MEDICAL See also:

• JURISPRUDENCE (Lat. jurisprudenlia, knowledge of law, from jus, right, and prudentia, from providere, to foresee)
• JURISPRUDENCE, COMPARATIVE

JURISPRUDENCE, or FORENSIC See also:

• MEDICINE

MEDICINE  , that See also:

• BRANCH (from the Fr. branche, late Lat. branca, an animal's paw)

branch of See also:

• STATE
• STATE, GREAT OFFICERS OF

state See also:

• MEDICINE

medicine which treats of the application of medical knowledge to certain questions of See also:

• CIVIL

civil and criminal See also:

• LAW
• LAW (0. Eng. lagu, M. Eng. lawe; from an old Teutonic root lag, " lie," what lies fixed or evenly; cf. Lat. lex, Fr. loi)
• LAW, JOHN (1671—1729)
• LAW, WILLIAM (1686-1761)

law . The See also:

• TERM

term " medical See also:

• JURISPRUDENCE (Lat. jurisprudenlia, knowledge of law, from jus, right, and prudentia, from providere, to foresee)
• JURISPRUDENCE, COMPARATIVE

jurisprudence," though sanctioned by See also:

• LONG, GEORGE (1800-1879)
• LONG, JOHN DAVIS (1838– )

long usage, is not really appropriate, since the subject is strictly a branch of medicine rather than of jurisprudence; it does not properly include sanitation or See also:

• HYGIENE (Fr. hygiene, from Gr. ir'taivety, to be healthy)

hygiene, both this and medical jurisprudence proper being distinct branches of state medicine . The connexion between medicine and the law was perceived long before medical jurisprudence was recognized, or had obtained a distinct appellation . It first took its rise in See also:

• GERMANY
• GERMANY (Ger. Deutschland)

Germany, and more tardily received recognition in See also:

• GREAT

Great See also:

• BRITAIN (Gr. Hperavuml vi7vot, Bperravia; Lat. Britannia, rarely Britannia)

Britain . Forensic medicine, or medical jurisprudence proper as distinguished from hygiene, embraces all questions which bring the medical See also:

• MAN
• MAN, ISLE OF (anc. Mona)

man into contact with the law, and embraces (1) questions affecting the civil rights individuals, and (2) injuries to the See also:

• PERSON, OFFENCES AGAINST THE

person . I.—QUESTIONS AFFECTING THE CIVIL OR SOCIAL RIGHTS OF INDIVIDUALS 1 . Development of the Human See also:

• FRAME

Frame.—The development of the See also:

• PHYSICAL

physical and See also:

• MENTAL

mental See also:

• POWERS, HIRAM (1805-1873)

powers of the human being is a See also:

• FACTOR (from Lat. facere, to make or do)

factor of great consequence in determining criminal responsibility, civil responsibility, or the See also:

• POWER [WILLIAM GRATTAN] TYRONE (1797-1841)

power of giving validity to civil contracts, and in determining the See also:

• PERSONAL

personal identity of a living person or of a See also:

• CORPSE (Lat. corpus, the body)

corpse . Human See also:

• LIFE

life is usually divided into the five periods of See also:

• INFANCY

infancy, childhood, youth, manhood and old See also:

• AGE (Fr. age, through late Lat. aetaticum, from aetas)

age . Some writers increase the number of these unnecessarily to seven periods . Infancy is the See also:

• PERIOD
• PERIOD (Gr. irepioSos, a going or way round, circuit, aepi, round, and &Sis, way, road)

period from See also:

• BIRTH (a word common in various forms to Teutonic languages from the root of the verb " to bear ")

birth till the first or See also:

• MILK (0. Eng. meoluc; from a common Indo-European root, cf. Lat. mulgere, Gr. ?t dXyetv)

milk set of See also:

• TEETH (O.E. Eel); plural of tooth, O.E. top)

teeth begin to be See also:

• SHED

shed—usually about the seventh See also:

• YEAR

year . During this period the See also:

• BODY

body increases in See also:

• SIZE

size and stature more, relatively, than at any other period of existence; and the mental faculties undergo great development . The milk teeth, twenty in number, are evolved in a definite See also:

• ORDER
• ORDER (through Fr. ordre, for earlier ordene, from Lat. ordo, ordinis, rank, service, arrangement; the ultimate source is generally taken to be the root seen in Lat. oriri, rise, arise, begin; cf. " origin ")
• ORDER, HOLY

order, beginning with the central incisors at about six months, and ending with the second molars about the termination of the second year .

From the size and stature of the body, the development of the teeth, and the more or less advanced state of ossification or solidification of the bony See also:

• SKELETON

skeleton, conclusions may be See also:

• DRAWN

drawn as to the probable age of the See also:

• INFANT (in early forms enfaunt, enfant, through the Fr. enfant, from Lat. infans, in, not, and fans, the present participle of fari, to speak)

infant . Childhood extends from the commencement of the shedding of the milk teeth to the age of See also:

• PUBERTY (Lat. pubertas, from pubes, puber, mature, adult)

puberty—usually from the seventh to the fourteenth or fifteenth year . During this period the body expands, as well as the bony structures, without any clearly marked difference in structure being observable between the sexes except as regards the genitals, so that it is impossible to distinguish absolutely between the male and the See also:

• FEMALE

female skeleton during this period . The milk teeth are shed, and are replaced by the second or permanent set, See also:

• THIRTY

thirty-two in number, though these do not usually all make their See also:

• APPEARANCE (from Lat. apparere, to appear)

appearance during childhood . Marked See also:

• DIFFERENCES, CALCULUS OF (Theory of Finite Differences)

differences between the proclivities of the sexes are noticeable even at an See also:

• EARLY
• EARLY, JUBAL ANDERSON (1816-1894)

early period of childhood, and long before the characteristic functions begin to be See also:

• DEVELOPED

developed . Youth is marked at its commencement by the changes which occur at puberty—the development of the genitals in both sexes, the appearance of See also:

• HAIR (a word common to Teutonic languages)

hair on the genitals, the appearance of a See also:

• BEARD (A.S. beard, O. H. and Mod. Ger. Bart, Dan. beard, Icel. bar, rim, edge, beak of a ship, &c., O. Slay. barda, Russ. barodd. Cf. Welsh barf, Lat.. barba, though, according to the New English Dictionary, the connexion is for phonetic reasons doubtful)
• BEARD, WILLIAM HOLBROOK (1825-1900)

beard in the male, the development of the. breasts in the female, the appearance of the monthly flow in the female, and the ability to secrete semen in the male . Marked mental changes now occur, and the generative functions are perfected . Youth terminates at the age of legal See also:

• MAJORITY (Fr. majorite; Med. Lat. majoritas; Lat. major, greater)

majority, twenty-one years, or perhaps the period ought to be extended to twenty-five years of age, as it is with some nations . Manhood (or Womanhood) is the period of perfection of all the bodily and mental powers . It ceases in woman with the cessation of the monthly flow at about See also:

• FORTY

forty-five years of age; but in man it often extends to a much later period of life . Old Age begins with the decay of the bodily and mental faculties, and is characterized by wrinkling of the skin, loss of the teeth, whitening of the hair, and feebleness of the limbs . In its later stages decay of the mental faculties, deafness, obscurity or loss of See also:

• VISION (from Lat. videre, to see), or SIGHT

vision, and bowing of the spine are added .

2 . Duration of Human Life.—The chances of human life See also:

• FORM (Lat. forma)

form an important subject of inquiry, and on deductions from comparisons of birth and See also:

• DEATH

death rates is founded the See also:

• SYSTEM

system of annuities, See also:

• INSURANCE

insurance against loss in sickness, and the insurance of lives . Since the See also:

• ESTABLISHMENT (0. Fr. establissement, Fr. etablissement, late Norm. Fr. establishement, from O. Fr. establir, Fr. etablir, Lat. stabilire, to make stable)

establishment of compulsory See also:

• REGISTRATION

registration of deaths, our knowledge of the See also:

• ORDINARY (med. Lat. ordinarius, Fr. ordinaire)

ordinary and extraordinary chances of human life has been extended, and surer data are available for calculations of probabilities of life, of survivorships, and of the payments which ought to be made in benefit clubs (see INSURANCE) . 3 . Personal Identity: Where the identity has to be established or disproved after long See also:

• ABSENCE (Lat. absentia)

absence, exposure to See also:

• FOREIGN

foreign climates and hardships, wounds, &c., the problem has often been extremely difficult . The data for identifying a person are individual and See also:

• FAMILY

family likeness, stature, the See also:

• COLOUR (Lat. color, connected with celare, to hide, the root meaning, therefore, being that of a covering)

colour of the eyes, peculiarities of garb and manner, recollection of antecedent events, but more especially marks on the persons either congenital or acquired . Such are naevi or See also:

• MOTHER

mother's marks, scars, and disunited or badly See also:

• UNITED

united fractures, known to have existed upon the missing person (see See also:

• IDENTIFICATION (Lat. idem, the same)

IDENTIFICATION) . In the See also:

• CASE
• CASE, JOHN (d. 1600)

case of the living, identification is more often a See also:

• MATTER

matter for the See also:

• POLICE (Fr. police, government, civil administration, a police force, Gr. sroXumeia, constitution, condition of a state, roars, city, state)

police officer than for the medical man . See also:

• BERTILLON, LOUIS ADOLPHE (1821-1883)

Bertillon and See also:

• GALTON, SIR FRANCIS (1822– )

Galton have each devised methods for the identification of criminals (see See also:

• ANTHROPOMETRY (Gr. avOpwnros, man, and Air poi', measure)

ANTHROPOMETRY, and See also:

• FINGER

FINGER-PRINTS) . 4 . See also:

• MARRIAGE

Marriage.—Under this See also:

• HEAD (in 0. Eng. heafad; the word is common to Teutonic languages; cf. Dutch hoofd, Ger. Haupt, generally taken to be in origin connected with Lat. caput, Gr. KerbOvi7)
• HEAD, SIR EDMUND WALKER, BART
• HEAD, SIR FRANCIS BOND, BART

head the medical jurist has to See also:

• DEAL

deal principally with the nubile age, viewed in the See also:

• LIGHT

light of nature and according to legislative enactments, and with such physical circumstances as affect the legality of marriages, or justify See also:

• DIVORCE

divorce . In Great Britain the age at which the sexes are first capable of propagating the See also:

• SPECIES

species is later than in more See also:

• SOUTHERN

southern climes .

Ordinarily it does not occur before fifteen years of age for the male and fourteen for the female; exceptionally it occurs at the ages of thirteen and of twelve (or even less) respectively in the male and female . By law, nevertheless, parents and guardians may, in See also:

• ENGLAND
• ENGLAND, THE CHURCH OF

England at all events, forbid the marriage of See also:

• YOUNG
• YOUNG, A
• YOUNG, ARTHUR (1741-1820)
• YOUNG, BRIGHAM (1801-1877)
• YOUNG, CHARLES MAYNE (1777–1856)
• YOUNG, EDWARD (1683–1765)
• YOUNG, JAMES (1811-1883)
• YOUNG, THOMAS (1773-1829)

young See also:

• PEOPLE

people till the age of legal majority . The only physical circumstances which in Great Britain form a See also:

• BAR
• BAR (0. Fr. barre, Late Lat. barra, origin unknown)
• BAR, CONFEDERATION OF
• BAR, FRANCOIS DE (1538-1606)
• BAR, THE

bar to marriage are physical inability to consummate, and the See also:

• INSANITY (from Lat. in, not, and sanus, sound)

insanity of one of the parties at the See also:

• TIME (0. Eng. Lima, cf. Icel. timi, Swed. timme, hour, Dan. time; from the root also seen in " tide," properly the time of between the flow and ebb of the sea, cf. O. Eng. getidan, to happen, " even-tide," &c.; it is not directly related to Lat. tempus)
• TIME, MEASUREMENT OF
• TIME, STANDARD

time of marriage . Both those circumstances have been pleaded and sustained in the law courts . In other countries See also:

• MINOR
• MINOR (Lat. for smaller, lesser)
• MINOR, ROBERT CRANNELL (1839-1904)

minor physical circumstances, as disease, are held to invalidate marriage . s . See also:

• IMPOTENCE (Lat. impotentia, want of power)

Impotence and Sterility.—These are of importance in connexion with See also:

• LEGITIMACY

legitimacy, divorce and criminal assaults . Impotence and sterility may arise from organic or from functional causes, and may be curable or incurable . Impotence (q.v.) is taken cognisance of by the law courts as a ground of divorce, and might, of course, be urged as a See also:

• DEFENCE
• DEFENCE (Lat. defendere, to defend)

defence in a case of See also:

• RAPE
• RAPE (from Lat. rapere, to seize)
• RAPE (Lat. rapum or rapa, turnip)

rape . Sterility is not a ground of divorce, but might be a question of importance in cases of legitimacy . 6 . Pregnancy.—This subject presents one of the widest See also:

• FIELDS, JAMES THOMAS (1817-1881)

fields for medico-legal See also:

• EVIDENCE (Lat. evidentia, evideri, to appear clearly)

evidence .

The limits of age between which it is possible, the limits of utero-gestation, and the signs of pregnancy may all in turn be the subjects of investigation . The limits of age between which pregnancy is possible are usually fixed by the appearance and cessation of the monthly flow; and these ordinarily begin about fourteen and cease at forty-five years of age . Exceptionally they appear as early as the tenth year, and may not cease till the end of the fifth See also:

• DECADE (from Gr. Oka, ten)

decade of life . Cases, however, have occurred where a woman has conceived before menstruating; and a few doubtful cases of conception are recorded in See also:

• WOMEN

women upwardsof fifty or even sixty years of age . The See also:

• GENERAL
• GENERAL (Lat. generalis, of or relating to a genus, kind or class)

general fact of pregnancy being limited by the age of puberty on the one See also:

• HAND
• HAND (a word common to Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Hand, Goth. handus)
• HAND, FERDINAND GOTTHELF (1786-185r)

hand and the cessation of the monthly flow—or fifty-three or fifty-four years as the extreme limit of age—must be accepted as the safest See also:

• GUIDE (in Mid. Eng. gyde, from the Fr. guide; the earlier French form was guie, English " guy," the d was due to the Italian form guida; the ultimate origin is probably Teutonic, the word being connected with the base seen in O. Eng. witan, to know)

guide in practice . The limits of utero-gestation are not in England fixed by legislation . The See also:

• FRENCH
• FRENCH, DANIEL CHESTER (1850– )
• FRENCH, NICHOLAS (1604-1678)

French See also:

• CODE (Lat. codex)

code fixes the extreme limit of three See also:

• HUNDRED

hundred days . The ordinary period is forty See also:

• WEEKS, EDWIN LORD (1849-1903)

weeks and a See also:

• HALF

half, or two hundred and eighty-three days from the cessation of the last monthly See also:

• FLUX (Lat. fluxus, a flowing; this being also the meaning of the English term in medicine, &c.)

flux . The limit of three hundred days, as fixed by the French code, is perhaps never exceeded, if ever reached . The uncertainty of See also:

• FEMALES

females in fixing the exact date of conception has given rise to the discrepant opinions of physiologists on the subject . It is well known, however, that among the higher animals the period is not precise; and impregnation and conception need not necessarily be coincident . The signs of pregnancy are of the utmost importance to the medical jurist .

He may be called upon to pronounce upon the virtue of a female, to sustain or rebut a plea for divorce, to determine whether a See also:

• CAPITAL (i.e. capital stock or fund)
• CAPITAL (Lat. caput, head)

capital See also:

• SENTENCE (Lat. sententia, a way of thinking, opinion, judgment; vote, sentire, to feel, think)

sentence shall be carried out, or to determine whether it is probable that an See also:

• HEIR (Lat. heres, from a root meaning to grasp, seen in heres or erus, master of a house, Gr. xeip, hand, Sans. hat ana, hand)

heir will be See also:

• BORN, IGNAZ, EDLER VON (1742–1791)

born to an See also:

• ESTATE (through O. Fr. estat, mod. flat, from Lat. status, state, condition, position, stare, to stand)

estate . Medical jurists classify the signs of pregnancy as uncertain or certain; it is the former which are most regarded by the public, but the latter are alone of probative value to the jurist . The usual and uncertain signs are the cessation of the monthly flow, See also:

• NAUSEA (from Gr. vain, a ship)

nausea, sickness, a darkening of the areola and the formation of a secondary areola around the nipple, enlargement of the breasts, increased size of the See also:

• ABDOMEN (a Latin word, either from abdere, to hide, or from a form adipomen, from adeps, fat)

abdomen, the formation of a See also:

• TUMOUR (Lat. tumor, a swelling)

tumour in the womb, quickening, and the motions of the foetus . Also uncertain are the uterine souffle, which is a See also:

• PECULIAR

peculiar soft See also:

• SOUND
• SOUND, THE (Danish Oresund)

sound heard over the abdomen and synchronous with the maternal See also:

• PULSE

pulse and ballottement or the examination for a floating tumour in the abdomen between the fifth and eighth months of pregnancy . The certain signs of pregnancy are the foetal limbs palpated through the abdomen by the physician, the pulsations of the foetal See also:

• HEART
• HEART, LUNG

heart heard by means of the See also:

• STETHOSCOPE (Gr. vrijOos, chest, and UK07r6.v, to look, examine)

stethoscope, the pulsations being much quicker and not synchronous with the maternal pulse . This latter is inapplicable before the See also:

• FOURTH

fourth See also:

• MONTH
• MONTH (a common Teutonic word, cf. Ger. Mond, Du. maand, Dan. maaned, &c., and cognate with Lat. mensis, Gr. µi7v, &c., in other branches of the Indo-Germanic family; all ultimately from the root seen in the word for the moon in nearly all those languages

month of gestation . 7 . Parturition.—The imminence of the See also:

• PROCESS

process of parturition is of comparatively little See also:

• INTEREST

interest to the medical jurist; but the signs of See also:

• RECENT

recent delivery are all-important . These signs are the bruised, swollen, and lacerated state of the See also:

• EXTERNAL

external genitals, relaxation and See also:

• DILATATION (from Lat. dis-, distributive, and lotus, wide)

dilatation of the vagina and womb, the existence of a peculiar vaginal See also:

• DISCHARGE (adapted from the O. Fr. discharge, modern decharge, from a med. Lat. discargare, to unload, dis- and earn care, to load, cf. " charge ")

discharge known as the lochia, a relaxed and fissured See also:

• CONDITION (Lat. condicio, from condicere, to agree upon, arrange; not connected with conditio, from condere, conditum, to put together)

condition of the abdominal walls, a peculiar aspect of the countenance, and the distended state of the breasts due to the secretion of milk . The lochial discharge is the most characteristic sign . All the signs may disappear within ten days of delivery, though this is not usual . Connected with parturition, the question of viability (potentiality for life) of the See also:

• CHILD
• CHILD, FRANCIS JAMES (1825-1896)
• CHILD, L
• CHILD, LYDIA MARIA (1802-1880)
• CHILD, SIR FRANCIS (1642-1713)
• CHILD, SIR JOHN (d. 1690)
• CHILD, SIR JOSIAH (163o - 1699)

child is not unimportant .

After the See also:

• INTRA

intra-uterine age of seven months is reached a child is certainly viable . The period at which the foetus becomes viable cannot be stated with certainty; but five See also:

• CALENDAR

calendar months, or one hundred and fifty days, is perhaps the nearest approximation . The viability of a child is judged by its size and See also:

• WEIGHT

weight, its general state of development; the state of the skin, hair, and nails; its strength or feebleness,the ability to cry, and its power of taking maternal nourishment . The question of viability has important See also:

• BEARINGS

bearings upon the See also:

• CRIME (Lat. crimen, accusation)

crime of See also:

• INFANTICIDE

infanticide . In the case of See also:

• SUCCESSION (Lat. successio, from succedere, to follow after)

succession to See also:

• PROPERTY

property the meaning of " born alive " is different from the meaning of the same expression as used respecting infanticide . In questions of tenancy by the See also:

• CURTESY (a variant of " courtesy," q.v.)

curtesy (q.v.) it has been decided that any See also:

• KIND (O. E. ge-cynde, from the same root as is seen in " kin," supra)

kind of See also:

• MOTION (Lat. motio, from movere, to move)
• MOTION, LAWS OF

motion of the child, as a twitching and tremulous motion of the lips, is sufficient evidence of live-birth . By the French code, however, no child that is born alive can inherit, unless it is born viable . As regards infanticide, See also:

• PROOF (in M. Eng. preove, proeve, preve, &°c., from O. Fr . prueve, proeve, &c., mod. preuve, Late. Lat. proba, probate, to prove, to test the goodness of anything, probus, good)

proof of a conclusive See also:

• SEPARATE

separate existence of the child is demanded before live-birth is admitted . The subject of superfoetation and superfecundation, or the possibility of two conceptions having occurred resulting in the birth of twins with a considerable intervening See also:

• INTERVAL

interval, is obscure and has given rise to much controversy . There is much, however (e.g. the existence of a See also:

• DOUBLE
• DOUBLE (from the Mid. Eng. duble, the form which gives the present pronunciation, through the Old Er. duble, from Lat. duplus, twice as much)

double or bifid uterus), to countenance the view that a double conception is possible . 8 . Monsters and Hermaphrodites.—To destroy any living human birth, however unlike a human creature it may be, is to commit a crime .

See also:

• BLACKSTONE, SIR WILLIAM (1723-1780)

Blackstone states that a See also:

• MONSTER (Lat. monstrum, from root of monere, to warn; i.e. something terrible or portentous)
• MONSTER, GEORG, COUNT ZU (1776-1844)

monster which hath not the shape of mankind hath no inheritable See also:

• BLOOD

blood; but the law has not defined a monster, nor what constitutes a human form . The same author states that if, in spite of deformity, the product of birth has human shape, it may be an heir . Hermaphrodites are beings with malformations of the sexual See also:

• ORGANS

organs, simulating a double See also:

• SEX (Lat. sexes; possibly connected with secure, to cut)

sex . Physiologists do not admit, however, the existence of true hermaphrodites with double perfect organs, capable of performing the functions of both sexes . 9 . Paternity and See also:

• AFFILIATION (from Lat. ad filiare, to adopt as a son)

Affiliation.—These are often matters of great doubt . A considerable time may elapse between the absence or death of a See also:

• FATHER

father and the birth of his reputed child . As has already been said, three hundred days is the utmost limit to which physiologists would extend the period of utero-gestation . This subject involves questions respecting See also:

• CHILDREN, LAW RELATING TO

children born during a second marriage of the mother, See also:

• POSTHUMOUS

posthumous children, bastardy, and alleged cases of posthumous children . ro . Presumption of Survivorship.—When two or more persons perish by a See also:

• COMMON

common See also:

• ACCIDENT
• ACCIDENT (from Lat. accidere, to happen)

accident, when a mother and her new-born child are found dead, and in a few analogous cases, important civil rights may depend upon the question which lived the longest; and great ingenuity has been displayed in elucidating the disputes which have arisen in the law courts in such cases . I r .

Maladies exempting from Discharge of Public Duties frequently demand the See also:

• ATTENTION (from Lat. ad-tendo, await, expect; the condition of being " stretched " or " tense ")

attention of the medical man . He may be called upon to decide whether a man is able to undertake military or See also:

• NAVAL

naval service, to See also:

• ACT (Lat. actus, actum)

act as a juryman without serious See also:

• RISK

risk to life or See also:

• HEALTH

health, or to attend as a See also:

• WITNESS
• WITNESS (from O. Eng. witan, to know)

witness at a trial . 12 . Feigned and Simulated Diseases often require much skill and caution in order to detect the imposture . 13 . The Signs of Death.—The determination of the actual existence of death assumes a certain importance in tropical countries, where the See also:

• NECESSITY (Lat. necessitas)

necessity for speedy interment may involve a risk of See also:

• BURIAL

burial alive . Such an accident cannot well occur where a medical man confirms the existence of death, and in the United See also:

• KINGDOM

Kingdom, where burial rarely takes See also:

• PLACE (through Fr. from Lat. platea, street; Gr. IrAar6s, wide)

place before the See also:

• LAPSE (Lat. lapses, a slip or departure)

lapse of forty-eight See also:

• HOURS, CANONICAL

hours, such changes usually occur in the body as to render any See also:

• ERROR (Lat. error, from errare, to wander, to err)

error practically impossible . Within a varying period, usually not more than twelve hours, the body becomes rigid, owing to the development of rigor mortis or See also:

• POST

post mortem rigidity . The blood, which during life is equally distributed throughout the body, gravitates to the most dependent parts and develops a discoloration of the skin which is known as post mortem lividity or post mortem staining . At a variable period of time, dependent on the cause of death, also the temperature and moisture of the See also:

• AIR (from an Indo-European root meaning " breathe," " blow ")
• AIR, or ASBEN

air to which the body is exposed, de-See also:

• COMPOSITION
• COMPOSITION (Lat. compositio, from componere, to put together)

composition or putrefaction sets in . These changes after death are of great importance, not only as affording certain proof of death, but also because they furnish valuable See also:

• INFORMATION (from Lat. informare, to give shape or form to, to represent, describe)

information as to the probable time at which it occurred, and from the fact that they may alter or destroy evidence as to the cause of death.' 14 . Insanity or Mental See also:

• ALIENATION (from Lat. alienus, belonging to another)

Alienation.—A medical man may be required to give evidence in any of the law courts, civil, criminal or ecclesiastical, before commissions de lunatico inquirendo, or before a See also:

• MAGISTRATE (Lat. magistratus, from magister, master, properly a public office, hence the person holding such an office)

magistrate, as to the sanity or insanity of an individual; and he may have to sign certificates of unsoundness of mind with the view of providing for the safe custody and proper treatment of a lunatic .

Hence he must be See also:

• FAMILIAR (through the Fr. familier, from Lat. familiaris, of or belonging to the familia, family)

familiar with the See also:

• CHIEF (from Fr. chef, head, Lat. caput)

chief forms of insanity (see INSANITY), and be able to distinguish and treat each of these . He will also be required to detect feigned insanity, and to examine persons charged with crime with the view of preventing real lunatics from being treated as criminals . II.—INJURIES TO THE PERSON r . Deftoration.—The signs of defloration are obscure and uncertain; and it is rather by the coexistence of several of the usual marks than the existence of any one sign, that any just conclusion can be arrived at . . 2 . Rape.—This crime consists in the carnal knowledge of a woman forcibly and against her will . The proofs of rape apart from the consistency of the woman's See also:

• STORY, JOHN (c. 1510-1571)
• STORY, JOSEPH (1779-1845)
• STORY, ROBERT HERBERT (1835-1907)
• STORY, WILLIAM WETMORE (1819—1895)

story, mainly depend on the presence of marks of violence, stains, &c . In all charges of rape, the woman and her assailant should be examined as soon as possible by a medical man, but such examination, it is important to remember, can only be carried out with the See also:

• FREE

free consent of the party to be examined . It is to be noted that according to See also:

• ENGLISH

English law the slightest degree of penetration is sufficient to constitute the crime of rape . 3 . See also:

• MUTILATION (from Lat. mutilus, maimed)

Mutilation.—This may consist in the cutting or See also:

• MAIMING

maiming of any member; castration is the most important, and perhaps butmedical jurist in the first place to ascertain the fact of death, and to distinguish between real and apparent death; and then to determine, if possible, the period at which death took place . Infanticide, or child See also:

• MURDER

murder, is by the See also:

• BRITISH

British law treated with the same severity as the murder of an adult .

Indeed infanticide as a crime distinct from murder has no legal recognition . Practi. cally this severity defeats itself, and hence an alternative See also:

• CHARGE
• CHARGE (through the Fr. from the Late Lat. carricare, to load in a carrus or wagon; cf. " cargo ")

charge of concealment of birth in England, or concealment of pregnancy in See also:

• SCOTLAND
• SCOTLAND, CHURCH OF
• SCOTLAND, EPISCOPAL CHURCH OF

Scotland, is usually preferred in such cases . The iniquity of the old law which threw the onus of proof of still. birth on the mother now no longer exists, and the law demands. strict proof of live-birth at the hands of the See also:

• PROSECUTION

prosecution . Hence the subject involves See also:

• NICE

nice points of forensic medicine . The child must be proved to have arrived at the period when there was a See also:

• PROBABILITY (Lat. probabilis, probable or credible)

probability of its living (proof of viability) ; and as the establishment of respiration is necessary to prove live-birth the evidences of this act must be carefully investigated . The size and position of the lungs, and the state of the vessels concerned in foetal circulation, must be carefully noted . The foetal lungs are dark, dense and See also:

• LIVER (O. Eng. lifer; cf. cognate forms, Dutch lever, Ger. Leber, Swed. lefver, &c.; the O. H. Ger. forms are libara, lipora, &c.; the Teut. word has been connected with Gr. i'prap and Lat. jecur)

liver-like in appearance and consistence, and sink when immersed in See also:

• WATER

water; whilst the fully respired lungs are rosy, marbled, and soft and crepitant when handled . Minor degrees of respiration are recognized by the appearance of little See also:

• GROUPS
• GROUPS, THEORY

groups of dilated air-vesicles, and by the fact that, although the lungs as a whole may sink in water, certain portions of them, into which respired air has penetrated, See also:

• FLOAT (in O. Eng. floc and flota, in the verbal form f eotan; the Teutonic root is flut-, another form of flu-, seen in " flow," cf. " fleet "; the root is seen in Gr. a-M e, to sail, Lat. pluere, to rain; the Lat, fluere and fluctus, wave, is not connect

float in water even after subjection to See also:

• FIRM

firm pressure in the hand . Care must be taken, nevertheless, to exclude buoyancy of the See also:

• LUNG

lung due to putrefaction; in this case the air may be expelled by See also:

• GENTLE (through the Fr. gentil, from Lat. gentilis, belonging to the same gens, or family)

gentle pressure, and the previously buoyant portion of lung now sinks in water . It is impossible, however, to distinguish certainly between a lung naturally inflated and one artificially insufflated . It must be See also:

• BORNE, KARL LUDWIG (1786–1837)

borne in mind that, although live-birth cannot be affirmed in the absence of signs of respiration, the presence of these signs is not proof of live-birth in the legal sense of the term . The law demands for live-birth a separate existence of the child after delivery ; and breathing may take place whilst the child is still either wholly or partially within the maternal passages, and in some See also:

• SPECIAL

special cases whilst still within the uterus itself .

When proofs of respiration—it may be to such an extent as to leave no doubt as to live-birth—have been found, the cause of death is then to be investigated . Wounds, and other forms of injury, must be sought for . There may be signs of strangulation, suffocation, puncture of the fontanelles and consequent injury to the See also:

• BRAIN (A.S. braegen)

brain, the See also:

• ADMINISTRATION (Lat. administrare, to serve)

administration of a See also:

• POISON

poison, or other means of procuring death . It must be borne in mind that some of these causes may be brought about by omission, or even by accident . Thus strangulation may arise from natural and unrelieved pressure of the See also:

• NAVEL (O. Eng. nafela, a word common to Teutonic languages; of. Ger. Nobel, Swed. nafvel; the Sanskrit is nabhila; the English root is also seen in " nave," the hub of a wheel)

navel-See also:

• STRING

string on the See also:

• NECK (O. Eng. hnecca; the word appears in many Teutonic languages; cf. Dutch ride, Ger. Nacken; in O. E. the common word was heals; cf. Ger. Hals)

neck of the child; suffocation from See also:

• IMMERSION (Lat. immersio, dipping),

immersion of the See also:

• FACE (from Lat. fades, derived either from facere, to make, or from a root fa-, meaning " appear "; cf. Gr. cbatvstv)

face of the child in the maternal discharges, or by pressure of clothes on the mouth . Death may result from See also:

• HAEMORRHAGE (Gr. atµa, blood, and prryvvvac, to burst)

haemorrhage through neglect to tie the navel-string, or the infant may perish from exposure to See also:

• COLD (in O. Eng. cald and ceald, a word coming ultimately from a root cognate with the Lat. gelu, gelidus, and common in the Teutonic languages, which usually have two distinct forms for the substantive and the adjective, cf. Ger. Kolte, kalt, Dutch koude

cold . In the case of exposed infants it is important to ascertain the real mother . As such exposure usually takes place soon after birth, comparison of the age of the infant with the signs of recent delivery in the suspected mother is the best method of proving the relation . rarely effected as a crime . Self-mutilation, giving rise to false accusations, is occasionally resorted to . 4 . Criminal See also:

• ABORTION (from Lat. aboriri, to fail to be born, or perish)

Abortion.—This crime consists in unlawfully procuring the See also:

• EXPULSION (Lat. expulsio, from expellere)

expulsion of the contents of the gravid uterus at any period See also:

• SHORT, FRANCIS JOB (1857– )

short of full term .

It must be noted that while this See also:

• DEFINITION (Lat. definitio, from de-finire, to set limits to, describe)

definition may be held to recognize the See also:

• INDUCTION (from Lat. inducere, to lead into; cf. Gr. ilrayu yli)

induction of premature labour by medical men in certain circumstances, yet, when the operation is necessary, a medical man should always protect himself from possible misconstruction of his See also:

• ACTION

action (i.e. criminal See also:

• INTENT (from Lat. intend ere, to stretch out, extend, particularly in the phrase intendere animum, to turn one's mind to, purpose)

intent) by having a consultation with another practitioner . The means employed in criminal abortion to procure the desired result may be classed under three heads: (r) general violence to the body, (2) administration of drugs supposed to have abortifacient qualities, (3) instrumental interference with the contents of the uterus . Among the drugs frequently employed for the purpose, although by no means always successfully, are See also:

• ERGOT, or SPURRED RYE

ergot, strong purgatives, See also:

• IRON [symbol Fe, atomic weight 55.85 (0=16)]

iron, See also:

• RUE (Fr. rue, Lat. ruta, from Gr. pur)

rue, See also:

• PENNYROYAL

pennyroyal, savin . 5 . See also:

• HOMICIDE (Lat. homicidium)

Homicide.—The legal sense of the term homicide excludes such injuries as are the result of either accident or of See also:

• SUICIDE (from Lat. sui, of oneself, and cidium, from cued ere, to kill)

suicide . It embraces murder or wilful homicide, See also:

• MANSLAUGHTER (0. Eng., mannslaeht, from mann, man, and slaeht, act of slaying, sledn, to slay, properly to smite; cf. Ger. schlagen, Schlacht, battle)

manslaughter or culpable homicide, casual homicide, and justifiable homicide . Ordinary homicide may be accomplished by several modes that may sometimes be ascertained by examination of the body, e.g. poison . As a preliminary in all cases of homicide, it is the See also:

• DUTY (from " due," that which is owing, O. Fr. deu, dil, past participle of devoir; Lat. debere, debitum; cf. " debt ")

duty of the Death from See also:

• ASPHYXIA (Gr. a- priv., a fn ts, a pulse)

Asphyxia.—Among the forms of violent death due to this cause are drowning, See also:

• HANGING

hanging, strangulation, garotting, smothering, suffocation from choking, See also:

• MECHANICAL

mechanical interference with the expansion of the See also:

• CHEST (Gr. Kiarl, Lat. cista, O. Eng. cist, test, &c.)

chest walls, as when persons are crushed together during a panic in a See also:

• FIRE (in O. Eng. f j'r; the word is common to West German languages, cf. Dutch vuur, Ger. Feuer; the pre-Teutonic form is seen in Sanskrit pu, pavaka, and Gr. irup; the ultimate origin is usually taken to be a root meaning to purify, cf. Lat. purus)

fire, breathing poisonous gases, such as carbonic See also:

• ACID (from the Lat. root ac-, sharp; acere, to be sour)

acid or carbonic See also:

• OXIDE

oxide . Suicide and accidental death from these causes are still more common . Drowning is thought to produce death occasionally by the suddenness of the See also:

• SHOCK, or COLLAPSE

shock causing suspension of the functions of circulation and respiration—by shock without a struggle . The usual mode of death appears, however, to be by the circulation of unoxygenated blood through the brain acting as a poison upon that See also:

• ORGAN

organ; and this is attended with all the phenomena of asphyxia, as in suffocation . The phenomena attending asphyxia are as follows .

As soon as the See also:

• OXYGEN (symbol 0, atomic weight 16)

oxygen in the arterial blood, through exclusion of air, sinks below the normal, the See also:

• RESPIRATORY

respiratory movements grow deeper and at the same time more frequent; both the inspiratory and expiratory phases are exaggerated, the supplementary respiratory muscles are brought into See also:

• PLAY

play, and the breathing becomes hurried . As the blood becomes more and more venous, the respiratory movements continue to increase both in force and frequency . Very soon the expiratory movements become more marked than the inspiratory, and every muscle which can in any way assist in expiration is brought into play . The orderly expiratory movements culminate in expiratory See also:

• CONVULSIONS

convulsions; these violent efforts speedily exhaust the See also:

• NERVOUS

nervous system, and the convulsions suddenly cease and are followed by a period of See also:

• CALM

calm . The calm is one of exhaustion; all expiratory active movements have ceased, and all the muscles of the body are flaccid and quiet . But at long intervals lengthened deep inspiratory movements take place; then these movements become less frequent; the See also:

• RHYTHM (Greek pvBµds, from bap, to flow)

rhythm becomes irregular, so that each breath becomes a more and more prolonged gasp, which becomes at last a convulsive stretching of the whole body; and with extended limbs and a straightened See also:

• TRUNK (Fr. tronc, Lat. truncus, cut off, maimed)

trunk, with the head thrown back, the mouth widely open, the face drawn and the nostrils dilated, the last breath is taken . The above phenomena are not all observed except in cases of sudden and entire exclusion of air fmm the lungs . In slow asphyxia, where the See also:

• SUPPLY (through Fr. from Lat. supplere, to fill up)

supply of air is gradually diminished (e.g. in drowning), the phenomena are fundamentally the same, but with minor differences . The appearances of the body after death from drowning are various . There may be pallor of the countenance, or this may be livid and swollen . The air passages are filled with frothy mucus, and there may be water in the See also:

• STOMACH (Gr. vrbsaxos from arbga, a mouth)

stomach . The ends of the fingers are often excoriated from grasping at See also:

• OBJECTS

objects; and weeds, &c., are sometimes found grasped in the hands .

The distinction between murder and suicide by drowning can rarely be made out by examination of the body alone, and is usually decided from See also:

• COLLATERAL (from Med. Lat. collateralis,—cum, with, and latus, lateris, side,—side by side, hence parallel or additional)

collateral circumstances or marks of a struggle . Attention must also be paid to the existence of wounds on the body, marks of strangulation on the neck, and the like . Hanging may result in death from asphyxia, or, as is more particularly the case in judicial hanging, some injury is inflicted on the upper portion of the See also:

• SPINAL

spinal See also:

• CORD (derived through the Fr. corde, from the Lat. chorda, Gr. xop(5rt, the string of a musical instrument)

cord, resulting in instant death . The ordinary appearances of.death from asphyxia may be found: dark fluid blood, congestion of the brain, intensely congested lungs, the right cavities of the heart full, and the See also:

• LEFT

left comparatively empty of blood, and general engorgement of the viscera . Ecchymosis may be found beneath the site of the cord, or a See also:

• MERE
• MERE, ADALBERT (1838-1909)

mere parchmenty appearance . There may even be no See also:

• MARK
• MARK, CARL (1858– )
• MARK, GOSPEL OF ST
• MARK, ST

mark of the cord visible . The mark, when See also:

• PRESENT

present, usually follows an oblique course, and is high up the neck . The fact that a body may be suspended after death, and that if this be done speedily whilst the body is still warm there may be a post-mortem mark undistinguishable from the mark observed in death from hanging, must not be forgotten . Suffocation may occur from the impaction of any substance in the glottis, or by covering up the mouth and See also:

• NOSE (O.Eng. nosu, cf. Dutch neus, Swed. nos, snout; the Aix in Provence. Both at Aix and at Lyons he acquired great connexion with O.Eng. nasu is obscure, cf. Ger. Nase, Lat. pares, distinction by his labours during outbreaks of the plague. In nostrils,

nose . It is frequently of accidental origin, as when substances become accidentally impacted in the See also:

• THROAT (O. Eng. protu, prote or }Prota, possibly from preotan, to press, whence threat, or, with loss of initial s, connected with strut, to swell)

throat, and when infants are overlaid . The phenomena are those of pure asphyxia, which have already been detailed . On post-mortem examination the See also:

• SURFACE

surface of the lungs is found covered with See also:

• MINUTE
• MINUTE (Lat. minutes, small; minuere, to make less)

minute extravasations of blood, known as punctated ecchymosis .

Strangulation may be accomplished by See also:

• DRAWING

drawing a cord tightly See also:

• ROUND (O. Fr. rond, Lat. rotundus, the Fr. is the source also of Du. rond; Ger., Swed., Dan. and Nor. rond)

round the neck, or by forcibly compressing the See also:

• WINDPIPE

windpipe (throttling) . Hence there may be either a circular mark round the neck, not so oblique as after hanging, or the marks of the fingers may be found about the region of the larynx . The cartilaginous structures of the larynx and windpipe may be broken . The mark of the ligature is often See also:

• LOW, SETH (1850- )
• LOW, WILL HICOK (1853- )

low down in the neck . The signs of asphyxia are present in a marked degree . Mephitism.—In the United Kingdom this last form of death usually results accidentally from an See also:

• ESCAPE (in mid. Eng. eschape or escape, from the O. Fr. eschapper, modern echapper, and escaper, low Lat. escapium, from ex, out of, and cappa, cape, cloak; cf. for the sense development the Gr. iichueoOat, literally to put off one's clothes, hence to sli

escape of See also:

• LIGHTING

lighting See also:

• GAS

gas, the danger has been much increased in many towns owing to the addition of carburetted water-gas to the ordinary supply . Carbonic oxide gas is contained in ordinary lighting gas to the extent of about 6 to 8 %, and is extremely fatal when inhaled . Carburetted water-gas contains about 28%, and when mixed with ordinary lighting gas the percentage of carbonic oxide is thus very much increased . As a mode of assassination it is seldom employed, but is frequentlyresorted to on the See also:

• CONTINENT (from Lat. continere, "to hold together "; hence " connected," " continuous ")

continent of See also:

• EUROPE

Europe by suicides, See also:

• CHARCOAL

charcoal fumes being commonly used for the purpose . 6 . Death from See also:

• STARVATION

Starvation.—Cases occur in which it is important to distinguish this from other modes of death . In such cases the skin becomes harsh and dry, and may acquire a peculiar odour; the subcutaneous See also:

• FAT (O.E. fdett; the word is common to Teutonic languages, cf. Dutch vet, Ger. Fett, &c., and may be ultimately related to Greek Irian, and =apos, and Sanskrit pivan)

fat disappears; the gums shrink away from the teeth; the See also:

• TONGUE (O. Eng. lunge)

tongue and mouth become dark-coloured and dry; the eyes are bloodshot; the intestines become thin and their coats translucent; the See also:

• GALL (a word common to many Teutonic languages, cf. Dutch gal, and Ger. Galle; the Indo-European root appears in Gr. xoXi,, and Lat. fel; possibly connected with " yellow," with reference to the colour of bile)
• GALL, FRANZ JOSEPH (1758-1828)

gall-See also:

• BLADDER (from A.S. blaeddre, connected with bl¢wan, to blow, cf. Ger. blase)

bladder is distended .

The period of See also:

• TOTAL

total See also:

• ABSTINENCE (from Lat. abstinere, to abstain)

abstinence from See also:

• FOOD
• FOOD (like the verb " to feed," from a Teutonic root, whence O. Eng. foda; cf. " fodder "; connected with Gr. lrareicOae, to feed)

food required to kill an adult is unknown, and greatly depends upon whether there be See also:

• ACCESS (Lat. accessus)

access to liquid . In some cases persons have been able to subsist on little or no nourishment for long periods, the body being in a state of quasi-See also:

• HIBERNATION (winter sleep)

hibernation . 7 . Death from Extremes of Temperature.—(r) Death from cold is not often observed in the British Isles . A portion only of the body, as the extremity of a See also:

• LIMB

limb, may perish from extreme cold . After the first sensation of tingling experienced on exposure to severe cold, loss of sensation supervenes, with languor and an irresistible propensity to See also:

• SLEEP (0. Eng. slcepan; Ger. schlafen; cf. Lat. labi, to glide, and " slip ")

sleep . The tendency to this forms an extreme danger in such cases . (2) Death from extreme See also:

• HEAT (0. E. haktu, which like " hot," Old Eng. hat, is from the Teutonic type haita, hit, to be hot; cf. Ger. hitze, heiss; Dutch, hitte, heet, &c.)

heat usually occurs in the form of burning and scalding, attended with destruction of a large portion of the cutaneous structures . Here the cause of death is obvious . The human body is capable of exposure to very hot air—as is seen in See also:

• TURKISH

Turkish See also:

• BATHS

baths-for a considerable period with impunity . See also:

• SUNSTROKE (Heatstroke; Insolation; Thermic Fever; Siriasis)

Sunstroke is a cerebral See also:

• AFFECTION (Lat. ad, and facere, to do something to, sc. a person)

affection brought on by too great exposure to a ,hot See also:

• ATMOSPHERE (Gr. fir µ6r, vapour; orkaipa, a sphere)

atmosphere, especially whilst undergoing fatigue . 8 .

Death by See also:

• LIGHTNING

Lightning.—Lightning or an electric current may cause instant death . No visible marks of the effects of the electric current may be left, or the body may be singed or discoloured, or the skin may be perforated at one or two spots . 9 . Injuries or Wounds.—These include in a medico-legal sense not only those characterized as incised, punctured, contused, lacerated, stab wounds, but also See also:

• BURNS, JOHN (1858– )
• BURNS, ROBERT (1759-1796)
• BURNS, SIR GEORGE

burns, injuries produced by firearms, fractures, dislocations, &c . One of the chief questions which have to be decided in all forms of violent death is whether it was the result of accident, suicide or murder . In cases of fatal wounding, among the points to be noted, which will help to decide the question, are the situation, direction and extent of the See also:

• WOUND (O. Eng. wund,connected with a Teutonic verb, meaning to strive, fight, suffer, seen in O. Eng. winnan, whence Eng. " win ")

wound, the position in which the body and any weapon may be found, together with the presence and See also:

• DISTRIBUTION (Lat. distribuere, to deal out)

distribution of any blood marks and the signs of a struggle . In wounds caused by fire-arms the injury, if suicidal, is usually situated in a vital and accessible See also:

• PART

part of the body, the See also:

• TEMPLE
• TEMPLE, FREDERICK (1821-1902)
• TEMPLE, RICHARD
• TEMPLE, SIR RICHARD, BART
• TEMPLE, SIR WILLIAM, BART

temple, mouth, and chest being the favourite situations; but such an injury also presents, as a See also:

• RULE

rule, the characteristic appearances resulting from the discharge of the weapon See also:

• CLOSE
• CLOSE (from Lat. clausum, shut)
• CLOSE, MAXWELL HENRY (1822-1903)

close to the body, viz. besides the wound of entrance of the See also:

• BULLET (Fr. boulet, diminutive of boule, ball)

bullet, there are singeing of the cuticle and hair, and blackening of the See also:

• AREA

area immediately surrounding the wound, from particles of unconsumed See also:

• POWDER (through O. Fr. puldre, modern poudre, from Lat. pulvis, pulveris, dust)

powder being driven into the skin and from the See also:

• SMOKE (from O. Eng. smeocan, to smoke, reek, cf. Dutch meek, Ger. Schmauch, probably allied to Gr. vol9caiv)

smoke of the discharge . These effects are naturally not produced when the weapon is discharged at a distance exceeding 2 or 3 ft., as usually happens in cases of homicidal See also:

• SHOOTING

shooting . They may also be wanting in undoubted suicidal wounds produced by revolvers and cartridges filled with amberite or other smokeless powders . Death from burning is generally accidental, very rarely suicidal, and when homicidal is usually employed to conceal traces of other violence inflicted upon the body . In large conflagrations death is not always due to burning . Charred bodies may be found presenting various injuries due to the fall of beams, crushing, the trampling of others tryibg„ to escape, &c., or fractures and lacerations may be due simply to the action of the heat .

Death may result from such injuries, or from suffocation by the gases of See also:

• COMBUSTION (from the Lat. comburere, to burn up)

combustion, before the victim is affected by the actual fire . Spontaneous combustion of the body has been stated to occur, but the evidence upon which the cases See also:

• REST (O. Eng. rest, reste, bed, cognate with other Teutonic forms, e.g. Ger. Rast, Riiste, rest, and probably Gothic Rasta, league, i.e. resting or stopping place)

rest is not well authenticated . Punctured wounds or stabs require minute attention; for there have been instances in which death has been produced by an See also:

• INSTRUMENT (Lat. instrumentum, from insincere, to build up, furnish, arrange, prepare)

instrument so small as a See also:

• PIN (a doublet with " pen " from Lat. pinna, feather, pinnacle, which is said to contain the same root as irirvs, pine tree, and properly to mean a sharp point or end)

pin thrust into a vital part . Wounds of the head are always dangerous, especially if the See also:

• BLOW, JOHN (1648-1708)

blow has been severe . The person so wounded may See also:

• DIE
• DIE (Fr. de, from Lat. datum, given)

die without See also:

• DIVISION (from Lat. dividere, to break up into parts, separate)

division of the skin, or fracture of the bones, as' happens in what is known as concussion of the brain. duced by the blood of other animals, more especially domestic Contusions which ddo not See also:

• DIVIDE

divide the skin may fracture the See also:

• SKULL

skull; d or the inner table of the skull may be fractured without the See also:

• OUTER

outer being broken or depressed . Even wounds of the See also:

• SCALP (0. Dutch schelpe, a shell)

scalp may prove fatal, from inflammation extending towards the brain . Punctured wounds of the head are more dangerous than cuts, as more likely to excite fatal inflammation . When the brain and its membranes are injured, all such wounds are generally fatal . Wounds of the face or organs of sense are often dangerous, always disfiguring, and productive of serious inconvenience . Wounds of the neck are always serious whenever more than the skin is divided . The danger of opening large blood-vessels, or wounding important nerves, is imminent; even the division of a large vein in the neck has proved immediately fatal, from the entrance of air into the See also:

• VESSEL (O. Fr. vaissel, from a rare Lat. vascellum, dim. of vas, vase, urn)

vessel, and its speedy See also:

• CONVEYANCE

conveyance to the heart . A blow on the neck has instantly proved fatal, from injury to an important See also:

• NERVE (Lat. nervus, Gr. vevpov, a bowstring)

nerve, generally the pneumogastric or the sympathetic .

Dislocations and fractures of the bones of the neck prove instantly fatal . Wounds of the chest are always serious when the cavity is penetrated, though persons may recover from wounds of the lungs, and have even survived for some time considerable wounds of the heart . This last is an important fact ; because we are not always to consider the spot where the body of a person killed by a wound of the heart, and apparently remaining where he See also:

• FELL
• FELL, JOHN (1625-1686)

fell, is found as that in which the fatal wound was inflicted . Instances have occurred of persons surviving severe wounds of the heart for several days . Broken ribs are never without danger; and the same may be said of severe contusions of the chest, from the See also:

• CHANCE (through the O. Fr. cheance, from the Late Lat. cadentia, things happening, from cadere, to fall out, happen; cf. " case ")

chance of inflammation extending inwards . Wounds penetrating both sides of the chest are generally considered as fatal; but possibly there may be recovery from such . Wounds of the abdomen, when they do not completely penetrate, may be considered as See also:

• SIMPLE

simple wounds, unless whe