See also:

• MASTODON (Gr. µavTos, breast, &bobs, tooth)

MASTODON (Gr. µavTos, See also:

• BREAST (a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. the Ger. Brust, possibly connected with an O. Sax. brustian, to bud)

breast, &bobs, tooth)  , a name given by See also:

• CUVIER, GEORGES LEOPOLD CHRETIEN FREDERIC DAGOBERT, BARON (1769-1832)

Cuvier to the See also:

• PLIOCENE (from the Gr. sr?eiov, mere, and xatvbs, recent)

Pliocene and See also:

• MIOCENE

Miocene forerunners of the elephants, on See also:

• ACCOUNT
• ACCOUNT (through O. Fr. acont, Late Lat. comptum, cornputare, to calculate)

account of the nipple-like prominences on the molar See also:

• TEETH (O.E. Eel); plural of tooth, O.E. top)

teeth of some of the See also:

• SPECIES

species (fig . 2), which are of a much simpler type than those of true elephants . Mastodons, like elephants, always have a pair of upper tusks, while the earlier ones likewise have a See also:

• SHORT, FRANCIS JOB (1857– )

short pair in the See also:

• LOWER

lower See also:

• JAW (Mid. Eng. jawe, jowe and geowe, O. Eng. cheowan, connected with " chaw " and " chew," and in form with " jowl ")

jaw, which is prolonged into a snout-like symphysis for their support . These See also:

• LONG, GEORGE (1800-1879)
• LONG, JOHN DAVIS (1838– )

long-chinned mastodons are now regarded as forming a genus by themselves (Tetrabelodon), well-known examples of this See also:

• GROUP

group being Tetrabelodon angustidens from the Miocene and T. longirostris (fig . 1 C.) from the Lower Pliocene of the See also:

• CONTINENT (from Lat. continere, "to hold together "; hence " connected," " continuous ")

Continent . In the former the upper tusks are See also:

• BENT
• BENT (E1. BENI)
• BENT, JAMES THEODORE (1852–1897)

bent down so as to See also:

• CROSS

cross the tips of the short and See also:

• CHISEL (from the O. Fr. cisel, modern ciseau, Late Lat. cisellum, a cutting tool, from caedere, to cut)

chisel-like lower pair . These long-chinned mastodons must have had an extremely elongated muzzle, formed by the upper See also:

• LIP (a word common in various forms, to Teutonic languages, cf Ger. Lippe, Dan. laebe; Lat. labium is cognate)

lip and See also:

• NOSE (O.Eng. nosu, cf. Dutch neus, Swed. nos, snout; the Aix in Provence. Both at Aix and at Lyons he acquired great connexion with O.Eng. nasu is obscure, cf. Ger. Nase, Lat. pares, distinction by his labours during outbreaks of the plague. In nostrils,

nose above and the lower lip below, with which they were able to reach the ground, the See also:

• NECK (O. Eng. hnecca; the word appears in many Teutonic languages; cf. Dutch ride, Ger. Nacken; in O. E. the common word was heals; cf. Ger. Hals)

neck being probably rather longer than in elephants . On the other See also:

• HAND
• HAND (a word common to Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Hand, Goth. handus)
• HAND, FERDINAND GOTTHELF (1786-185r)

hand, in the short-chinned mastodons, as represented by the See also:

• PLEISTOCENE

Pleistocene See also:

• NORTH
• NORTH, BARONS
• NORTH, MARIANNE (1830—1890)
• NORTH, ROGER (1653-1734)
• NORTH, SIR THOMAS (1535?-16o1?)

North See also:

• AMERICAN

American See also:

• MASTODON (Gr. µavTos, breast, &bobs, tooth)

Mastodon americanus and the Pliocene See also:

• EUROPEAN

European M. turicensis (fig . I), the See also:

• CHIN

chin had shrunk to the dimensions characteristic of elephants, with the loss of the lower incisors (or with temporary retention of rudimentary ones), while at the same See also:

• TIME (0. Eng. Lima, cf. Icel. timi, Swed. timme, hour, Dan. time; from the root also seen in " tide," properly the time of between the flow and ebb of the sea, cf. O. Eng. getidan, to happen, " even-tide," &c.; it is not directly related to Lat. tempus)
• TIME, MEASUREMENT OF
• TIME, STANDARD

time a true See also:

• ELEPHANT

elephant-like See also:

• TRUNK (Fr. tronc, Lat. truncus, cut off, maimed)

trunk must have been See also:

• DEVELOPED

developed by the shortening of the lower lip and the prolongation of the combined upper lip and nose . Mastodons are found in almost all parts of the See also:

• WORLD

world . In See also:

• ASIA

Asia they gave rise to the elephants, while they themselves originated in See also:

• AFRICA
• AFRICA, ROMAN

Africa from ungulates of more normal type . (See See also:

• PROBOSCIDEA (animals " with a proboscis ")

PROBOSCIDEA.) The upper tusks of the See also:

• EARLY
• EARLY, JUBAL ANDERSON (1816-1894)

early mastodons differ from those of elephants in retaining See also:

• LONGITUDINAL

longitudinal bands of See also:

• ENAMEL (formerly " amel," derived through the Fr. amail, emmll, esmail, from a Latin word smaltum, first found in a 9th-century life of Leo IV.)

enamel .

The molar teethspecies the summits of the ridges are divided into conical cusps, and may have See also:

• ACCESSORY

accessory cusps clustering around them (as in M. arvernensis, fig . 2) . When the summits of these are worn by mastication their surfaces See also:

• PRESENT

present circles of dentine surrounded by a border of enamel, and as See also:

• ATTRITION (Lat. attritio, formed from atterere, to rub away)

attrition proceeds different patterns are produced by the See also:

• UNION
• UNION (known locally as Union Hill and officially as Town of Union)

union of the bases of the cusps, a See also:

• TREFOIL (Lat. trif olium, three-leaved plant, Fr. trk/le, Ger. Dreiblatt and Dreiblattbogen)

trefoil See also:

• FORM (Lat. forma)

form being characteristic of some species . Certain of the molar teeth of the See also:

• MIDDLE

middle of the See also:

• SERIES (a Latin word from serere, to join)

series in both elephants and mastodons have the same number of See also:

• PRINCIPAL

principal ridges; those in front having fewer, and those behind a greater number . These teeth are distinguished as " intermediate " molars . In elephants there are only two, the last See also:

• MILK (0. Eng. meoluc; from a common Indo-European root, cf. Lat. mulgere, Gr. ?t dXyetv)

milk-molar and the first true molar (or the third and See also:

• FOURTH

fourth of the whole series), which are alike in the number of ridges; whereas in mastodons there are three such teeth, the last milk-molar and the first and second molars (or the third, fourth and fth of the whole series) . In elephants the number of ridges on the intermediate molars always exceeds five, but in mastodons it is nearly always three or four, and the tooth in front has usually one fewer and that behind one more, so that the See also:

• RIDGE (a word. common to many Teutonic languages, meaning " back," whether of a man or an animal, cf. German Rucke)
• RIDGE, WILLIAM PETT (1864- )

ridge-See also:

• FORMULA
• FORMULA (Lat. diminutive of forma, shape, pattern, &c., especially used of rules of judicial procedure)

formula (i.e. a formula ex-pressing the number of ridges on each of the six molar teeth) of most mastodons can be reduced either to I, 2, 3, 3, 3, 4, or 2, 3, 4, 4, 4, 5 . Three-ridged and four-ridged types occur both in Mastodon and Tetrabelodon . (R . L.*) MAS'UD ! (See also:

• ABU

ABU-L IIASAN `See also:

• ALI

ALI See also:

• IBN

IBN IIUSAIN IBN 'ALI UL-MAS'UDI] (d. c . 956), Arabian historian, was See also:

• BORN, IGNAZ, EDLER VON (1742–1791)

born at See also:

• BAGDAD, or BAGHDAD

Bagdad towards the See also:

• CLOSE
• CLOSE (from Lat. clausum, shut)
• CLOSE, MAXWELL HENRY (1822-1903)

close of the 9th See also:

• CENTURY (from Lat. centuria, a division of a hundred men)

century .

Much of his See also:

• LIFE

life was spent in travel . After he had A, B, See also:

• SKULL

Skull and Lower Jaw of Mastodon americanus . C, Lower Jaw 'of Tetrabelodon longirostris. been in See also:

• PERSIA

Persia and See also:

• KERMAN
• KERMAN (the ancient Karmania)

Kerman, he visited Istakhr in 915, and went in the following See also:

• YEAR

year to See also:

• MULTAN, or MOOLTAN

Multan and See also:

• MANSURA

Mansura, thence to See also:

• CAMBAY
• CAMBAY, GULF OF

Cambay, Saimur and See also:

• CEYLON

Ceylon, to See also:

• MADAGASCAR

Madagascar and back to See also:

• OMAN

Oman . He seems about this time to have been as far as See also:

• CHINA

China . After a visit to the shores of the See also:

• CASPIAN

Caspian See also:

• SEA (in O. Eng. sae, a common Teutonic word; cf. Ger. See, Dutch Zee, &c.; the ultimate source is uncertain)
• SEA, COMMAND OF THE

Sea he visited See also:

• TIBERIAS

Tiberias in See also:

• PALESTINE

Palestine, examined the See also:

• CHRISTIAN
• CHRISTIAN, WILLIAM (1608-1663)

Christian See also:

• CHURCH
• CHURCH (according to most authorities derived from the Gr. Kvpcaxov [&wµa], " the Lord's [house]," and common to many Teutonic, Slavonic and other languages under various forms—Scottish kirk, Ger. Kirche, Swed. kirka, Dan. kirke, Russ. tserkov, Buig. cerk
• CHURCH, FREDERICK EDWIN (1826-1900)
• CHURCH, GEORGE EARL (1835–1910)
• CHURCH, RICHARD WILLIAM (1815–189o)
• CHURCH, SIR RICHARD (1784–1873)

church there, and described its See also:

• RELICS (Lat, reliquiae, the equivalent of the English " remains " in the sense of a dead body)

relics . In 943 he was in See also:

• ANTIOCH

Antioch, studying the ruins, and two years later in See also:

• DAMASCUS

Damascus . The last ten years of his life he spent in See also:

• SYRIA

Syria and See also:

• EGYPT

Egypt . His See also:

• GREAT

great See also:

• OBJECT

object in life had been to study with his own eyes the peculiarities of every See also:

• LAND

land and to collect whatever was of See also:

• INTEREST

interest for See also:

• ARCHAEOLOGY (from Gr. &pxa1a, ancient things, and Xoyos, theory or science)

archaeology, See also:

• HISTORY

history and See also:

• MANNERS, CHARLES (1857– )

manners . Himself a Mo'tazilite (see See also:

• MAHOMMEDAN

MAHOMMEDAN See also:

• RELIGION
• RELIGION, FOLKLORE, CUSTOM

RELIGION: Sects), he was singularly See also:

• FREE

free from bigotry, and took his See also:

• INFORMATION (from Lat. informare, to give shape or form to, to represent, describe)

information, when necessary, from Persians, are six in number on each See also:

• SIDE
• SIDE (mod. Eski Adalia)

side, increasing in See also:

• SIZE

size from before back-wards, and, as in the elephants, with a See also:

• HORIZONTAL

horizontal See also:

• SUCCESSION (Lat. successio, from succedere, to follow after)

succession, the anterior teeth being lost before the full development of the posterior ones, which gradually move forward, taking the See also:

• PLACE (through Fr. from Lat. platea, street; Gr. IrAar6s, wide)

place of those that are destroyed by See also:

• WEAR

wear . This See also:

• PROCESS

process is, however, less fully developed than in elephants, and as many as three teeth may be in place in each jaw at one time . There is, moreover, in many species a See also:

• VERTICAL (from Lat. vertex, highest point)

vertical succession, affecting either the third, or the third and second, or (in one American species, Tetrabelodon productus) the first, second and third of the six molar teeth . These three are therefore reckoned as milk-molars, and their successors as premolars, while the last three correspond to the true molars of other mammals .

The mode of succession of the teeth in the mastodons exhibits so many stages of the process by which the dentition of elephants has been derived from that of more See also:

• ORDINARY (med. Lat. ordinarius, Fr. ordinaire)

ordinary mammals . It also shows that the anterior molars of elephants do not correspond to the premolars of other ungulates, but to the milk-molars, the early loss of which in consequence of the See also:

• PECULIAR

peculiar process of horizontal forward-moving (From See also:

• OWEN, JOHN (1616-1683)
• OWEN, JOHN [OVENUS Or AUDOENUS] (c. 1560-1622)
• OWEN, ROBERT (1771-1858)
• OWEN, SIR HUGH (1804-1881)
• OWEN, SIR RICHARD (1804–1892)

Owen.) succession does not require their replacement by premolars . Specialized species like Mastodon americanus have completely lost the rudimentary premolars . Mastodons have fewer ridges on their molar teeth than elephants; the ridges are also less elevated, wider apart, with a thicker enamel covering, and scarcely any See also:

• CEMENT (from Lat. caementum, rough pieces of stone, a shortened form of caedimentum, from caedere, to cut)

cement filling the space between them . Sometimes (as in M. americanus) the ridges are See also:

• SIMPLE

simple transverse See also:

• WEDGE (O. Eng. wecg, a mass of metal, cognate with Dutch wig, wigge, Dan. vaegge, &c.; in Lith. the cognate form outside Teut. is found in wagis, a peg, spigot; there is no connexion with " weigh," " weight," which must be referred to the root wegh, to li

wedge-shaped elevations. with straight or See also:

• CONCAVE

concave edges . In other See also:

• JEWS
• JEWS (Heb. Y8hudi, man of Judah; Gr. 'Iovbaiot; Lat. Judaei)

Jews, See also:

• INDIANS, NORTH AMERICAN

Indians, and even the See also:

• CHRONICLE (from Gr. Xpovos, time)

chronicle of a Christian See also:

• BISHOP (A.S. bisceop, from Lat. episcopus, Gr. irio-Korros, " overlooker " or " overseer ")
• BISHOP, ISABELLA (1832-1904)
• BISHOP, SIR HENRY ROWLEY (1786-1855)

bishop . His most extensive See also:

• WORK

work was the Kitab akhbar uz-Zaman or See also:

• ANNALS (Annales, from annus, a year)

Annals, in 3o volumes with a supplement, the Kitab ul-Ausat, a See also:

• CHRONOLOGICAL

chronological See also:

• SKETCH (directly adapted from Dutch schets, which was taken from Ital. schizzo, a rough draft, Lat. schedium, something hastily made, Gr. oxE&os, sudden, off-hand, axeb6v, near by; Ger. Skizze and Fr. esquisse are from the same source)

sketch of See also:

• GENERAL
• GENERAL (Lat. generalis, of or relating to a genus, kind or class)

general history . Of these the first See also:

• PART

part only of the former is extant in MS. in See also:

• VIENNA (Ger. Wien; Lat. Vindobona)
• VIENNA, CONGRESS OF (1814-1815)

Vienna, while the latter seems to be in the Bodleian Library, also in MS . The substance of the two was See also:

• UNITED

united by him in the work by which he is now best known, the Muriij udh-Dhahab wa Ma'adin ul-Jawahir (" Meadows of See also:

• GOLD
• GOLD [symbol Au, atomic weight 195.7(H = 1),197.2(0 =16)]

Gold and Mines of See also:

• PRECIOUS (O. Fr. precios, mod. precieux, Lat. pretiosus, of high value or price, pretium)

Precious Stones "), an See also:

• HISTORICAL

historical work which he completed in 947 . In 956 he finished a second edition of this and made it See also:

• DOUBLE
• DOUBLE (from the Mid. Eng. duble, the form which gives the present pronunciation, through the Old Er. duble, from Lat. duplus, twice as much)

double its former size, but no copy of this seems to be extant . The See also:

• ORIGINAL

original edition has been published at Bulaq and See also:

• CAIRO
• CAIRO (Arabic Misr-al-Kahira, or simply Misr)

Cairo, and with See also:

• FRENCH
• FRENCH, DANIEL CHESTER (1850– )
• FRENCH, NICHOLAS (1604-1678)

French See also:

• TRANSLATION

translation by C . See also:

• BARBIER, ANTOINE ALEXANDRE (1765–1825)
• BARBIER, HENRI AUGUSTE (1805-1882)
• BARBIER, LOUIS

Barbier de Meynard and Pavet de Courteille (9 vols., See also:

• PARIS
• PARIS (also called ALEXANDROS)
• PARIS, ALEXIS PAULIN (1800-x881)
• PARIS, BRUNO PAULIN GASTON (1839-1903)
• PARIS, FRANCOIS DE (169o-1727)
• PARIS, LOUIS PHILIPPE ALBERT
• PARIS, TREATIES OF (1814-1815)

Paris, 1861—1897) .

Another work of Mas'udi, written in the last year of his life, is the Kitab ut-Tanblh wal Ishraf (the " See also:

• BOOK

Book of Indication and Revision"), in which he summarizes the work of his life and corrects and completes his former writings . It has been edited by M . J. de See also:

• GOEJE, MICHAEL JAN DE (1836—1909)

Goeje (See also:

• LEIDEN

Leiden, 1894), and a French translation has been made by Carra de See also:

• VAUX, CALVERT (1824-1895)

Vaux (Paris, 1896) ; cf. also the memoir of S. de Sacy published in Meynard's edition of the Murisj . An account of Mas'udi's See also:

• WORKS

works is to be found in de Sacy's memoir and in Goeje's See also:

• PREFACE (Med. Lat. prefatia, for classical praefatio, praefari, to speak beforehand)

preface to his edition of the Tanblh, and of the works extant in C . Brockelmann's Gesch. der Arabischen Litteratur, i . 144—145 (See also:

• WEIMAR

Weimar, 1898) . C . See also:

• FIELD (a word common to many West German languages, cf. Ger. Feld, Dutch veld, possibly cognate with O.E. f olde, the earth, and ultimately with root of the Gr. irAaror, broad)
• FIELD, CYRUS WEST (1819-1892)
• FIELD, DAVID DUDLEY (18o5-1894)
• FIELD, EUGENE (1850-1895)
• FIELD, FREDERICK (18o1—1885)
• FIELD, HENRY MARTYN (1822-1907)
• FIELD, JOHN (1782—1837)
• FIELD, MARSHALL (183 1906)
• FIELD, NATHAN (1587—1633)
• FIELD, STEPHEN JOHNSON (1816-1899)
• FIELD, WILLIAM VENTRIS FIELD, BARON (1813-1907)

Field's Tales of the Caliphs (19o9) is based on Mas'udi . (G . W .