MESOMEDES  of See also:

• CRETE (Gr. Kp;rrrr; Turk. Kirid, Ital. Candia)

Crete, See also:

• GREEK
• GREEK, ETRUSCAN AND

Greek lyric poet, who lived during the and See also:

• CENTURY (from Lat. centuria, a division of a hundred men)

century A.D . He was a freedman of the See also:

• EMPEROR (Fr. empereur, from the Lat. imperator)

emperor See also:

• HADRIAN (PUBLICS AELIUS HADRIANUS)

Hadrian, on whose favourite See also:

• ANTINOUS

Antinous he is said to have written a See also:

• PANEGYRIC

panegyric . Two epigrams by him in the Greek See also:

• ANTHOLOGY

anthology (Anthol. See also:

• PAL, KRISTO DAS (1839–1884)

pal. xiv . 63, xvi . 323) and a hymn to See also:

• NEMESIS

Nemesis are extant . The hymn is of See also:

• SPECIAL

special See also:

• INTEREST

interest as preserving the See also:

• ANCIENT
• ANCIENT (also spelt ANTIENT; derived, through the Fr. ancien, old, from the late Lat. antianum, from ante, before)

ancient musical notation written over the See also:

• TEXT (Lat. textum, woven fabric, from texere, to weave)

text . Two other See also:

• HYMNS

hymns—to the muse See also:

• CALLIOPE

Calliope and to the See also:

• SUN
• SUN (0. Eng. sonne, Ger. sonne. Fr. soleil, Lat. sol, Gr. ijXior, from which comes helio- in various English compounds)

sun—formerlyeastward from See also:

• NORTHERN

northern maritime See also:

• SYRIA

Syria . The earliest Name, See also:

• APPEARANCE (from Lat. apparere, to appear)

appearance of a Semitic name of this See also:

• KIND (O. E. ge-cynde, from the same root as is seen in " kin," supra)

kind is in the last See also:

• PARAGRAPH

paragraph of the See also:

• BIOGRAPHY (from the Gr. (3ios, life, and yp&4 , writing)

biography of Ahmose of el-Kab, the aged officer of Tethmosis (Thutmose) I . As See also:

• EARLY
• EARLY, JUBAL ANDERSON (1816-1894)

early therefore as the See also:

• LATE

late 16th century B.C. the name Naharin (N'h'ryn') was in use . That the name was connected with nahar (a See also:

• RIVER

river) was See also:

• PLAIN (O. Fr. plain, from Lat. plenum)

plain to some of the See also:

• EGYPTIAN

Egyptian See also:

• SCRIBES

scribes, who wrote the word with determinative for See also:

• WATER

water " in addition to that for " See also:

• COUNTRY (from the Mid. Eng. contre or contrie, and O. Fr. cuntree; Late Lat. contrata, showing the derivation from contra, opposite, over against, thus the tract of land which fronts the sight, cf. Ger. Gegend, neighbourhood)

country." The scribes show no suspicion, however, of the name's being anything but a singular.' Is it possible that a consciousness that the word was not a plural can have survived till the early See also:

• CHRISTIAN
• CHRISTIAN, WILLIAM (1608-1663)

Christian centuries, when the See also:

• TARGUM

Targum of Onqelos (Onkelos) rendered Naharaim by " the river See also:

• EUPHRATES (Babylon. Purattu, Heb. Perath, Arab. Frdt or Furst, Old Pers. Ufratu, Gr. Eb4 parrls)

Euphrates " (Pethor of See also:

• ARAM, EUGENE (17o4-17J9)

Aram which is on the Euphrates: Deut. See also:

• XXIII

xxiii . 4 [51) ? The Naharin or Naharen of the Egyptian texts appears some five generations later in the Canaanitic of the Amarna letters in the See also:

• FORM (Lat. forma)

form Nabirim(a), which would seem therefore to be the See also:

• PRONUNCIATION (Lat. pronuntiatio, from pronuntiare, proclaim, announce, pronounce)

pronunciation then prevalent in See also:

• PHOENICIA

Phoenicia (Gebal) and See also:

• PALESTINE

Palestine (See also:

• JERUSALEM (Heb. ^S0-r, Yerushalaim, pronounced as a dual)
• JERUSALEM, SYNOD OF (1672)

Jerusalem) .

About the same See also:

• TIME (0. Eng. Lima, cf. Icel. timi, Swed. timme, hour, Dan. time; from the root also seen in " tide," properly the time of between the flow and ebb of the sea, cf. O. Eng. getidan, to happen, " even-tide," &c.; it is not directly related to Lat. tempus)
• TIME, MEASUREMENT OF
• TIME, STANDARD

time Naharin (N-h-ry-n) is given as the northern boundary of See also:

• EGYPT

Egypt's -domain (See also:

• YEAR

year 30 of Amenhotep or Amenophis III.), over against Kush in the See also:

• SOUTH
• SOUTH, ROBERT (1634–1716)

south (See also:

• TOMB (Gr. Tuµ/3a, Tuµ(3os, probably allied to Lat. tumulus, literally a swelling, tumere, to swell)

tomb of Khamhet: Breasted, Anc . Rec. ii . 350) . The origin of the name is suggested by the Euphrates being called " the water of Naharin,"-on the See also:

• KARNAK

Karnak See also:

• STELE

stele more fully " the water of the See also:

• GREAT

Great See also:

• BEND

Bend (phr wr) of Naharin (N-h-r-n) " (Breasted, Anc . Rec. ii . 263), or on the See also:

• CONSTANTINOPLE
• CONSTANTINOPLE, COUNCILS OF

Constantinople See also:

• OBELISK (Gr. b/3EXivrcos, diminutive of OEMs, a spit)

obelisk simply " the Great Bend of Naharin " (loc. cit. See also:

• NOTE
• NOTE (Lat. nota, mark, sign, from noscere, to know)

note d) . The precise meaning of phr wr is not certain . When Breasted renders Great Bend " of the Euphrates he is probably thinking of the great sweep See also:

• ROUND (O. Fr. rond, Lat. rotundus, the Fr. is the source also of Du. rond; Ger., Swed., Dan. and Nor. rond)

round between Birejilc-Zeugma and Ralcica-Nicephorium . W . M . See also:

• MULLER, FERDINAND VON, BARON (1825–1896)
• MULLER, FRIEDRICH (1749-1825)
• MULLER, GEORGE (1805-1898)
• MULLER, JOHANNES PETER (18o1-1858)
• MULLER, JOHANNES VON (1752-1809)
• MULLER, JULIUS (18oi-1878)
• MULLER, KARL OTFRIED (1797-1840)
• MULLER, LUCIAN (1836-1898)
• MULLER, WILHELM (1794-1827)
• MULLER, WILLIAM JAMES (1812-1845)

Muller, on the other See also:

• HAND
• HAND (a word common to Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Hand, Goth. handus)
• HAND, FERDINAND GOTTHELF (1786-185r)

hand, rendering Kreislauf, explains it of the Euphrates water See also:

• SYSTEM

system as a whole, thought of as encompassing Naharin . The See also:

• SEA (in O. Eng. sae, a common Teutonic word; cf. Ger. See, Dutch Zee, &c.; the ultimate source is uncertain)
• SEA, COMMAND OF THE

Sea of the Great Bend would seem to be the sea fed by the See also:

• NORTH
• NORTH, BARONS
• NORTH, MARIANNE (1830—1890)
• NORTH, ROGER (1653-1734)
• NORTH, SIR THOMAS (1535?-16o1?)

north-to-south See also:

• WATERS, TERRITORIAL

waters of Naharin, just as the Mediterranean, fed by the south-to-north' waters of the See also:

• NILE
• NILE, BATTLE OF THE
• NILE, SOBAT

Nile, is called the Great Circle (In wr) .

For many centuries after Amenophis IV. the name cannot be found . The next occurrence is in See also:

• HEBREW

Hebrew (Gen. See also:

• XXIV

xxiv . 1o=J) where the See also:

• DISTRICT

district from which a wife for See also:

• ISAAC (Hebrew for " he laughs," on explanatory references to the name, see ABRAHAM)

Isaac is brought is called Aram-Naharaim . The diphthongal pronunciation of the termination aim is probably a much later development . We should probably read something like Aram-Naharim . The meaning is: the Naharim portion of the Aramaic speaking domain ? Probably the author thought primarily of the district of See also:

• HARRAN, HARAN

Harran.3 Some generations later Aram-Naharim is used of the district including Pethor, a See also:

• TOWN

town on the See also:

• WEST
• WEST, BENJAMIN (1738-1820)
• WEST, NICHOLAS (1461-1533)

west See also:

• BANK

bank of the Euphrates' (Deut. xxiii . ' The threefold n after Nahar in a stele of See also:

• PERSIAN
• PERSIAN, SYRIAN, EGYPTIAN AND TURKISH

Persian or Gretk.. times (healing of Bentresh) is probably only the determinative for " water," a See also:

• FOURTH

fourth n being accidentally omitted (Breasted, Ancient Records, iii . § 434) . - 2 Cf . Aram-See also:

• DAMASCUS

Damascus, which means, the Damascus portion of the Aramaic domain ; and har-See also:

• EPHRAIM

Ephraim, which means, the Ephraim portion of the (Israelitish) See also:

• HIGHLANDS, THE

highlands—EV " See also:

• MOUNT, WILLIAM SIDNEY (1807-1868)

Mount Ephraim.' - 3 Hal6vy's See also:

• SUGGESTION

suggestion that we are to look towards the Hauriin, and think of the See also:

• RIVERS
• RIVERS, ANTHONY WOODVILLE, or WYDEVILLE, 2ND EARL (c. 1442—1483)
• RIVERS, EARL
• RIVERS, RICHARD SAVAGE, 4TH EARL (c. 1660—1712)

rivers of Damascus, has not met with favour . Padan-Aram (Rev .

Vers. better Paddan-Aram), Gen. See also:

• XXV

xxv . 20, &C., rendered by the See also:

• SEPTUAGINT, THE (Gr. of 0', Lat. LXX.)

Septuagint " See also:

• MESOPOTAMIA (Mevoaora)

Mesopotamia of Syria," is obscure . Paddan has been connected phonetically with Patin, west of the Euphrates, and explained by others as a synonym for Harran . ¢=D) . The See also:

• SYRIAC

Syriac version of the Old Testament (and cent . A.D . ?) uses Beth Nahrin . This may or may not imply the belief that Nahrin is a plural . Eventually that belief was See also:

• GENERAL
• GENERAL (Lat. generalis, of or relating to a genus, kind or class)

general, as is proved by the substitution of the normal feminine plural (for the supposed masculine) in the alternative form Beth Nahrawatha (e.g . See also:

• WRIGHT, CARROLL DAVIDSON (1840-1909)
• WRIGHT, CHAUNCEY (1830-1875)
• WRIGHT, JOSEPH (1734-1797)
• WRIGHT, SILAS (1795-1847)
• WRIGHT, THOMAS (1809–1884)
• WRIGHT, THOMAS (1810—1877)
• WRIGHT, WILLIAM ALDIS (1836– )

Wright, Chron . See also:

• JOSHUA, BOOK OF

Joshua Styl . §§ 49, 5o) .

Beth is probably the Syriac See also:

• EQUIVALENT

equivalent of the See also:

• ASSYRIAN

Assyrian See also:

• BIT (from the verb " to bite," either in the sense of a piece bitten off, or an act of biting, or a thing that bites or is bitten)

Bit as in Bit-Adini (see below, § 3 viii.), as is shown by such names as Beth `Arbaye, " district of Arabians," Beth Armaye, " district of Aramaeans." The Parapotamia of See also:

• STRABO (born c. 63 n.c.)

Strabo xvi . 2, 11, would be a suitable Greek equivalent . Mesopotamia seems to imply the view that beth is the preposition " amid, which has the same form,' but need not imply the meaning " between," that is, the See also:

• IDEA (Gr. Ibia, connected with i&eiv, to see; cf. Lat. species from specere, to look at)

idea that there were precisely two rivers . There is See also:

• EVIDENCE (Lat. evidentia, evideri, to appear clearly)

evidence of the use of this form as early as the Septuagint See also:

• TRANSLATION

translation of the See also:

• PENTATEUCH

Pentateuch (3rd cent . B.c.) . It is natural to suppose it was adopted by the Greeks who accompanied See also:

• ALEXANDER
• ALEXANDER (1461-1506)
• ALEXANDER (ALEXANDER OF BATTENBERG) (1857-1893)
• ALEXANDER (ALEXANDER OsxENOVici) (1876-1903)
• ALEXANDER, ARCHIBALD (1772—1851)
• ALEXANDER, FRANCIS (1800—1881)
• ALEXANDER, GEORGE (1858— )
• ALEXANDER, JOHN WHITE (1856- )
• ALEXANDER, JOSEPH ADDISON (18o9—186o)
• ALEXANDER, SIR JAMES EDWARD (1803—1885)
• ALEXANDER, WILLIAM (1824— )
• ALEXANDER, WILLIAM LINDSAY (1808—1884)

Alexander's expedition . See also:

• XENOPHON

Xenophon does not use it . As early as the time of Ephraem (d . A.D . 373) the use of the Syriac Gezirthd, " See also:

• ISLAND (O.E. ieg =isle, +land')

island," had come in, and over a century earlier See also:

• PHILOSTRATUS

Philostratus reported (See also:

• LIFE

Life of See also:

• APOLLONIUS

Apollonius, i . 20) that the See also:

• ARABS

Arabs designated Mesopotamia as an island' This See also:

• TERM

term in the form al-Gazira became, and still is, the usual Arabic name . The See also:

• ABSENCE (Lat. absentia)

absence of any equivalent names in Babylonian or Assyrian documents is noteworthy,' especially as the Babylonians spoke of the " Sea-Country " (See also:

• MAT (O. Eng. meatt, from late Lat. mattes, whence Ital. mallet, Ger. and Dan. matte, Du. mat, &c.)

mat Tamtim) .

The name was not distinctive enough from the point of view of Babylonia, which belonged to the same water system . Tiglath-pileser L (Octagon See also:

• PRISM (Gr. rrpivµa, properly a thing sawn, Irpii"ety, to saw)

Prism, 6, 40, 42 seq.) sums up the results of the military operations of his first five years as reaching from the See also:

• LOWER

Lower Zab See also:

• RIVIERA

Riviera to the Euphrates Riviera (ebirtan Puratti, well rendered " Parapotamia " by Winkler') and Uatte-See also:

• LAND

land; but this is obviously not a proper name in the same sense as Naharin.b That probably originated in the maritime district of Syria . Whilst the names we have mentioned are derived from See also:

• PHYSICAL

physical See also:

• GEOGRAPHY (Gr. yil, earth, and ypiickty, to write)

geography, there are related names the meaning and origin of which are not so clear . Tethmosis III. is said, in a tomb which contains a picture of " the See also:

• CHIEF (from Fr. chef, head, Lat. caput)

chief of Kheta," to have " overthrown the lands of My-tn " (Breasted, Anc . Rec. ii . § 773), which lands are mentioned also in his hymn of victory (Breasted, Anc . Rec. ii . § 659) . Amenophis II. receives See also:

• TRIBUTE (Lat. tributurn, a stated payment, contribution)

tribute from the " chiefs of My-tn (Breasted, Anc . Rec. ii . § 804) . In the bilingual Hittite inscription of Tarqudimme the land is called " the land of the See also:

• CITY (through Fr. cite, from Lat. civitas)

city of Metan," just as in the Hittite documents the Hittite country in See also:

• ASIA

Asia See also:

• MINOR
• MINOR (Lat. for smaller, lesser)
• MINOR, ROBERT CRANNELL (1839-1904)

Minor is called " the land of the city of Khatti." Metan is clearly the same as Mitanni, over against Khatti, mentioned e.g. by Tiglath-pileser I .

(vi . 63), which is the same as Mitanni, several letters from which are in the Amarna collection . Since a Mitanni princess of these letters is called in E ptian scarabs a princess of Naharin, it is clear that Mitanni and Naharin are more or less equivalent, whilst in the Amarna letters even Tushratta, the See also:

• KING
• KING (O. Eng. cyning, abbreviated into cyng, cing; cf. O. H. G. chun- kuning, chun- kunig, M.H.G. kiinic, kiinec, kiinc, Mod. Ger. Konig, O. Norse konungr, kongr, Swed. konung, kung)
• KING [OF OCKHAM], PETER KING, 1ST BARON (1669-1734)
• KING, CHARLES WILLIAM (1818-1888)
• KING, CLARENCE (1842–1901)
• KING, EDWARD (1612–1637)
• KING, EDWARD (1829–1910)
• KING, HENRY (1591-1669)
• KING, RUFUS (1755–1827)
• KING, THOMAS (1730–1805)
• KING, WILLIAM (1650-1729)
• KING, WILLIAM (1663–1712)

king of Mitanni, seems to use in the same way the name Khanigalbat . A shorter form of this name is Khani, which it is difficult not to connect with Khana, the See also:

• CAPITAL (i.e. capital stock or fund)
• CAPITAL (Lat. caput, head)

capital of which at one time was Tirqa, on the Euphrates, below the Khabur (see § 4) . The slowly accumulating data have not yet made it possible to determine precisely the probably varying relations of these various names . The great astrological See also:

• WORK

work uses a term of still wider signification, Subartu, eventually Sun (written Su . EniN ; see especially Winckler's discussion in Or . Lit.-Zeit., 1907) . This represented one of the four quarters of the See also:

• WORLD

world in the early Babylonian view, the other three being See also:

• AKKAD (Gr. versions apxat and hXab)

Akkad (i.e . Babylonia) in the " north," See also:

• ELAM

Elam in the " south," and Amurru in the " west." It appears to have denoted the territory above Babylonia stretching from Anshan in the south-See also:

• EAST
• EAST, ALFRED (1849- )

east north-westwards, across the See also:

• TIGRIS (Old Persian Tigrd, Diklat of the cuneiform inscriptions, Hiddekel of the Old Testament, Diglath of the Targum, Digla of the Arabs)

Tigris-Euphrates district, indefinitely towards Asia Minor . At an early time it seems to have formed along with Anshan a distinct See also:

• KINGDOM

kingdom . Strabo (xvi .

746) makes the south limit of Mesopotamia the Median See also:

• WALL (O. Eng. weal, weall, Mid. Eng. wal, wane, adapted from Lat. vallum, rampart; the original O. Eng. word for a wall was wag or tenth)
• WALL, RICHARD (1694-1778)

wall; See also:

• PLINY, THE ELDER
• PLINY, THE YOUNGER

Pliny (v . 24 § 21) seems to extend it to the Persian Extent Gulf . The Latin term naturally varied in meaning Tekrit . In the See also:

• TRACT (from Lat. tractare, to treat of a matter, through Provencal tractat and Ital. trattato)

tract defined, physical changes unconnected with See also:

• CIVILIZATION

civilization have been slight as compared with those in Babylonia; the two great rivers, having cut themselves deep channels, could not shift their courses far . i . Natural Divisions.—The stretch from Samsat and Jeziret-See also:

• IBN

ibn-`See also:

• OMAR (c. 581-644)

Omar to the alluvial plain seems to See also:

• DIVIDE

divide itself naturally into three parallel belts, highland See also:

• WATERSHED

watershed district, un- dulating plains and See also:

• STEPPE (from the Russ. stepi, a waste)

steppe . (I) The See also:

• TAURUS (" the Bull ")

Taurus foothill barrier that shuts off the east to west course of the Euphrates and, Tigris culminates centrally in the rugged volcanic I{araja-Dagh (6070 ft.) which blocks the See also:

• GAP

gap between the two rivers, continued eastwards by the mountainous district of See also:

• TAR

Tar-`Abdin (the See also:

• MODERN

modern capital Midyat is at a height of 3500 ft.) and westwards by the elevated tract that sends down southwards the promontory of J . Tektek (c . 1950 ft.) . (2) At the See also:

• LINE

line where this east to west wall ends begins the sea of undulating plains where there is enough See also:

• RAIN (O.E. regn; the word is common to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Regen, Swed. and Dan. regn; it has been connected with Lat. rigare, to wet, Gr. 13pixeav)

rain for abundant See also:

• WHEAT
• WHEAT (Triticum)

wheat and See also:

• BARLEY (Hordeum sativum)

barley . (3) From the alluvial flats upwards toward these undulating plains is an extensive stretch of steppe land almost destitute of rain . Not See also:

• FAT (O.E. fdett; the word is common to Teutonic languages, cf. Dutch vet, Ger. Fett, &c., and may be ultimately related to Greek Irian, and =apos, and Sanskrit pivan)

fat above the transition from the barren steppe is a second See also:

• MOUNTAIN (0. Fr. montaigne; popular Lat. montanea, an adjectival form from the classical mons, montis, whence Eng. " mount," a form usually used along with the name of an individual mountain, e.g. Mt Everest)
• MOUNTAIN, THE (La Montagne)

mountain wall (125 m. between extremities) roughly parallel with the first, consisting of the Sinjar See also:

• CHAIN (through the O. Fr. citable, chcene, &c., from Lat. catena)

chain (about 3000 ft., See also:

• LIMESTONE

limestone, 5o m. See also:

• LONG, GEORGE (1800-1879)
• LONG, JOHN DAVIS (1838– )

long, 7 m. broad), continued westwards after a marshy break by the volcanic Tell Kokab (See also:

• BASALT

basalt, about 1300 ft.), and then the `Abd al-'Aziz range (limestone), veering upwards towards its western end as if to meet the Tektek promontory from the north .

ii . Drainage.—The water system is thus determined . West of Tektek drains into the Belikh, east of Tektek into the Khabur . All this drainage, collected into two rivers, the Belikh and the Khabur, is towards the See also:

• LEFT

left bank of the Euphrates, for the See also:

• MESA (Span. mesa, from Lat. mensa, a table)

Mesa-. potamian watershed seems to be only some 15 m. or less from the Tigris until, south of the Sinjar range, it lies farther west, and the Tharthar river is possible . The Belikh (See also:

• BALKH

Balkh, Bilechas, Ba),Leaos 7) a stream some 30 ft. wide, has its See also:

• MAIN (from the Aryan root which appears in " may " and " might," and Lat. magnus, great)
• MAIN (Lat. Moenus)

main source some 50 M. north in the `See also:

• AIN

Ain Khalil ar-Raliman, but receives also the waters of the See also:

• UNITED

united Nahr al-Kut (in its upper course formerly the Daisan, ZKtaros) from See also:

• EDESSA
• EDESSA (mod. , Vodena)

Edessa and Kopru Dagh, and the Jullab from Tektek Dagh about as much farther north . The Khabur (Chabur, Chaboras'), 8o-too ft. wide, before its last 40 M. reach in a south-west direction, has a 70 m. reach due north and south from Tell Kokab (about 1300 ft.), near which are united the jaghjagh (earlier, Hirmas, 20 ft. in width), which has come 5o m. from Nasibin in the north-east, bringing with it the waters of the many streams from the Tar 'Abdin highlands; the north `Awij, which at certain seasons brings much water due south from See also:

• MARDIN

Mardin, and the main stten ii of the Khabur, which has come 6o m. from See also:

• RAS

Ras al-'Ain-in the north-, west, after flowing So m. by way of Weranshahr from Karaja Dagh in the north . The Tharthar (Assyrian See also:

• TARTAR

Tartar, in Tukulti-See also:

• NINIB

Ninib II.'§ inscription) begins in the Sinjar range and runs southwards, to lose itself in the See also:

• DESERT

desert a little above the See also:

• LATITUDE (Lat. latitudo, latus, broad)

latitude of See also:

• HIT

Hit . So it was two generations before See also:

• AHAB (in Heb. 'ah'(ib, " father's brother ")

Ahab (Annales de Tukulti Ninip, V, Scheil, 1909) .. The Arabian geographers represent the Tharthar as connected at its upper end (by a See also:

• CANAL
• CANAL (from Lat. canalis, " channel " and " kennel " being doublets of the word)

canal?) with the Khabur system . ' In general the Tigris is considered to belong to See also:

• ASSYRIA

Assyria or Babylonia, and all west of the Euphrates to See also:

• ARABIA

Arabia or Syria . 7 Cf . See also:

• RITTER, HEINRICH (1791-1869)
• RITTER, KARL (1779–1859)

Ritter, Erdkunde, v .

250-253 . Ibid. xi . 253-265 . with the changing extent of See also:

• ROMAN

Roman authority . For example, under See also:

• TRAJAN [MARCUS ULPIUS TRAJANUS] (A. D. 53-117)

Trajan Mesopotamia reached the gulf and was bounded by Assyria and See also:

• ARMENIA (old Persian Armina, Armenian Hayasdan, or Hayq)

Armenia . In modern times it is often There may be further evidence of the prevalence of the See also:

• INTERPRETATION (from Lat. interpretari, to expound, explain, inter pres, an agent, go-between, interpreter; inter, between, and the root pret-, possibly connected with that seen either in Greek 4 p4'ew, to speak, or irpa-rrecv, to do)

interpretation " amid " if the difficult bainath athrawatha of See also:

• CURETON, WILLIAM (1808-1864)

Cureton, Anc . Syr . Doc. p . 112, I . 21, is correctly rendered in See also:

• PAYNE, PETER (c. 138o-1455)

Payne See also:

• SMITH
• SMITH, ADAM (1723–1790)
• SMITH, ALEXANDER (183o-1867)
• SMITH, ANDREW JACKSON (1815-1897)
• SMITH, CHARLES EMORY (1842–1908)
• SMITH, CHARLES FERGUSON (1807–1862)
• SMITH, CHARLOTTE (1749-1806)
• SMITH, COLVIN (1795—1875)
• SMITH, EDMUND KIRBY (1824-1893)
• SMITH, G
• SMITH, GEORGE (1789-1846)
• SMITH, GEORGE (184o-1876)
• SMITH, GEORGE ADAM (1856- )
• SMITH, GERRIT (1797–1874)
• SMITH, GOLDWIN (1823-191o)
• SMITH, HENRY BOYNTON (1815-1877)
• SMITH, HENRY JOHN STEPHEN (1826-1883)
• SMITH, HENRY PRESERVED (1847– )
• SMITH, JAMES (1775–1839)
• SMITH, JOHN (1579-1631)
• SMITH, JOHN RAPHAEL (1752–1812)
• SMITH, JOSEPH, JR
• SMITH, MORGAN LEWIS (1822–1874)
• SMITH, RICHARD BAIRD (1818-1861)
• SMITH, ROBERT (1689-1768)
• SMITH, SIR HENRY GEORGE WAKELYN
• SMITH, SIR THOMAS (1513-1577)
• SMITH, SIR WILLIAM (1813-1893)
• SMITH, SIR WILLIAM SIDNEY (1764-1840)
• SMITH, SYDNEY (1771-1845)
• SMITH, THOMAS SOUTHWOOD (1788-1861)
• SMITH, WILLIAM (1769-1839)
• SMITH, WILLIAM (c. 1730-1819)
• SMITH, WILLIAM (fl. 1596)
• SMITH, WILLIAM FARRAR (1824—1903)
• SMITH, WILLIAM HENRY (1808—1872)
• SMITH, WILLIAM HENRY (1825—1891)
• SMITH, WILLIAM ROBERTSON (1846-'894)

Smith, See also:

• THESAURUS (Gr. B17o-avp6s)

Thesaurus Syr . 469, " Mesopotamia," and if we may assume a See also:

• READING

reading Nahrawatha for Athrawatha . 'Compare the use of the See also:

• ADJECTIVE (from the Lat. adjectives, added)

adjective, Ephr .

Op . Gr. ii . 403 (cf . B . O. i . 145, 168, 169), and the noun, B . O. ii. to8, 109 . Mesopotamian See also:

• PERSONAL

personal names like Na-ha-ra-a-u occur (cf . Johns, Deeds and Documents, iii . 127) ; but these may be connected with a divine name Nachor . ' Aussug vorderas . Gesch .

34; on the meaning see Alt.-orient . Forsch. iii . 349 . It seems See also:

• WORTH
• WORTH, CHARLES FREDERICK (1825-1895)

worth considering, however, whether ebir nari (see johns, Assyr . Doomsday See also:

• BOOK

Book, 69; Winckler, Alt.-or . Forsch . 212; Wins, Anc . Heb . Trail., See also:

• INDEX

index) is not in origin practically a Begriff equivalent to Naharin . used for the whole Euphrates-Tigris country.' That would See also:

• PRO

pro-vide a' useful name for an important See also:

• GEOGRAPHICAL

geographical unit, but is too misleading . In view of See also:

• HISTORICAL

historical and geographical facts there is much to be said for applying the name Mesopotamia to the country drained by the Khabur, the Belikh, and the See also:

• PART

part of the Euphrates connected therewith . It would thus include the country lying between Babylonia on the south and the Armenian Taurus highlands on the north, the maritime Syrian district on the west, and Assyria proper on the east .

That is practically the sense in which it is treated in this See also:

• ARTICLE (from Lat. articulus, a joint)

article.' We may begin, however, with the See also:

• DEFINITION (Lat. definitio, from de-finire, to set limits to, describe)

definition of Jezlra by the Arabic geographers, who take it as representing the central part of the Euphrates-Tigris system, the part, namely, lying between the alluvial plains in the south and the mountainous country in the north . Measured on the Euphrates, this would be from the See also:

• PLACE (through Fr. from Lat. platea, street; Gr. IrAar6s, wide)

place where the river, having bored its way through the rocks, issues on to the high plain a little above Samsat (See also:

• SAMOSATA (Eau6vara, -arum, Ptol. v. 15 § r 1 ; Strabo xvi. 749)

Samosata) only 1500 ft. above the sea, to somewhere about Hit (Is=Id), where, probably less than 150 ft. above the sea, it begins to make its way through the alluvial deposits of the last'few millenniums . In these 750 M. it has descended less than 1400 ft . Measured on the Tigris Mesopotamia would stretch from some-where between Jeziret-ibn-'Omar and See also:

• MOSUL

Mosul to somewhere below iii . See also:

• CHARACTER (Gr. xapareri7p, from xap&crew, to scratch)

Character of See also:

• SURFACE

Surface'—(1) The tract between the Belikh and the Euphrates is in its See also:

• MIDDLE

middle See also:

• SECTION
• SECTION (Lat. sectio, cutting, secare, to cut)

section exceedingly fertile, as is implied in the name Anthemusia, and according to v . See also:

• OPPENHEIM

Oppenheim (Z. d . Gesellsch. f . Erdkunde, 36, 1901, p . 8o) the same is true of the See also:

• SOUTHERN

southern portion also . The plain extending from Urfa to a dozen See also:

• MILES, NELSON APPLETON (1839— )

miles below Harran has a See also:

• RICH, BARNABE (c. 1540-1617)
• RICH, CLAUDIUS JAMES (1787-1821)
• RICH, JOHN (1692-1761)
• RICH, PENELOPE, LADY (c. 1562–1607)
• RICH, RICHARD, 1ST BARON RICH (1490?-1567)

rich red-See also:

• BROWN
• BROWN, CHARLES BROCKDEN (1771-181o)
• BROWN, FORD MADOX (1821-1893)
• BROWN, FRANCIS (1849- )
• BROWN, GEORGE (1818-188o)
• BROWN, HENRY KIRKE (1814-1886)
• BROWN, JACOB (1775–1828)
• BROWN, JOHN (1715–1766)
• BROWN, JOHN (1722-1787)
• BROWN, JOHN (1735–1788)
• BROWN, JOHN (1784–1858)
• BROWN, JOHN (1800-1859)
• BROWN, JOHN (1810—1882)
• BROWN, JOHN GEORGE (1831— )
• BROWN, ROBERT (1773-1858)
• BROWN, SAMUEL MORISON (1817—1856)
• BROWN, SIR GEORGE (1790-1865)
• BROWN, SIR JOHN (1816-1896)
• BROWN, SIR WILLIAM, BART
• BROWN, THOMAS (1663-1704)
• BROWN, THOMAS (1778-1820)
• BROWN, THOMAS EDWARD (1830-1897)
• BROWN, WILLIAM LAURENCE (1755–1830)

brown humus derived from the See also:

• NIMROD (-`s??, -i=s; Septuagint, Nef3pc5£: various reading in Gen. x. 8, Nef3p6av: Vulg. Nemrod)

Nimrod Dagh east of Edessa . (2) The See also:

• ROLLING

rolling plains north of the 'Abd at 'Aziz Sinjar mountain wall are intersected by the many streams of the Khabur system (the Arab geographer Mustaufi speaks of 300 feeders), which under favourable See also:

• POLITICAL

political and administrative conditions would produce a marked fertility . At Nasibin (See also:

• NISIBIS (Nasibina in the Assyrian inscriptions)

Nisibis) See also:

• RICE (Greek 6p6 a, Latin oryza, French riz, Italian riso, Spanish arroz, derived from the Arabic)
• RICE, EDMUND IGNATIUS (1762-1844)
• RICE, JAMES (1843-1882)

rice is cultivated with success .

(3) The country south of the mountain range is steppe land, imperfectly known, and of little use except for nomadic tribes, apart from the See also:

• BANKS, GEORGE LINNAEUS (1821-1881)
• BANKS, NATHANIEL PRENTISS (1816–1894)
• BANKS, SIR JOSEPH
• BANKS, THOMAS (1735-1805)

banks of the rivers (on which see EUPHRATES, TIGRIS) . It consists mainly of See also:

• GREY, CHARLES GREY, 2ND EARL (1764-1845)
• GREY, HENRY GREY, 3RD EARL (1802-1894)
• GREY, LADY JANE (1537-1554)
• GREY, SIR EDWARD
• GREY, SIR GEORGE (1812–1898)

grey dreary flats covered with selenite; and a little below the surface, See also:

• GYPSUM

gypsum . See also:

• BITUMEN

Bitumen is found at Hit, whence perhaps its name (Babylonian Id in Tukulti Ninib II.'s inscription referred to above), and near the Tigris .2 iv . See also:

• CLIMATE

Climate.3—Mesopotamia combines strong contrasts of climate, and is .a connecting See also:

• LINK

link between the mountain region of western Asia and the desert of Arabia . At Der ez-Zor, for example, the See also:

• HEAT (0. E. haktu, which like " hot," Old Eng. hat, is from the Teutonic type haita, hit, to be hot; cf. Ger. hitze, heiss; Dutch, hitte, heet, &c.)

heat is intense . (I) In the steppe, during the sandstorms which frequently See also:

• BLOW, JOHN (1648-1708)

blow from the West Arabian desert the temperature may rise to 122° F . On the other hand, in See also:

• WINTER, JOHN STRANGE
• WINTER, PETER (c. 1755-1825)

winter the warm currents coming in from the Persian Gulf being met to a large ex-See also:

• TENT

tent by northerly currents from the See also:

• SNOW (in O. Eng. sndw; a common Indo-European word; cf. in Teutonic languages, Ger. Schnee, Du. sneeuw; in Slavonic snieg', Lith. snegas; Gr. vi4a, Lat. nix, nivis, whence the Romanic forms, Ital. neve, Fr. neige, &c.; Ir. and Gael. sneachd; the original

snow-covered tracts of Armenia, are condensed down on to the plain and See also:

• DISCHARGE (adapted from the O. Fr. discharge, modern decharge, from a med. Lat. discargare, to unload, dis- and earn care, to load, cf. " charge ")

discharge moisture enough to See also:

• COVER (from the Fr. convert, from couvrir, to cover, Lat. cooperire)

cover the See also:

• GRAVEL, or PEBBLE BEDS

gravel See also:

• STEPPES

steppes with See also:

• SPRING (from " to spring," " to leap or jump up," " burst out," O. Eng., springau, a common Teut. word, cf. Ger. springer, possibly allied to Gr. QnrFpxecOac, to move rapidly)

spring herbage . (2) In the higher plains, in See also:

• MID

mid winter, since the high temperature See also:

• AIR (from an Indo-European root meaning " breathe," " blow ")
• AIR, or ASBEN

air from the gulf is See also:

• DRAWN

drawn up the valleys of the Euphrates and the Tigris there may be, e.g. at Mosul, a " See also:

• DAMP

damp mildness." In spring the grass on the rolling plains is soon parched . So when the hot sandstorms blow in the lower steppe the scorching heat is carried right up to the See also:

• FOOT

foot of the mountains . On the other hand, since the spurs of the Taurus bring the winter See also:

• COLD (in O. Eng. cald and ceald, a word coming ultimately from a root cognate with the Lat. gelu, gelidus, and common in the Teutonic languages, which usually have two distinct forms for the substantive and the adjective, cf. Ger. Kolte, kalt, Dutch koude

cold a long way south, and the cold increases from west to east as we leave the mild See also:

• COAST (from Lat. costa, a rib, side)

coast of the Mediterranean, far down into the Mesopotamian plain the See also:

• INFLUENCE (Late Lat. influentia, from influere, to flow in)

influence of the snow-covered ridges can be See also:

• FELT (cognate with Ger. Filz, Du. vilt, Swed. and Dan. fill; the root is unknown; the word has given Med. Lat. filtrum, " filter ")

felt, and in the higher parts of the plain snow and See also:

• ICE (a word common to Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Eis)

ice are not infrequent; and although there is no point of sufficient See also:

• ALTITUDE (Lat. altitudo, from altus, high)

altitude to retain snow for long, the temperature .may fall as See also:

• LOW, SETH (1850- )
• LOW, WILL HICOK (1853- )

low as 14° F., especially if the cold north winds are blowing . The See also:

• CYCLE
• CYCLE (Gr. KUK)^os, a circle)

cycle of vegetation begins in See also:

• NOVEMBER (Lat. novem, nine)

November . The' first winter rains clothe the plain with verdure, and by the beginning of the year various bulbous See also:

• PLANTS

plants are in See also:

• BLOOM (from A.S. bloma, a flower)

bloom .

The full summer development is reached in See also:

• JUNE

June . By the end of See also:

• AUGUST (originally Sextilis)

August, everything is burnt up; August and See also:

• SEPTEMBER (Lat. septem, seven)

September are the low-water months in the rivers, See also:

• MARCH
• MARCH (1) (from Fr. marcher, to walk; the earliest sense in French appears to be " to trample," and the origin has usually been found in the Lat. marcus, hammer; Low Lat. marcare, to hammer; hence to beat the road with the regular tread of a soldier: cf.
• MARCH, AUZIAS (c. "1395-1458)
• MARCH, EARLS OF
• MARCH, FRANCIS ANDREW (1825– )

March to May the time of See also:

• FLOOD (in O. Eng. flod, a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Flut, Dutch vloed, from the same root as is seen in " flow," " float ")
• FLOOD, HENRY (1732-1791)

flood . v . See also:

• FLORA

Flora.*—(I) Botanical lists have been published by von Oppenheim (Von; Mittelmeer zum Persischen See also:

• GOLF (in its older forms GOFF, GOUFF or GOWFF, the last of which gives the genuine old pronunciation)

Golf, ii . 373-388) of a collection made in 1893 containing 43 entries for Mesopotamia, and by E . Herzfeld (Herbaraufnahmen aus Kal'at-. erjeat-See also:

• ASSUR
• ASSUR (Auth. Vera. Asshur)

Assur, in Beiheft II. zur Or . Lit.-Zeit, 1908, pp . 29-37) of a collection made in 1903-1905 in the neighbourhood of Assur, containing 181 entries . (2) The following are among the more important products of the central See also:

• ZONE (Gr. 'WV77, a girdle, from 'wvvLvay to gird)

zone of Mesopotamia: wheat, barley, rice (e.g. at Saruj, the Khabur), See also:

• MILLET (Fr. millet; Ital. miglietto, diminutive of miglio= Lat. mille, a thousand, in allusion to its fertility)
• MILLET (or MILE), JEAN FRANCOIS (c. 1642–1679)
• MILLET, FRANCIS DAVIS (1846- )
• MILLET, JEAN FRANCOIS (1814–1875)

millet, sesemum (for oil, instead of See also:

• OLIVE (Olea europaea)

olive), dura (Holcgts See also:

• SORGHUM

sorghum and H. bicolor) ; lentils, peas, beans, vetches; See also:

• COTTON
• COTTON (Fr. coton; from Arab. qutun)
• COTTON, CHARLES (163o–1687)
• COTTON, GEORGE EDWARD LYNCH (1813–1866)
• COTTON, JOHN (1585–1652)
• COTTON, SIR ROBERT BRUCE

cotton, See also:

• HEMP (in O. Eng. henep, cf. Dutch hennep, Ger. Hanf , cognate with Gr. Kavval3er, Lat. cannabis)

hemp, See also:

• SAFFLOWER (ultimately from the Arabic safra, yellow)

safflower, See also:

• TOBACCO

tobacco; Medicago saliva (for horses); See also:

• CUCUMBER (Cucumis sativus, Fr. concombre, O. Fr. coucombre, whence the older English spelling and pronunciation " cowcumber," the standard in England up to the beginning of the 18th century)

cucumber, melons, water-melons, See also:

• FIGS

figs (those of Sinjar famed for sweetness), See also:

• DATES

dates (below, 'See also:

• ANA

Ana and Tekrit); a few See also:

• TIMBER

timber trees; See also:

• PLANE

plane and See also:

• WHITE
• WHITE, ANDREW DICKSON (1832– )
• WHITE, GILBERT (1720–1793)
• WHITE, HENRY KIRKE (1785-1806)
• WHITE, HUGH LAWSON (1773-1840)
• WHITE, JOSEPH BLANCO (1775-1841)
• WHITE, RICHARD GRANT (1822-1885)
• WHITE, ROBERT (1645-1704)
• WHITE, SIR GEORGE STUART (1835– )
• WHITE, SIR THOMAS (1492-1567)
• WHITE, SIR WILLIAM ARTHUR (1824--1891)
• WHITE, SIR WILLIAM HENRY (1845– )
• WHITE, THOMAS (1628-1698)
• WHITE, THOMAS (c. 1550-1624)

white See also:

• POPLAR
• POPLAR (Lat. Populus)

poplar (by streams), See also:

• WILLOW (Salix)

willow and See also:

• SUMACH

sumach (by the Euphrates) . The sides of Karaja-Dagh, J . 'Abd el-'Aziz and Sinjar are wooded, but not now the neighbourhood of Nisibis . (3) In the steppe the vegetation is that which prevails in similar See also:

• SOIL

soil from Central Asia to See also:

• ALGERIA
• ALGERIA (Algerie)

Algeria; but many ofPthe arborescent plants that grow in the rockier and more irregular plateaux of western Asia, and especially of See also:

• PERSIA

Persia, have been reported as missing .

Endless masses of tall weeds, belonging to a few See also:

• SPECIES

species, cover the See also:

• FACE (from Lat. fades, derived either from facere, to make, or from a root fa-, meaning " appear "; cf. Gr. cbatvstv)

face of the country—large See also:

• CRUCIFERAE

Cruciferae, Cynareae and See also:

• UMBELLIFERAE

Umbelliferae—also large quantities of See also:

• LIQUORICE

liquorice (Glycyrrhiza glabra and echinata) and Lagonychium, and the white ears of the Imperata . In autumn the withered weeds are torn up by the See also:

• WIND
• WIND (a common Teut. word, cognate with Skt. vats, Lat. ventus, cf. " weather," to be of course distinguished from to " wind," to coil or twist, O.Eng. windan, cf. "wander," "wend," &c.)

wind and driven immense distances . vi . Faunas—The following abound: See also:

• WILD, JONATHAN (c. 1682-1725)

wild See also:

• SWINE

swine, hyaena, See also:

• JACKAL
• JACKAL (Turk. chakal)

jackal, See also:

• CHEETAH

cheetah, See also:

• FOX
• FOX, C
• FOX, CHARLES JAMES (1749-1806)
• FOX, EDWARD (c. 1496-1538)
• FOX, GEORGE (1624-1691)
• FOX, RICHARD (c. 1448-1528)
• FOX, ROBERT WERE (1789—1877)
• FOX, SIR STEPHEN (1627–1716)
• FOX, SIR WILLIAM (1812-1893)

fox; gazelle (in herds), See also:

• ANTELOPE

antelope species (in the steppe); See also:

• JERBOA

jerboa, See also:

• MOLE
• MOLE, LOUIS MATHIEU, COMTE (1781—1855)
• MOLE, MATHIEU (1584—1656)

mole, See also:

• PORCUPINE (Fr., pore-epic, " spiny pig ")

porcupine, and especially the See also:

• COMMON

common See also:

• EUROPEAN

European See also:

• RAT (a word common to Teut. and Rom. languages; probably first adopted in Teut.; the ultimate origin is not known; Skeat suggests the root rad-, to scratch; cf. Ger. Ratte, Dan. rotte, Fr. rat, &c.)

rat (in the desert); See also:

• BAT

bat, long-haired desert See also:

• HARE
• HARE, SIR JOHN (1844– )

hare . The following are rare: wild See also:

• ASS (O.E. assa; Lat. asinus)
• ASS, FEAST OF THE

ass; See also:

• BEAVER
• BEAVER (from Fr. baviere, a child's bib, from bane, saliva)

beaver, said to have been observed on the Euphrates; See also:

• WOLF
• WOLF (Canis lupus)
• WOLF, FRIEDRICH AUGUST (1759-1824)
• WOLF, HUGO (1860-1903)
• WOLF, JOSEPH (1820-1899)

wolf, among others a variety of See also:

• BLACK
• BLACK, ADAM (1784-1874)
• BLACK, JEREMIAH SULLIVAN (1810–1883)
• BLACK, WILLIAM (1841-1898)

black wolf (Canis See also:

• LYCAON

lycaon), said to be found in the plains; See also:

• LION
• LION (Lat, leo, leonis; Gr. Mew)

lion, said to roam as far as the Khabur . On the Euphrates are the following: See also:

• VULTURE

vulture, See also:

• OWL (O. Eng. Ule, Swed. Uggla, Ger. Eule—all allied to Lat. Ulula, and evidently of imitative origin)

owl, See also:

• RAVEN (O.E. hrafn, ,Icel. hrafn, Dan. ravn, Du. raaf, Ger. Rabe)

raven, &c., also the See also:

• FALCON
• FALCON (Lat. Falco;' Fr. Faucon; Teutonic, Falk or Valken)

falcon (Tinnanculus alaudarsus), trained to See also:

• HUNT, ALFRED WILLIAM (183o-1896)
• HUNT, HENRY (1i73-1835)
• HUNT, HENRY JACKSON (1819-1889)
• HUNT, JAMES HENRY LEIGH (1784-1859)
• HUNT, ROBERT (1807-1887)
• HUNT, THOMAS STERRY (1826-1892)
• HUNT, WILLIAM HENRY (1790—1864)
• HUNT, WILLIAM HOLMAN (1827-1910)
• HUNT, WILLIAM MORRIS (1824-1879)

hunt . Among See also:

• GAME

game birds are: wild See also:

• DUCK

duck and See also:

• GOOSE (a common Teut. word, O. Eng. gOs, pl. ges, Ger. Gans, O. Norse gas, from Aryan root, ghans, whence Sans. hansa, Lat. anser (for hanser)
• GOOSE (GAME OF)

goose, See also:

• PARTRIDGE (Du. Patrijs, Fr. perdrix, from Lat. perdix, apparently onomatopoeic from the call of the bird)
• PARTRIDGE, JOHN BERNARD (1861– )
• PARTRIDGE, WILLIAM ORDWAY (1861– )

partridge, francolin, some kinds of See also:

• DOVE
• DOVE (Dutch duyve, Dan. due, Ice. dufa, Ger. Taube)

dove, and in the steppe the See also:

• BUZZARD

buzzard . The See also:

• OSTRICH

ostrich seems almost to have disappeared . Large tortoises abound, and, in the 'Ain el-'Arus See also:

• POOL

pool, fresh-water turtles and See also:

• CARP

carp . Of domestic 1 Ritter, Erdkunde, xi . 493-498 . 2 See Geog .

Journ . Ix . 528-532 (with See also:

• MAP
• MAP (or MAPES), WALTER (d. c. 1208/9)

map) . See also:

• LITTER (through O. Fr. litere or litiere, mod. litiere from Med. Lat. lectaria, classical lectica, lectus, bed, couch)

litter, xi. a98-499 . ' Ibid., xi . 499-502 . `6 Ibid., xi . 502-510.animals in the steppe the first place belongs. to the See also:

• CAMEL (from the Arabic Djemal or the Heb. Gamal)

camel; next come See also:

• GOAT (a common Teut. word; O. Eng. gat, Goth. gaits, Mod. Ger. Geiss, cognate with Lat. haedus, a kid)

goat and See also:

• SHEEP
• SHEEP (from the Anglo-Saxon sceap, a word common in various forms to Teutonic languages; e.g. the German Schaf)

sheep (not the See also:

• ORDINARY (med. Lat. ordinarius, Fr. ordinaire)

ordinary fat-tailed variety); the common See also:

• BUFFALO

buffalo is often kept by the Arabs and the Turkomans on the Euphrates and the Tigris; on the Euphrates is found the See also:

• INDIAN

Indian zebu . vii . Towns.'—The towns that have survived are on the rivers . Such are Samsat (see SAMOSATA), Ralfl a (Nicephorium) above the mouth of the Belikh, See also:

• DEER (O. E. rigor, dfor, a common Teutonic word, meaning a wild animal, cf. Ger. Tier, Du. dier, &c., probably from a root dhus-, to breathe)
• DEER, CHINESE

Deer ez-Zor, a rising town on the right bank, where there is (since 1897) a See also:

• STONE
• STONE (0. Eng. shin; the word is common to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Stein, Du. steen, Dan. and Swed. sten; the root is also seen in Gr. aria, pebble)
• STONE, CHARLES POMEROY (1824-1887)
• STONE, EDWARD JAMES (1831-1897)
• STONE, FRANK (1800-1859)
• STONE, GEORGE (1708—1764)
• STONE, LUCY [BLACKWELL] (1818-1893)
• STONE, MARCUS (184o— )
• STONE, NICHOLAS (1586-1647)

stone See also:

• BRIDGE

bridge, 'Ana (on an island; see ANA), Hit (Is, Bab . Id), on the Euphrates; Jeziret ibn 'Omar, Mosul (q.v.), Tekrit, on the Tigris; Edessa (q.v.), Harran (q.v.), on confluents of the Belikh; Veranshehr (Tela), Ras al-'Ain (Rhesaena), Mardin (See also:

• HALF

half-way up the mountain wall), and Nasibin (Assyr .

Nasibina' Nisibis), on confluents of the Khabur; See also:

• SIN
• SIN (O. Eng. syn: a common Teutonic word, cf. Dutch zonde, Ger. Siinde)

Sin* . (Singara) on the Tharthar . Villages are more numerous than has often been supposed . Von Oppenheim counted in the district west of Edessa: and Harran, in a stretch of two days' march, 30o flourishing villages . At one time, however, Mesopotamia was teeming with life . The lines of the rivers are marked at frequent intervals by the ruins of flourishing towns of Assyrian, Roman and See also:

• CALIPHATE

Caliphate times . Such are BirejIl , Jerablus, TellAbmar, Kal 'at en-Najm, Balis, Karkisiya (Qarqisiya, Circesium), on the Euphrates; Kuyunjik, Nimrod on the Tigris; See also:

• KHORSABAD

Khorsabad on a small tributary; `Arban, Tell Khalaf, on the Khabur . The interesting See also:

• OASIS (Gr. &toss, the name given by Herodotus to the fertile spots in the Libyan desert: it probably represents an Egyptian word, cf. Coptic ouahe, ouih, to dwell, from which the Egyptian Arabic sod is derived)

oasis town el-Haar (Hatra) is near the Tharthar . Excavation has hardly begun . The country is covered with countless mounds (tells), each of which marks the site of a town . The documents from the ancient Tirqa said to have been found at `Ishara, a few miles belowKartcisiya, are referred to below (§ 4) . At Anaz( = DUr of Tiglathpileser IV.) was found in' 1901 a slab (Pognon, Inscript .

Am. de la Syrie, See also:

• PLATE

Plate See also:

• XXVI

xxvi . No . 59)' with a bas-<