See also:

• MIRROR (through O. Fr. mirour, mod. miroir, from a sup-posed Late Lat. miratorium, from mirari, to admire)

MIRROR (through O. Fr. mirour, mod. miroir, from a sup-posed See also:

• LATE

Late See also:

• LAT

Lat. miratorium, from mirari, to admire)  , an See also:

• OPTICAL

optical See also:

• INSTRUMENT (Lat. instrumentum, from insincere, to build up, furnish, arrange, prepare)

instrument which produces images of See also:

• OBJECTS

objects by reflection . In its usual forms it is simply a highly polished See also:

• SHEET

sheet of See also:

• METAL
• METAL (through Fr. from Lat. metallum, mine, quarry, adapted from Gr. µATaXAov, in the same sense, probably connected with ,ueraAAdv, to search after, explore, µeTa, after, aAAos, other)

metal or of See also:

• GLASS
• GLASS (O.E. glees, cf. Ger. Glas, perhaps derived from an old Teutonic root gla-, a variant of glo-, having the general sense of shining, cf. " glare," " glow ")
• GLASS, STAINED

glass (which may or may not be covered, either behind or before, with a metallic film); a metallic See also:

• MIRROR (through O. Fr. mirour, mod. miroir, from a sup-posed Late Lat. miratorium, from mirari, to admire)

mirror is usually termed a See also:

• SPECULUM

speculum . The See also:

• LAWS

laws See also:

• RELATING

relating to the optical properties of mirrors are treated in the See also:

• ARTICLE (from Lat. articulus, a joint)

article REFLECTION OF See also:

• LIGHT

LIGHT . See also:

• ANCIENT
• ANCIENT (also spelt ANTIENT; derived, through the Fr. ancien, old, from the late Lat. antianum, from ante, before)

Ancient Mirrors.—The mirror (KaTOIrTpov, ECO1rTpov, ieorrpOV, speculum) of the Etruscans, Greeks and See also:

• ROMANS
• ROMANS, EPISTLE TO THE

Romans consisted of a thin disk of metal (usually See also:

• BRONZE

bronze) slightly See also:

• CONVEX

convex and polished on one See also:

• SIDE
• SIDE (mod. Eski Adalia)

side, the other being See also:

• LEFT

left See also:

• PLAIN (O. Fr. plain, from Lat. plenum)

plain or having a See also:

• DESIGN (Fr. desiin, drawing; Lat. designare, to mark out)

design incised upon it . A manufactory of mirrors of glass at See also:

• SIDON (Phoen. ins, Hebrew 1-rs, Assyr. Sidunnu, Egypt. Diduna)

Sidon is mentioned by See also:

• PLINY, THE ELDER
• PLINY, THE YOUNGER

Pliny (Nat . Hist. See also:

• XXXVI

xxxvi . 66, 193), but they appear to have been little used (one has been found at See also:

• SAN

San Remo) . Glass mirrors were coated, but with See also:

• TIN (Lat.- stannum, whence the chemical symbol " Sn "; atomic weight =117.6, 0=16)

tin; some See also:

• SILVER

silver mirrors have also been found . They are said to have been in use as See also:

• EARLY
• EARLY, JUBAL ANDERSON (1816-1894)

early as the See also:

• TIME (0. Eng. Lima, cf. Icel. timi, Swed. timme, hour, Dan. time; from the root also seen in " tide," properly the time of between the flow and ebb of the sea, cf. O. Eng. getidan, to happen, " even-tide," &c.; it is not directly related to Lat. tempus)
• TIME, MEASUREMENT OF
• TIME, STANDARD

time of See also:

• POMPEY

Pompey, and were See also:

• COMMON

common under the See also:

• EMPIRE

empire . See also:

• HOMER, WINSLOW (1836-191o)

Homer knows nothing of mirrors, but they are frequently mentioned in the tragedians and onwards . The usual See also:

• SIZE

size was that of an See also:

• ORDINARY (med. Lat. ordinarius, Fr. ordinaire)

ordinary See also:

• HAND
• HAND (a word common to Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Hand, Goth. handus)
• HAND, FERDINAND GOTTHELF (1786-185r)

hand-mirror, but in imperial times some appear to have been large enough to take in the whole figure (See also:

• SENECA

Seneca, Nat. quaest., i . 17, 8), being either fixed to the See also:

• WALL (O. Eng. weal, weall, Mid. Eng. wal, wane, adapted from Lat. vallum, rampart; the original O. Eng. word for a wall was wag or tenth)
• WALL, RICHARD (1694-1778)

wall or working up and down like a window See also:

• SASH

sash .

The first specimen of a See also:

• GREEK
• GREEK, ETRUSCAN AND

Greek mirror was not discovered till 1867, at See also:

• CORINTH
• CORINTH, ISTHMUS OF

Corinth, and the number extant is comparatively small . They are usually provided with a handle, which sometimes took the See also:

• FORM (Lat. forma)

form of a statuette (especially of See also:

• APHRODITE

Aphrodite) supported on a See also:

• PEDESTAL (Fr. piedestal, Ital. piedestallo, foot of a stall)

pedestal, or consist of two metallic circular disks (the " See also:

• BOX
• BOX (Gr. irl or, Lat. buxus, box-wood; cf. 2r6Eir, a pyx)

box " mirrors) fitting in to each other, and sometimes fastened together by a See also:

• HINGE (in Mid. Eng. henge or heeng, from hengen, to hang)

hinge . The upper disk or See also:

• COVER (from the Fr. convert, from couvrir, to cover, Lat. cooperire)

cover was ornamented on the outside with a design in See also:

• LOW, SETH (1850- )
• LOW, WILL HICOK (1853- )

low See also:

• RELIEF

relief; inside it was polished to reflect the See also:

• FACE (from Lat. fades, derived either from facere, to make, or from a root fa-, meaning " appear "; cf. Gr. cbatvstv)

face . The See also:

• LOWER

lower disk was decorated inside with engraved figures . The best specimens of both kinds of mirrors date from a little before 400 B.C. and last for some time after that . Of the reliefs, one of the best examples is " See also:

• GANYMEDE

Ganymede carried away by the See also:

• EAGLE (Fr. aigle, from the Lat. aquila)

eagle "; amongst the incised mirrors may be mentioned one representing Leucas and Corinthus, inscribed with their names (both the above in Collignon, L'Archeologie grecque, 1907, See also:

• FIGS

figs . 212, 213); the See also:

• GENIUS (from Lat. genere, gignere)

Genius of the See also:

• COCK, EDWARD (1805-1892)

Cock-fights (Revue archeologique, new See also:

• SER

ser. xvii., ,868, P1 . 13) .. A bronze mirror-See also:

• CASE
• CASE, JOHN (d. 1600)

case, found at Corinth, has attached on the outside a relief representing an See also:

• EROS

Eros with two girls; on the inside is incised a design of a nymph seated on a See also:

• BENCH (an O.E. and Eng. form of a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Bank, Dan. baenk and the Eng. doublet " bank ")

bench and playing with See also:

• PAN (" pasturer ")
• PAN (common in various forms to many Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Pfanne; it is generally taken to be an early adaptation in a shortened form of Lat. patina, shallow bowl or dish, from patere, to lie open)

Pan at a See also:

• GAME

game resembling the See also:

• ITALIAN

Italian See also:

• MORA, JOSE (1638-1725)
• MORA, or MORRA (Ital. delay)

mora (Classical See also:

• REVIEW (Fr. revue, from revoir, to see again, Lat. re and videre)

Review, Feb . 1889, p . 86) . On the back of another mirror in the See also:

• BRITISH

British Museum (See also:

• GAZETTE

Gazette archeologique, ii .

Pl . 27) is a figure of Eros which has been silvered over . With this was found the bronze case used to contain it, on the back of which is a See also:

• GROUP

group of Aphrodite and Eros in repousse . It was found in See also:

• CRETE (Gr. Kp;rrrr; Turk. Kirid, Ital. Candia)

Crete; but most of the Greek mirrors and mirror-cases having designs are from Corinth . The See also:

• PRINCIPAL

principal feature of the See also:

• ETRUSCAN

Etruscan mirrors, the extant examples of which far outnumber the Greek, is the design incised on the back . Belonging chiefly to the 4th and 3rd centuries, they mostly resemble the Greek disk-mirrors in form, box-mirrors being rare . As a See also:

• RULE

rule the subjects incised are taken from Greek See also:

• MYTHOLOGY

mythology and See also:

• LEGEND (through the French from the med. Lat. legenda, things to be read, from legere, to read)

legend (Trojan See also:

• WAR
• WAR (O. Eng. werre, Fr. guerre, of Teutonic origin; cf. O.H.G. werran, to confound)

War, See also:

• BIRTH (a word common in various forms to Teutonic languages from the root of the verb " to bear ")

birth of See also:

• ATHENA (the Attic form of the Homeric Athene, also called Athenaia, Pallas Athene, Pallas)

Athena, Aphrodite and See also:

• ADONIS

Adonis), the names of the persons represented being frequently added in Etruscan letters and See also:

• ORTHOGRAPHY (from Gr. Opeoc, correct, right or straight, and yp&cbecv, to write)

orthography (Apul See also:

• APOLLO (Gr. 'A2r6XXwv,'Airkkhwv)

Apollo, Achle = See also:

• ACHILLES
• ACHILLES (Gr. 'AxtXXeus)

Achilles, Achmemrum = See also:

• AGAMEMNON

Agamemnon) . Scenes from daily See also:

• LIFE

life, the See also:

• TOILET

toilet, the See also:

• BATH
• BATH, THOMAS THYNNE
• BATH, WILLIAM

bath, the See also:

• PALAESTRA (Gr. aaXaiarpa)

palaestra, also occur . In most cases the See also:

• STYLE
• STYLE (from Gr. a-6'1ms, a column; a different word from that used in literature, see below)

style of See also:

• DRAWING

drawing, the types of the figures, and the manner of composing the See also:

• GROUPS
• GROUPS, THEORY

groups are true to the characteristics of Greek See also:

• ART

art . Some may have been imported from See also:

• GREECE

Greece, but the greater number appears to have been more or less faithfully imitated from such designs as occurred on the Greek vases which the Etruscans obtained from Greece . Even where distinctly Etruscan figures are introduced, such as the heroes Aelius and Caelius Vibenna on a mirror in the British Museum, Greek See also:

• MODELS

models are followed . Although the See also:

• WORK

work is frequently rough and careless, certain very See also:

• FINE

fine and beautiful specimens have been found: the famous See also:

• SEMELE

Semele-mirror, and the healing of Telephus, in which Achilles is shown scraping the healing See also:

• RUST (O.E. rust, a word which appears in -many Teutonic languages, cf. Du. roest, Ger. rost); in origin it is allied with " ruddy " and " red," the reddish-brown powdery substance which forms on the surface of iron or steel exposed to atmospheric corrosio

rust from the See also:

• LANCE

lance with a See also:

• CRESCENT (Lat. crescens, growing)

crescent-shaped See also:

• KNIFE (0. E. cuff, a word appearing in different forms in many Teutonic languages, cf. Du. knijf, Ger. Kneif, a shoe-maker's knife, Swed. knif; the ultimate origin is unknown; Skeat finds the origin in the root of " nip," formerly " knip "; Fr. canif is a

knife (Baumeister, Denkmdler, figs .

557, 1774) . See also:

• ROMAN

Roman mirrors are usually disk-mirrors, the back of the disk, if engraved, being generally ornamented with decorative patterns, not with any subject design . Plain mirrors are found wherever Greek and Roman See also:

• CIVILIZATION

civilization spread, and a specimen found in See also:

• CORNWALL

Cornwall (now in the British Museum) shows that the See also:

• CELTIC

Celtic See also:

• POPULATION (Lat. populus, people; populare, to populate)

population of See also:

• ENGLAND
• ENGLAND, THE CHURCH OF

England had adopted the form and substance of the mirror from their conquerors . This specimen is enriched with a Celtic See also:

• PATTERN

pattern incised . The shape of the handle exhibits native originality . Mirrors were sometimes used in Greece for purposes of See also:

• DIVINATION
• DIVINATION, OMEN, ASTROLOGY

divination (See also:

• PAUSANIAS

Pausanias vii . 21, 5) . The mirror was let down into a well by means of a See also:

• STRING

string until it grazed the See also:

• SURFACE

surface of the See also:

• WATER

water with the rim; after a little while it was pulled up, and when looked into showed the face of the sick See also:

• PERSON, OFFENCES AGAINST THE

person, alive or dead, on whose behalf the ceremony had been performed . This took See also:

• PLACE (through Fr. from Lat. platea, street; Gr. IrAar6s, wide)

place at Patrae . See J . J. de See also:

• WITTE, SERGE JULIEVICH, COUNT (1849— )

Witte, " See also:

• LES

Les miroirs chez Ies anciens," in Extrait See also:

• DES

des annales de l'acadimie, See also:

• XXVIII

xxviii . (See also:

• ANTWERP
• ANTWERP (Fr. Anvers)

Antwerp, 1872) ; Mylonas, `EXAnvuca .

K(xroirrpa (See also:

• ATHENS
• ATHENS ['AN vat, Athenae, modem colloquial Greek `Ath va]

Athens, '876); M . Collignon, L'Archeologie grecque (new ed., 1907; Eng. tr. by J . H . See also:

• WRIGHT, CARROLL DAVIDSON (1840-1909)
• WRIGHT, CHAUNCEY (1830-1875)
• WRIGHT, JOSEPH (1734-1797)
• WRIGHT, SILAS (1795-1847)
• WRIGHT, THOMAS (1809–1884)
• WRIGHT, THOMAS (1810—1877)
• WRIGHT, WILLIAM ALDIS (1836– )

Wright, 1886); E . See also:

• GERHARD
• GERHARD, FRIEDRICH WILHELM EDUARD (1795-1867)

Gerhard, Etruskische Spiegel (1840-1867), continued by K . Klugmann and G . Korte (1884—'897); article in See also:

• SMITH
• SMITH, ADAM (1723–1790)
• SMITH, ALEXANDER (183o-1867)
• SMITH, ANDREW JACKSON (1815-1897)
• SMITH, CHARLES EMORY (1842–1908)
• SMITH, CHARLES FERGUSON (1807–1862)
• SMITH, CHARLOTTE (1749-1806)
• SMITH, COLVIN (1795—1875)
• SMITH, EDMUND KIRBY (1824-1893)
• SMITH, G
• SMITH, GEORGE (1789-1846)
• SMITH, GEORGE (184o-1876)
• SMITH, GEORGE ADAM (1856- )
• SMITH, GERRIT (1797–1874)
• SMITH, GOLDWIN (1823-191o)
• SMITH, HENRY BOYNTON (1815-1877)
• SMITH, HENRY JOHN STEPHEN (1826-1883)
• SMITH, HENRY PRESERVED (1847– )
• SMITH, JAMES (1775–1839)
• SMITH, JOHN (1579-1631)
• SMITH, JOHN RAPHAEL (1752–1812)
• SMITH, JOSEPH, JR
• SMITH, MORGAN LEWIS (1822–1874)
• SMITH, RICHARD BAIRD (1818-1861)
• SMITH, ROBERT (1689-1768)
• SMITH, SIR HENRY GEORGE WAKELYN
• SMITH, SIR THOMAS (1513-1577)
• SMITH, SIR WILLIAM (1813-1893)
• SMITH, SIR WILLIAM SIDNEY (1764-1840)
• SMITH, SYDNEY (1771-1845)
• SMITH, THOMAS SOUTHWOOD (1788-1861)
• SMITH, WILLIAM (1769-1839)
• SMITH, WILLIAM (c. 1730-1819)
• SMITH, WILLIAM (fl. 1596)
• SMITH, WILLIAM FARRAR (1824—1903)
• SMITH, WILLIAM HENRY (1808—1872)
• SMITH, WILLIAM HENRY (1825—1891)
• SMITH, WILLIAM ROBERTSON (1846-'894)

Smith's See also:

• DICTIONARY

Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities (3rd ed., 1891) . (J . H . F.) See also:

• MEDIEVAL

Medieval and See also:

• MODERN

Modern Mirrors.—Small metallic mirrors with a highly polished surface were largely used during the See also:

• MIDDLE

middle ages: See also:

• POCKET

pocket mirrors or small hand mirrors carried at the See also:

• GIRDLE (O. Eng. gyrdel, from gyrdan, to gird; cf. Ger. Gurtel, Dutch gordel, from giirten and gorden; "gird" and its doublet " girth " together with the other Teutonic cognates have been referred by some to the root ghar—to seize, enclose, seen in Gr. )(s

girdle being indispensable adjuncts to ladies' toilets . The pocket mirrors consisted of small circular plaques of polished metal, usually See also:

• STEEL, FLORA ANNIE (1847– )

steel or silver, fixed in a shallow circular box covered with a lid . Mirror-cases were chiefly made of See also:

• IVORY (Fr. ivoire, Lat. ebur)
• IVORY, SIR JAMES (1765-1842)

ivory, carved with relief representations of love or domestic scenes, See also:

• HUNTING (the verbal substantive from " hunt "; O. Eng. huntian, hunta; apparently connected with O. Eng. hentan, Gothic hinpan, to capture, O.H.G. hunda,booty)

hunting and See also:

• GAMES, CLASSICAL

games, and sometimes illustrations of popular See also:

• POETRY

poetry or See also:

• ROMANCE

romance .

See also:

• GOLD
• GOLD [symbol Au, atomic weight 195.7(H = 1),197.2(0 =16)]

Gold and silver, enamels, See also:

• EBONY (Gr. E(3evos)

ebony and other costly materials were likewise used for mirror cases, on which were lavished the highest decorative efforts of art workmanship and costly jewelling . The mirrors worn at the girdle had no cover, but were furnished with a See also:

• SHORT, FRANCIS JOB (1857– )

short handle . In 625 See also:

• POPE (Gr. irarraas, post-classical Lat. papa, father)
• POPE, ALEXANDER (1688–1744)
• POPE, ALEXANDER (1763-1835)
• POPE, JANE (1742-1818)
• POPE, JOHN (1822-1892)
• POPE, SIR THOMAS (c. 1507-1559)

Pope See also:

• BONIFACE (Bonifacius)
• BONIFACE, SAINT (680-754)

Boniface IV. sent See also:

• QUEEN
• QUEEN (O.E. cwen, wife, related to "quean," O.E. cwene, a hussy; cf. Gr. yvvi7: from root gan-, to produce; cf. genus, " kin," &c.)

Queen Ethelberga of See also:

• NORTHUMBRIA (regnum Northanhymbrorum)

Northumbria a See also:

• PRESENT

present of a silver mirror; and in early Anglo-Saxon times mirrors were well known in England . It is a remarkable fact that on many of the sculptured stones of See also:

• SCOTLAND
• SCOTLAND, CHURCH OF
• SCOTLAND, EPISCOPAL CHURCH OF

Scotland, belonging probably to the 7th, 8th or 9th See also:

• CENTURY (from Lat. centuria, a division of a hundred men)

century, representations of mirrors, mirror-cases and combs occur . The method of backing glass with thin sheets of metal for mirrors was well known in the middle ages, at a time when steel and silver mirrors were almost exclusively employed . See also:

• VINCENT (or VINCENTIUS), ST
• VINCENT, GEORGE (1796-1831?)
• VINCENT, MARY ANN (1818-1887)

Vincent of See also:

• BEAUVAIS

Beauvais, See also:

• WRITING
• WRITING (the verbal noun of " to write," O. Eng. writan, to inscribe)

writing about 1250, says that the mirror of glass and See also:

• LEAD
• LEAD (pronounced iced)

lead is the best of all, " quia vitrum propter transparentiam melius recipit radios "; and a verre d mirer is mentioned in the inventories of the See also:

• DUKES
• DUKES, LEOPOLD (1810-1891)

dukes of See also:

• BURGUNDY

Burgundy, dating from the 15th century . A gild of glass-mirror makers existed at See also:

• NUREMBERG (Ger. Nurnberg)

Nuremberg in 1373, and small convex mirrors were commonly made in See also:

• SOUTHERN

southern See also:

• GERMANY
• GERMANY (Ger. Deutschland)

Germany before the beginning of the 16th century; and these continued to be in demand, under the name of See also:

• BULL
• BULL, GEORGE (1634–1710)
• BULL, JOHN (c. 1562–1628)
• BULL, OLE BORNEMANN (18ro-188o)

bull's-eyes (Ochsen-Augen), till comparatively modern times . They were made by blowing small globes of glass into which while still hot was passed through the See also:

• PIPE

pipe a mixture of tin, See also:

• ANTIMONY (symbol Sb, atomic weight 120.2)

antimony and See also:

• RESIN (through O.Fr. resine, modern reline, from Lat. resina, prcbably Latinized from Greek Pirivrt, resin)

resin or See also:

• TAR

tar . When the globe was entirely coated with the metallic See also:

• COMPOUND
• COMPOUND (from Lat. componere, to combine or put together)

compound and cooled it was cut into convex lenses, which formed small but well-defined images . As early as 1317. a " Magister de Alemania," who knew how to work glass for mirrors, See also:

• BROKE, or BROOKE, ARTHUR (d. 1563)
• BROKE, SIR PHILIP BOWES VERE, BART

broke an agreement he had made to instruct three Venetians, leaving in their hands a large quantity of mixed See also:

• ALUM

alum and See also:

• SOOT (0. Eng. sot, cf. Icel. sot, Dan. sod; possibly from root sed, to sit)

soot for which they could find no use . It was, however, in See also:

• VENICE
• VENICE (continued)
• VENICE (Venezia)

Venice that the making of glass mirrors on a commercial See also:

• SCALE
• SCALE (1) A

scale was first See also:

• DEVELOPED

developed; and the See also:

• REPUBLIC (Lat. respublica, a commonweal or common-wealth)

republic enjoyed a much-prized See also:

• MONOPOLY (Gr. govomeXla or govoircaXwv, exclusive sale, from govds, alone, and irwXeiv, to sell)

monopoly of the manufacture for about a century and a See also:

• HALF

half . In 1507 two inhabitants of See also:

• MURANO (anc. Ammariuno)

Murano, representing that they possessed the See also:

• SECRET (Lat. secretum, hidden, concealed)

secret of making perfect mirrors of glass, a knowledge hitherto confined to one See also:

• GERMAN
• GERMAN, DUTCH AND SCANDINAVIAN

German glass-See also:

• HOUSE
• HOUSE (O. Eng. hiss, a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Dut. huis, Ger. Haus; in Gothic it is only found in gudhiss, a temple; it may be ultimately connected with the root of " hide," conceal)

house, obtained an exclusive See also:

• PRIVILEGE

privilege of manufacturing mirrors for a See also:

• PERIOD
• PERIOD (Gr. irepioSos, a going or way round, circuit, aepi, round, and &Sis, way, road)

period of twenty years .

In 1564 the mirror-makers of Venice, who enjoyed See also:

• PECULIAR

peculiar privileges, formed themselves into a See also:

• CORPORATION (from Lat. corporare, to form into a body, corpus, corporis)

corporation . The products of the Murano glass-houses quickly supplanted the mirrors of polished metal, and a large and lucrative See also:

• TRADE (O. Eng. trod, footstep, from tredan, to tread; in M. Eng. the forms teed, trod and trade appear, the last in the sense of a beaten track)
• TRADE, BOARD OF

trade in Venetian glass mirrors sprang up . They were made from blown cylinders of glass, which were slit, flattened on a See also:

• STONE
• STONE (0. Eng. shin; the word is common to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Stein, Du. steen, Dan. and Swed. sten; the root is also seen in Gr. aria, pebble)
• STONE, CHARLES POMEROY (1824-1887)
• STONE, EDWARD JAMES (1831-1897)
• STONE, FRANK (1800-1859)
• STONE, GEORGE (1708—1764)
• STONE, LUCY [BLACKWELL] (1818-1893)
• STONE, MARCUS (184o— )
• STONE, NICHOLAS (1586-1647)

stone, carefully polished, the edges frequently bevelled, and the backs " silvered " by an See also:

• AMALGAM

amalgam . The glass was remarkably pure and See also:

• UNIFORM

uniform, the " silvering " See also:

• BRIGHT, JOHN (1811-188g)
• BRIGHT, SIR CHARLES TILSTON

bright, and the sheets sometimes of considerable dimensions . In the See also:

• INVENTORY (post-class. Lat. inventarium, a list or repertory, from invenire to find)

inventory of his effects, made on the See also:

• DEATH

death of the See also:

• FRENCH
• FRENCH, DANIEL CHESTER (1850– )
• FRENCH, NICHOLAS (1604-1678)

French See also:

• MINISTER (Lat. minister, servant)

minister See also:

• COLBERT, JEAN BAPTISTE (1619-1683)

Colbert, a Venetian mirror, 46 by 26 in., in a silver See also:

• FRAME

frame, is valued at 8o16 livres, while a picture by See also:

• RAPHAEL (Hebrew smm, " God heals ")

Raphael is put down at 3000 livres . The manufacture of glass mirrors, with the aid of Italian workmen, was practised in England by See also:

• SIR

Sir See also:

• ROBERT
• ROBERT (1275—1343)
• ROBERT, HUBERT (1753-1808)
• ROBERT, LOUIS LEOPOLD (1794-1835)

Robert See also:

• MANSEL, HENRY LONGUEVILLE (1820-1871)

Mansel early in the 17th century, and about 1670 the See also:

• DUKE (corresponding to Fr. duc, Ital. duca, Ger. Herzog)

duke of See also:

• BUCKINGHAM
• BUCKINGHAM, EARLS, MARQUESSES AND DUKES OF
• BUCKINGHAM, FIRST DUKE
• BUCKINGHAM, GEORGE VILLIERS, 1ST DUKE 0E1
• BUCKINGHAM, GEORGE VILLIERS, 2ND DUKE 0E1 (1628-1687)
• BUCKINGHAM, HENRY STAFFORD, 2ND DUKE OF3 (1454-1483)
• BUCKINGHAM, JAMES SILK (1786-1855)

Buckingham was concerned in glass-See also:

• WORKS

works at See also:

• LAMBETH

Lambeth where See also:

• FLINT
• FLINT, AUSTIN (1812-1886)
• FLINT, or FLTNTSHTRE (sir Gallestr)
• FLINT, ROBERT (1838- )
• FLINT, TIMOTHY (1780-1840)

flint glass was made for looking-glasses . These old See also:

• ENGLISH

English mirrors, with bevelled edges in the Venetian See also:

• FASHION (adapted from Fr. facon, agon, Lat. factio, making, facere, to do or make)

fashion, are still well known . The Venetians guarded with the utmost See also:

• JEALOUSY (adapted from Fr. jalousie, formed from jaloux, jealous, Low Lat. zelosus, Gr. j'i os, ardour, zeal, from the root seen in '&u', to boil, ferment; cf. " yeast ")

jealousy the secrets of their manufactures, and gave exceptional privileges to those engaged in such See also:

• INDUSTRIES

industries . By their statutes any glass-maker carrying his art into a See also:

• FOREIGN

foreign See also:

• STATE
• STATE, GREAT OFFICERS OF

state was ordered to return on the See also:

• PAIN (from Lat. poena, Gr. robin, penalty, that which must be paid: O. Fr. peine)
• PAIN, BARRY (1867– )

pain of imprisonment of his nearest relatives, and should he disobeythe command emissaries were delegated to slay him . In face of such a See also:

• STATUTE

statute Colbert attempted in 1664 to get Venetian artists transported to See also:

• FRANCE
• FRANCE, ANATOLE (1844– )

France to develop the two See also:

• GREAT

great industries of mirror-making and point-See also:

• LACE (corresponding to Ital. merletto, trina; Genoese Pizzo; Ger. spitzen; Fr. dentelle; Dutch kanten; Span. encaje; the English word owes something to the Fr. lassis or laces, but both are connected with the earlier Lat. laqueus; early French laces were

lace working . The See also:

• AMBASSADOR (also EMBASSADOR, the form sometimes still used in America; from the Fr. ambassadeur, with which compare Ital. ambasciatore and Span. embajador, all variants of the Med. Lat. ambassiator, ambassiator, ambasator, &c., derived from Med. Lat. amba

ambassador, the See also:

• BISHOP (A.S. bisceop, from Lat. episcopus, Gr. irio-Korros, " overlooker " or " overseer ")
• BISHOP, ISABELLA (1832-1904)
• BISHOP, SIR HENRY ROWLEY (1786-1855)

bishop of See also:

• BEZIERS

Beziers, pointed out that this was to See also:

• COURT
• COURT (from the O. Fr. court, Late Lat. cortis, curtis, a popular form of class. Lat. cohors, gen. cohortis; the mod. Fr. form tour is due to the influence of the Lat. curia, the word used in medieval documents to translate " court " in the feudal sense)
• COURT, ANTOINE (1696-176o)

court the See also:

• RISK

risk of being thrown into the Adriatic, and, further, that Venice was selling to France mirrors to the value of 1oo,000 crowns and lace to three or four times that value . Nevertheless, twenty Venetian glass-mirror makers were sent to France in 1665, and the manufacture was begun in the See also:

• FAUBOURG

Faubourg St See also:

• ANTOINE, ANDRE (1858- )

Antoine, See also:

• PARIS
• PARIS (also called ALEXANDROS)
• PARIS, ALEXIS PAULIN (1800-x881)
• PARIS, BRUNO PAULIN GASTON (1839-1903)
• PARIS, FRANCOIS DE (169o-1727)
• PARIS, LOUIS PHILIPPE ALBERT
• PARIS, TREATIES OF (1814-1815)

Paris .

But previous to this the art of blowing glass for mirrors had been practised at Tour-la-Ville, near See also:

• CHERBOURG

Cherbourg, by See also:

• RICHARD
• RICHARD (d. 1184)
• RICHARD, FRANCOIS MARIE BENJAMIN (18,9-1908)
• RICHARD, HENRY (1812-1888)
• RICHARD, ST

Richard See also:

• LUCAS, CHARLES (1713–1771)
• LUCAS, JOHN SEYMOUR (1849– )
• LUCAS, SIR CHARLES (d. 1648)

Lucas, Sieur de Nehou, in 1653; and by the subsequent See also:

• COMBINATION (Lat. combinare, to combine)

combination of skill of both establishments French mirrors soon excelled in quality those of Venice . The art received a new impulse in France on the introduction of the making of See also:

• PLATE

plate glass in 1691 . The St Gobain Glass See also:

• COMPANY

Company attribute the See also:

• DISCOVERY

discovery to See also:

• LOUIS
• LOUIS (804–876)
• LOUIS (893–911)
• LOUIS, JOSEPH DOMINIQUE, BARON (1755-1837)
• LOUIS, or LEWIS (from the Frankish Chlodowich, Chlodwig, Latinized as Chlodowius, Lodhuwicus, Lodhuvicus, whence-in the Strassburg oath of 842-0. Fr. Lodhuwigs, then Chlovis, Loys and later Louis, whence Span. Luiz and—through the Angevin kings—Hungarian

Louis Lucas of Nehou, and over khe See also:

• DOOR (corresponding to the Gr. Bbpa,. Lat. fores or valvae; the English word, with other forms common in allied languages, comes from the same Indo-European stem as the Gr. Obpa and Lat. fares)

door of the See also:

• CHAPEL

chapel of St Gobain they have placed an inscription in memory of " Louis Lucas qui inventa en 1691 le methode de couler les glaces et installa la manufacture en 1695 Bans le See also:

• CHATEAU (from Lat. castellum, fortress, through O. Fr. chastel, chasteau)

chateau de See also:

• SAINT (lat. sanctus, " holy ")

Saint Gobain." Manufacture.—The See also:

• TERM

term " silvering," as applied to the formation of a metallic coating on glass for giving it the properties of a mirror, was till quite recently a misnomer, seeing that till about 184o no silver, but a tin amalgam, was used in the See also:

• PROCESS

process . Now, however, a large proportion of mirrors are made by depositing on the glass a coating of pure silver, and the old amalgamation process is comparatively little used . The process of amalgamation consists in applying a thin amalgam of tin and See also:

• MERCURY
• MERCURY (MERCU1uus)
• MERCURY (symbol Hg, atomic weight = 2oo)

mercury to the surface of glass . A sheet of thin tin-See also:

• FOIL

foil, somewhat larger than the glass to be operated on, is spread out on a See also:

• FLAT (a modification of O. Eng. flet, an obsolete word of Teutonic origin, meaning the ground beneath the feet)

flat table, and after all folds and creases have been completely removed a small quantity of mercury is rubbed lightly and quickly over the whole surface, and the scum of dust, impure tin and mercury is taken off . Mercury is then poured upon the " quickened " foil until there is a See also:

• BODY

body of it sufficient to See also:

• FLOAT (in O. Eng. floc and flota, in the verbal form f eotan; the Teutonic root is flut-, another form of flu-, seen in " flow," cf. " fleet "; the root is seen in Gr. a-M e, to sail, Lat. pluere, to rain; the Lat, fluere and fluctus, wave, is not connect

float the glass to be silvered (about a in. deep), and the glass (scrupulously cleaned simultaneously with the above operations) is slid over the surface of the mercury . Weights are placed over the surface until the greater See also:

• PART

part of the amalgamated mercury is pressed out, and the table is then tilted so that all superfluous mercury finds its way to the See also:

• GUTTER (O. Fr. goutiere, mod. gouttiere, from Lat. gutta, drop)

gutter . The glass is left twenty-four See also:

• HOURS, CANONICAL

hours under weights; it is then turned over, silvered side up and removed to a drainer, where it dries and hardens . This process, when, elaborated, yields excellent results, producing a brilliant silver-See also:

• WHITE
• WHITE, ANDREW DICKSON (1832– )
• WHITE, GILBERT (1720–1793)
• WHITE, HENRY KIRKE (1785-1806)
• WHITE, HUGH LAWSON (1773-1840)
• WHITE, JOSEPH BLANCO (1775-1841)
• WHITE, RICHARD GRANT (1822-1885)
• WHITE, ROBERT (1645-1704)
• WHITE, SIR GEORGE STUART (1835– )
• WHITE, SIR THOMAS (1492-1567)
• WHITE, SIR WILLIAM ARTHUR (1824--1891)
• WHITE, SIR WILLIAM HENRY (1845– )
• WHITE, THOMAS (1628-1698)
• WHITE, THOMAS (c. 1550-1624)

white metallic lustre, which is only subject to alteration by exposure to high temperatures or by contact with See also:

• DAMP

damp surfaces; but the See also:

• MERCURIAL

mercurial vapours to which the workmen are exposed give rise to the most distressing and fatal affections . The " silver on glass " mirror may be regarded as a discovery of J. von See also:

• LIEBIG, JUSTUS VON, BARON (1803-1873)

Liebig, who in 1835 observed that by See also:

• HEATING

heating aldehyde with an ammoniacal See also:

• SOLUTION (from Lat. solvere, to loosen, dissolve)

solution of silver nitrate in a glass See also:

• VESSEL (O. Fr. vaissel, from a rare Lat. vascellum, dim. of vas, vase, urn)

vessel a brilliant See also:

• DEPOSIT (Lat. depositurn, from deponere, to lay down, to put in the care of)

deposit of metallic silver was formed on the surface of the glass . In practice the process. was introduced about 1840; and it is now carried on, with several modifications, in two distinct ways, called the hot and the See also:

• COLD (in O. Eng. cald and ceald, a word coming ultimately from a root cognate with the Lat. gelu, gelidus, and common in the Teutonic languages, which usually have two distinct forms for the substantive and the adjective, cf. Ger. Kolte, kalt, Dutch koude

cold process respectively .

In the former method there is employed a See also:

• HORIZONTAL

horizontal See also:

• DOUBLE
• DOUBLE (from the Mid. Eng. duble, the form which gives the present pronunciation, through the Old Er. duble, from Lat. duplus, twice as much)

double-bottomed metallic table, which is heated with See also:

• STEAM
• STEAM (0. Eng. steam, vapour, smoke, cf. Du. steam; the origin is unknown)

steam to from 35° to 400 C., and the reduction of the ammoniacal silver solution is effected with tartaric See also:

• ACID (from the Lat. root ac-, sharp; acere, to be sour)

acid . In silvering by the cold process See also:

• ADVANTAGE

advantage is taken of the See also:

• POWER [WILLIAM GRATTAN] TYRONE (1797-1841)

power of See also:

• SUGAR

sugar to reduce the silver nitrate . This method has been generally adopted for the silvering of mirrors for astronomical telescopes . G . W . Ritchey (" The Modern Reflecting See also:

• TELESCOPE

Telescope," Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge, xxxiv . 40) used the process devised by Brashear in 1884 . The glass disk is mounted on a rocking-table, and most carefully cleaned with nitric acid, potash, and finally with distilled water . The reducing solution (which improves on keeping) is made up from 200 parts of water, 20 of See also:

• LOAF

loaf sugar, 20 of See also:

• ALCOHOL

alcohol and 1 of nitric acid (commercial pure) . The silver solution is prepared as follows: 2 parts of silver nitrate are dissolved in 20 parts of water, and strong See also:

• AMMONIA (NH3)

ammonia added until the See also:

• BROWN
• BROWN, CHARLES BROCKDEN (1771-181o)
• BROWN, FORD MADOX (1821-1893)
• BROWN, FRANCIS (1849- )
• BROWN, GEORGE (1818-188o)
• BROWN, HENRY KIRKE (1814-1886)
• BROWN, JACOB (1775–1828)
• BROWN, JOHN (1715–1766)
• BROWN, JOHN (1722-1787)
• BROWN, JOHN (1735–1788)
• BROWN, JOHN (1784–1858)
• BROWN, JOHN (1800-1859)
• BROWN, JOHN (1810—1882)
• BROWN, JOHN GEORGE (1831— )
• BROWN, ROBERT (1773-1858)
• BROWN, SAMUEL MORISON (1817—1856)
• BROWN, SIR GEORGE (1790-1865)
• BROWN, SIR JOHN (1816-1896)
• BROWN, SIR WILLIAM, BART
• BROWN, THOMAS (1663-1704)
• BROWN, THOMAS (1778-1820)
• BROWN, THOMAS EDWARD (1830-1897)
• BROWN, WILLIAM LAURENCE (1755–1830)

brown solution becomes clear . A solution of l f parts of potash (pure by alcohol) in 20 of water is now added, and then ammonia until the solution is again clear . A solution of s part of silver nitrate in 16 of water is added until the liquid is See also:

• STRAW

straw-coloured; it is then filtered .

Quantities of the solutions, such that the sugar equals one half the nitrate, are taken, then diluted, mixed, and poured on to the plate, which is gently rocked . The liquid goes muddy-brown, and in 3 to 4 minutes it begins to clear, a thick deposit being formed in about 5 minutes . The solution is poured off, and water run on, the streaks of precipitate being removed by lightly held See also:

• COTTON
• COTTON (Fr. coton; from Arab. qutun)
• COTTON, CHARLES (163o–1687)
• COTTON, GEORGE EDWARD LYNCH (1813–1866)
• COTTON, JOHN (1585–1652)
• COTTON, SIR ROBERT BRUCE

cotton See also:

• WOOL, WORSTED AND WOOLLEN MANUFACTURES

wool . The washing is repeated, and then water is allowed to remain on the film for one See also:

• HOUR

hour . The water is then run off. and the plate is washed several times with alcohol, and then dried by an See also:

• AIR (from an Indo-European root meaning " breathe," " blow ")
• AIR, or ASBEN

air See also:

• FAN (Lat. vannus; Fr. eventail)

fan . The film is now burnished with a See also:

• CHAMOIS

chamois See also:

• LEATHER (a word which appears in all Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Leder, Dutch leer or leder, Swed. leder, and in such Celtic forms as Welsh llader)
• LEATHER, ARTIFICIAL

leather See also:

• PAD

pad, and finally with the finest jewellers' See also:

• ROUGE (" red," from Lat. rubeus)

rouge, the silver surface being the reflecting surface of the mirror . The deposit of silver on glass is not so adherent and unalterable under the See also:

• INFLUENCE (Late Lat. influentia, from influere, to flow in)

influence of sunlight and sulphurous fumes as the tin-mercury amalgam, and, moreover, real silvered glass has in many cases a slightly yellowish 'tinge . These defects have been overcome by a process introduced by Lenoir, which consists of brushing over the silvered surface with a dilute solution of See also:

• CYANIDE

cyanide of mercury, which, instantaneously forming a See also:

• KIND (O. E. ge-cynde, from the same root as is seen in " kin," supra)

kind of amalgam, renders the deposit at once much whiter and more firmly adherent than before . To protect the thin metallic film from See also:

• MECHANICAL

mechanical injury and the chemical See also:

• ACTION

action of gases and vapours it is coated with shellac or See also:

• COPAL (Mexican copalli, incense)

copal See also:

• VARNISH

varnish, over which, when dry, are applied two coatings of red-lead paint or an electrolytically-deposited film of See also:

• COPPER (symbol Cu, atomic weight 63.1, H=1, or 63.6, O = 16)

copper . This precaution only applies when the silver forms the back of the mirror . See also:

• PLATINUM [symbol Pt, atomic weight 145.0 (0=16)]

Platinum Mirrors.—A cheap process of preparing mirror glass was to some extent prosecuted In France, whereby a thin but very adherent deposit of platinum is formed on the glass . A solution of chloride of platinum with a proportion of litharge and borate of lead dissolved in essential oil of spike is applied with a See also:

• BRUSH (from Fr. brosse, which, like the English word, means both the undergrowth of a wood and the instrument; if the word in both these meanings is ultimately the same, then the origin is from a bundle of brushwood used as a brush or broom, but this is h
• BRUSH, GEORGE DE FOREST (1855– )

brush to well-cleaned glass, which is then placed on edge in a muffle See also:

• FURNACE

furnace, and the platinum is thus burned in, forming an exceedingly thin but brilliant metallic backing having a somewhat See also:

• GREY, CHARLES GREY, 2ND EARL (1764-1845)
• GREY, HENRY GREY, 3RD EARL (1802-1894)
• GREY, LADY JANE (1537-1554)
• GREY, SIR EDWARD
• GREY, SIR GEORGE (1812–1898)

grey lustre .

It was used only for the lids of cheap boxes, toys, ornamental letters, &c . Magic Mirrors.—Hand mirrors of metal are still in common use in See also:

• ORIENTAL

Oriental countries, and in See also:

• JAPAN

Japan bronze mirrors possess a religious significance . They have been known and used from the most remote period, mention of them being found in See also:

• CHINESE, JAPANESE AND

Chinese literature of the 9th century . The (reputed) first made See also:

• JAPANESE

Japanese mirror, preserved at Is6, is an See also:

• OBJECT

object of the highest veneration in Japan, and an ancient mirror, connected with which is a tradition to the effect that it was given by the See also:

• SUN
• SUN (0. Eng. sonne, Ger. sonne. Fr. soleil, Lat. sol, Gr. ijXior, from which comes helio- in various English compounds)

sun-goddess at the See also:

• FOUNDATION (Lat. fundatio, from fundare, to found)

foundation of the empire, is a principal article of the Japanese See also:

• REGALIA (Lat. regalis, royal, from rex, king)

regalia . The mirrors of Japan in See also:

• GENERAL
• GENERAL (Lat. generalis, of or relating to a genus, kind or class)

general consist of thin disks, from 3 to 12 in. in See also:

• DIAMETER (from the Cr. &a, through, µErpov, measure)

diameter, of speculum metal with handles, See also:

• CAST (from the verb meaning " to throw "; the word is Scand. in origin, cf. Dan. kaste, and Swed. kasta; " cast " in Middle Eng. took the place of the A.S. weor pan, cf. Ger. werf en)

cast in one piece . The polished face of the mirror is slightly convex in form, so that a reflected See also:

• IMAGE (Lat. imago, perhaps from the same root as imitari, copy, imitate)

image is seen proportionately reduced in size; the back of the disk is occupied with ornamentation and See also:

• INSCRIPTIONS (from Lat. inscribere, to write upon)

inscriptions in bold relief, and its rim is also raised to the back . Much See also:

• ATTENTION (from Lat. ad-tendo, await, expect; the condition of being " stretched " or " tense ")

attention has been attracted to these mirrors by a singular See also:

• PHYSICAL

physical peculiarity which in a few cases they are found to possess . These are known as magic mirrors from the fact that when a strong See also:

• BEAM
• BEAM (from the O. Eng. beam, cf. Ger. Baum, a tree, to which sense may be referred the use of " beam " as meaning the rood or crucifix, and the survival in certain names of trees, as horn-beam)

beam of light is reflected from their smooth and polished surface, and thrown on a white See also:

• SCREEN (usually, but very doubtfully, connected with Lat. scrinium, a box for holding books, from scribere, to write; a connexion with Ger. Schranke, barrier, has been suggested)

screen, an image of the raised ornaments and characters on the back of the mirror is formed with more or less distinctness in the disk of light on the screen . This peculiarity has at no time been specially observed by the Japanese, but in See also:

• CHINA

China it attracted attention as early as the 11th century, and mirrors possessed of this See also:

• PROPERTY

property sell among the Chinese at ten or even twenty times the See also:

• PRICE
• PRICE, BARTHOLOMEW (1818–1898)
• PRICE, BONAMY (1807-1888)
• PRICE, RICHARD (1723-1791)

price sought for the ordinary non-sensitive examples . The true explanation of the magic mirror was first suggested by the French physicist See also:

• CHARLES
• CHARLES (1270-1325)
• CHARLES (1421-1461)
• CHARLES (1525-1574)
• CHARLES (c. 1319-1364)
• CHARLES (Fr. Charles; Span. Carlos; Ital. Carlo; Ger. Karl; derived from O.H.G. Charal,latinized as Carolus, meaning originally " man ": cf. Mod.Ger., Kerl," fellow," A.S. ceorl, Mod. Eng. " churl ")
• CHARLES (KARL EITEL ZEPHYRIN LUDWIG; in Rum. CAROL)
• CHARLES [KARL ALEXANDER] (1712-1780)
• CHARLES, ELIZABETH (1828-1896)
• CHARLES, JACQUES ALEXANDRE CESAR (1746-1823)
• CHARLES, THOMAS (1755-1814)

Charles Cleophas Person in 1847, who observed that the reflecting surface of the mirrors was not uniformly convex, the portions opposite relief surfaces being See also:

• PLANE

plane . Therefore, as he says, ' the rays reflected from the convex portion diverge and give but a feebly illuminated image, while, on the contrary, the rays reflected from the plane portions of the mirror preserve their See also:

• PARALLELISM, PSYCHOPHYSICAL

parallelism, and appear on the screen as an image by See also:

• REASON (Lat. ratio, through French raison)

reason of their contrast with the feebler See also:

• ILLUMINATION

illumination of the See also:

• REST (O. Eng. rest, reste, bed, cognate with other Teutonic forms, e.g. Ger. Rast, Riiste, rest, and probably Gothic Rasta, league, i.e. resting or stopping place)

rest of the disk." Such See also:

• DIFFERENCES, CALCULUS OF (Theory of Finite Differences)

differences of plane in the mirror surface are accidental, being due to the manner in which it is prepared, a process explained by W . E .

See also:

• AYRTON, WILLIAM EDWARD (1847-1908)

Ayrton and J . See also:

• PERRY
• PERRY (from Fr. Moire, from poire, a pear)
• PERRY, MATTHEW CALBRAITH (1794–1858)
• PERRY, OLIVER HAZARD (1785-1819)

Perry (Prot . See also:

• ROY, WILLIAM (1726-1790)

Roy . See also:

• SOC

Soc., 1878, vol. xxviii.), by whom ample details of the See also:

• HISTORY

history, process of manufacture and See also:

• COMPOSITION
• COMPOSITION (Lat. compositio, from componere, to put together)

composition of Oriental mirrors have been published . A preliminary operation in polishing the surface consists of scoring the cast disk in every direction with a See also:

• SHARP, GRANVILLE (1735-1813)
• SHARP, JAMES (1618-1679)
• SHARP, JOHN (1645-1714)
• SHARP, RICHARD (1759-1835)
• SHARP, WILLIAM (1749-1824)
• SHARP, WILLIAM (1856-1905)

sharp See also:

• TOOL (0. Eng. tdl, generally referred to a root seen in the Goth. taujan, to make, or in the English word " taw," to work or dress leather)

tool . The thicker portions with relief See also:

• ORNAMENT (Lat. ornare, to adorn)

ornament offer more resistance to the pressure of the tool than the thin flat portions, which tend to yield and form at first a See also:

• CONCAVE

concave surface, but this by the reaction of its See also:

• ELASTICITY

elasticity rises after-wards and forms a slightly convex surface, while the more rigid thick, portions are comparatively little affected . This irregularity of surface is inconspicuous in ordinary light, and does not visibly distort images; but when the mirror reflects a bright light on a screen the unequal See also:

• RADIATION, THEORY OF

radiation renders the See also:

• MINUTE
• MINUTE (Lat. minutes, small; minuere, to make less)

minute differences of surface obvious .