890 189o-1891 1891-1894 1894-1896 1896-1897 1897-1900 1900-1903 1903-1905 1905-1906 1906-1909 1909—1911 See also:

• EUGENE

Eugene N . See also:

• FOSS, EDWARD (1787-1870)

Foss . Democrat 1911—BIBLIOGRAPHY.—For Topography: W . M . Davis, Physical See also:

• GEOGRAPHY (Gr. yil, earth, and ypiickty, to write)

Geography of Southern New England (New York, 1895), and for the western counties, R . D . Mallary, See also:

• LENOX

Lenox and the Berkshire See also:

• HIGHLANDS, THE

Highlands (New York-London, 1902) ; also Inland Massachusetts, Illustrated ... (Springfield, 189o) ; C . F .

See also:

• WARNER, OLIN LEVI (1844-1896)
• WARNER, SETH (1743-1784)
• WARNER, WILLIAM (1558?-16o9)

Warner, Picturesque Berkshire (also Franklin, Hampden, Hampshire, Northampton, 1890-1893) ; U . S . Geological Survey, Bulletin 116, H . Gannett, " Geographic See also:

• DICTIONARY

Dictionary of Massachusetts." On Minerals: U.S . Census, 1900, and U.S . Geological Survey, annual volume on Mineral Resources . On Agriculture: U.S . Census and reports of Mass . Census (alternating with Federal census), and reports and bulletins of the Board of Agriculture (1852) and the Agricultural College (1867), and Experiment Station (1883) at Amherst . On Manufactures, &c.: See Reports of state and Federal censuses; also Annual Reports (1869) of the state Bureau of Statistics of Labor, which contain a wealth of valuable material (e.g . 19C3, " Race in Industry "; 1902, " See also:

• SEX (Lat. sexes; possibly connected with secure, to cut)

Sex in Industry "; 1885, " See also:

• WAGES (the plural of " wage," from Late Lat. wadium, a pledge, O. Fr. wagier, gagier)

Wages and Prices, 1752-1863," &c.) ; W . R .

Bagnall, The Textile Industries of the United States (vol. i., 1639-181o, Cambridge, 1893) ; J . L . See also:

• HAYES, RUTHERFORD BIRCHARD (1822–1893)

Hayes, " American Textile Machinery: its Early History, &c." (Cambridge, 187o; Bulletin of National Association of Wool Manufacturers), and literature therein referred to . On Commerce and Communications: U.S . Census, 1902 (vol.. on " Electric Railways ") ; U.S . Interstate Commerce Commission, annual Statistics of Railways; publications of the State Board of Trade; W . Hill on " First Stages of the Tariff Policy of the United States " in American Economic Association Publications, vol. viii., no . 6 (1893) . On Population: Census reports, state and Federal, publications of Bureau of Statistics of Labor, Board of Health (1869-; the Annual Report of 1896 contains an exhaustive See also:

• ANALYSIS (Gr. avci and Meta, to break up into parts)

analysis of vital statistics, 1856-1895) ; Board of Charity (1878- ), &c . On Administration: G . H . Haynes, Representation and Suffrage in Massachusetts, 1620-1691, in Johns See also:

• HOPKINS, EDWARD WASHBURN (1857— )
• HOPKINS, ESEK (1718-18oz)
• HOPKINS, MARK (1802—1887)
• HOPKINS, SAMUEL (1721–1803)
• HOPKINS, WILLIAM (1793–1866)

Hopkins University, Studies in History, xii.; Manual for the General Court (Annual); R .

H . Whitten, Public Administration in Massachusetts, in Columbia University, Studies in History, vol. viii . (1898); H . R . Spencer, Constitutional Conflict in Provincial Massachusetts (See also:

• COLUMBUS
• COLUMBUS, CHRISTOPHER [in Spanish CRISTOBAL COLON] (c. 1446, or perhaps rather 1451, -15o6)

Columbus, O., 1905) ; and the annual Public Documents of Massachusetts, embracing the reports of all state officers and institutions . On Taxation : See especially the official " Report of the Commission Appointed to Inquire into the Expediency of Revising and Amending the Laws ... Relating to Taxation " (1897), and vol. xi. of the Report of the United States Industrial Commission (See also:

• WASH, THE

Wash., 1901); H . G . Friedman, The Taxation of Corporations in Massachusetts (New York, 1907) ; and C . J . Bullock, Historical See also:

• SKETCH (directly adapted from Dutch schets, which was taken from Ital. schizzo, a rough draft, Lat. schedium, something hastily made, Gr. oxE&os, sudden, off-hand, axeb6v, near by; Ger. Skizze and Fr. esquisse are from the same source)

Sketch of the Finances and See also:

• FINANCIAL

Financial Policy of Massachusetts (1907) . On Education: See Annual Reports of the United States Commissioner of Education; G .

G . See also:

• BUSH

Bush, History of Higher Education in Massachusetts (Washing-ton, U.S . Bureau of Education, 1891) ; See also:

• ARTICLE (from Lat. articulus, a joint)

article on HARVARD UNIVERSITY . On History: Elaborate bibliography is given in J . See also:

• WINSOR, JUSTIN (1831-1897)

Winsor's Narrative and See also:

• CRITICAL (in alphabetical order of authors)

Critical History of America and in his Memorial History of Boston . The colonial historical See also:

• CLASSICS

classics are William Bradford, History of Plimoth Plantation (pub. by-the commonwealth, 1898; also edited by Charles See also:

• DEANE, RICHARD (1610-1653)
• DEANE, SILAS (1737-1789)

Deane, in Collections of the Massachusetts Historical Society, 1856, See also:

• SERIES (a Latin word from serere, to join)

series 4, vol. iii.); J . Winthrop, History of New England 1630-1649, edited by J . Savage (Boston, 2 vols . 1825-1826, new ed., 1853) ; S . E . See also:

• SEWALL, SAMUEL (1652-1730)

Sewall, See also:

• DIARY

Diary, 1674-1729 (3 vols., Collections of the Massachusetts Historical Society, series 5, vols. v.-vii., 1878-1882), a fascinating and microscopic, picture of colonial life; T . Hutchinson, History of ...

Massachusetts (3 vols., respectively Boston, 1764, 1767, London, 1828) ; also the very valuable Hutchinson Papers (2 vols., Prince Society, Boston, 1865) . For the period 1662-1666, when Massachusetts was investigated by royal commissioners, see Collections of the Massachusetts Historical Society, series 2, vol. viii., 1819; on the Andros period, 1689-1691, see the Andros Tracts (3 vols., Prince Society Publications, v.-vii., Boston, 1868-1874), ed. by J . H . Whitmore . The one-time- 1692-1694 1694-1699 1699-1700 1700—1701 1702-1715 1715-1716 1716-1722 1722-1728 1728-1729 1729-1730 1730 1730-1741 1741-1749 1749-1753 1753-1756 1756-1757 1757-1760 176o 1760-1769 1769-1771 1771-1774 1774-1775 1780-1785 1785-1787 1787-1793 1793-1794 1794-1797 1797-1799 1799-1800 1800-1807 . Democratic-Republican 1807-1808 1808-1809 Federalist 18o9-18io . Democratic-Republican 18T0-1812 Federalist 1812-1816 1816-1823 Democratic-Republican 1823-1825 1825-1834 1834-1835 1836-184o 184o-1841 1841-1843 1843-1844 1844-1851 1851-1853 1853-1854 1854-1855 1855-1858 1858-T861 Democrat Whig Democrat Whig Free-Soil Democrat Whig Know-Nothing Republican Federalist Whig See also:

• STANDARD
• STANDARD, BATTLE OF THE

standard general history was that of J . G . Palfrey, History of New England (5 vols., Boston, 1858-1890), to the War of Independence . It is generally accurate in facts but written in an unsatisfactorily eulogistic vein . Of importance in more modern views is a volume of Lectures Delivered ... before the Lowell Institute ... by Members of the Massachusetts Historical Society on Subjects Relating to the Early History of Massachusetts (Boston, 1869), perhaps especially the lectures of G . E .

See also:

• ELLIS (originally SHARPE), ALEXANDER JOHN (1814-189o)
• ELLIS, GEORGE (1753-1815)
• ELLIS, ROBINSON (1834- )
• ELLIS, SIR HENRY (1777-1869)
• ELLIS, WILLIAM (1794 – 1872)

Ellis, later See also:

• EXPANDED

expanded, and in the process some- what weakened, into his Puritan Age and Rule in the Colony of the Massachusetts Bay, 1629-1685 (Boston, 1888; 3rd ed., 1891) . See C . F . Adams, Massachusetts: its Historians and its History (Boston, 1893), for a critique of the " filiopietistic " traditions of Massachusetts writers; also his Three Episodes of Massachusetts History,—namely, Settlement of the Colony, Antinomianism, and church and town government in Quincy from 1634-1888 (2 vols., Boston, 1892) . On town government see further E . Channing in Johns Hopkins University, Studies in History vol. ii . (1884) ; P . E . A drich in American Antiquarian Society, Proceedings, new series, vol . 3, pp . 111-124; and C . F .

Adams and others in Massachusetts Historical Society, Proceedings, 2nd series, vol. vii (1892) . On the Pilgrims and Puritans: See article PLYMOUTH; also E . H . Byington, The Puritan in England and America (Boston, 1896) and The Puritan as Colonist and Reformer (Boston, 1899) . On the Quaker Persecution: R . P . Hallowell, The Quaker Invasion of Massachusetts (Boston, 1883; rev. ed., 1887) . On Witchcraft: See C . W . Upham, See also:

• WITCH

Witch-craft in Salem (2 vols., Boston, 1867) ; S . G . See also:

• DRAKE, NATHAN (1766-1836)
• DRAKE, SIR FRANCIS (c. 1545-1595)

Drake, Annals of Witch-craft (Boston, 1869) and The Witchcraft Delusion in New England (3 vols., See also:

• ROXBURY

Roxbury, 1866), this last a reprint of accounts of the time by Cotton Mather and R .

Calef; W . F . Poole, "Cotton Mather and Salem Witchcraft " (North American See also:

• REVIEW (Fr. revue, from revoir, to see again, Lat. re and videre)

Review, April 1869) ; and controversy of A . C . Goodell and G . H . See also:

• MOORE, A
• MOORE, ALBERT JOSEPH (1841–1893)
• MOORE, EDWARD (1712–1757)
• MOORE, GEORGE (1853– )
• MOORE, GEORGE FOOT (1851– )
• MOORE, HENRY (1831–1895)
• MOORE, JOHN (1729-1802)
• MOORE, SIR JOHN (1761-1809)
• MOORE, THOMAS (1779-1852)

Moore in Massachusetts Historical Society, Proceedings . On Slavery: G . H . Moore, Notes on the History of Slavery (New York, 1866) ; E . Washburn in Collections, Massachusetts Historical Society, series 4, iv., 333-346; C . Deane in same, pp .

375-442, and in Proceedings, American Antiquarian Society, new series, iv., 191-222 . In the essays of I . R . Lowell are two on " New England two Centuries Ago " and Witchcraft." For economic history, W . B . Weeden, Economic and Social History of New England, 1620-1789 (2 vols., Boston, 1890) ; C . H . J . Douglas, The Financial History of Massachusetts ...to the American Revolution (in Columbia University Studies, vol i., 1892) . On the revolutionary See also:

• EPOCH (Gr. E7roxij, holding in suspense, a pause, from E1rxav, to hold up, to stop)

epoch, Mellen See also:

• CHAMBERLAIN (0. Fr. chamberlain, chamberlenc, Mod. Fr. chambellan, from O. H. Ger. Chamarling, Chamarlinc, whence also the Med. Lat. cambellanus, camerlingus, camerlengus; Ital. camerlingo; Span. camerlengo, compounded of 0. H. Ger. Chamara, Kamara [Lat.
• CHAMBERLAIN, JOSEPH (1836— )
• CHAMBERLAIN, JOSHUA LAWRENCE (1828– )
• CHAMBERLAIN, SIR NEVILLE BOWLES (1820-1902)

Chamberlain, John Adams . . . with other Essays and Addresses (Boston, 1898) ; T . Hutchinson, Diary and Letters (2 vols., Boston, 1884-1886) ; H .

A . Cushing, Transition from Provincial to Commonwealth Government in Massachusetts (Columbia University Studies in History, vol. iii., 1896) ; S . B . See also:

• HARDING, CHESTER (1792-1866)
• HARDING, JAMES DUFFIELD (1798-1863)

Harding, Contest over the Ratification of the Federal Constitution in Massachusetts (Harvard University Studies, New York, 1896) ; and on the Shays Rebellion compare J . P . See also:

• WARREN
• WARREN, GOUVERNEUR KEMBLE (183o-1882)
• WARREN, JOSEPH (1741—1775)
• WARREN, MERCY (1728—1814)
• WARREN, MINTON (1850-1907)
• WARREN, SAMUEL (1807-1877)
• WARREN, SIR JOHN BORLASE, BART
• WARREN, WILLIAM (1812-1888)

Warren in American Historical Review (Oct., 1905) . On New England discontent preceding 1812, Henry Adams, Documents Relating to New England Federalism, 1780-1815 (Boston, 1877) ; T . W . See also:

• HIGGINSON, THOMAS WENTWORTH (1823—1911)

Higginson, Massachusetts in the Army and Navy during the War of 1861-65 (Official, Boston, 2 vols., 1896) . For a See also:

• LIST (O.E. lisle, a Teutonic word, cf. Dut. lust, Ger. Leiste, adapted in Ital. lista and Fr. lisle)
• LIST, FRIEDRICH (1789-1846)

list of the historical See also:

• SOCIETIES, LEARNED

societies of the state consult A, M . Davis in Publications of the Colonial Society of Massachusetts, vol. i . ; the most important are the Massachusetts Historical Society, established 1791, publishing Collections and Proceedings (Boston) and the American Antiquarian Society, established 1812, publishing Proceedings (Worcester) .

In many cases the most valuable material on various periods is indicated under the See also:

• BIOGRAPHIES

biographies (or autobiographies in some cases) of the public men named in the above article, to which add See also:

• TIMOTHY
• TIMOTHY, FIRST EPISTLE TO
• TIMOTHY, SECOND EPISTLE TO

Timothy See also:

• PICKERING
• PICKERING, EDWARD CHARLES (1846- )
• PICKERING, TIMOTHY (174 1829)

Pickering, George Cabot, Joseph Warren, Elbridge Gerry, Benjamin F . Butler, G . 5 . Boutwell and George F . See also:

• HOAR, SAMUEL (1778-1856)

Hoar . Many townships have published their local re-cords, and many township and county histories contain valuable See also:

• MATTER

matter of general interest (e.g. as showing in detail township action before the War of Independence), though generally weighted heavily with See also:

• GENEALOGY (from the Gr. yivos, family, and Vryos, theory)

genealogy and matters of merely local interest . In American works of fiction, particularly of New England authors, the reader will find a wealth of description of Massachusetts and New England life, past and present, as in the writings of William D . See also:

• HOWELLS, WILLIAM DEAN (1837– )

Howells, Sarah 0 . See also:

• JEWETT, SARAH ORNE (1849–1909)

Jewett, Mary E . See also:

• WILKINS, GEORGE (ii. 1607)
• WILKINS, JOHN (1614-1672)
• WILKINS, MARY ELEANOR (1862– )
• WILKINS, SIR CHARLES (1749?-1836)

Wilkins-See also:

• FREEMAN
• FREEMAN, EDWARD AUGUSTUS (1823-1892)

Freeman, Harriet B . Stowe and others .