MONGOLS  , the name of one of the See also:

• CHIEF (from Fr. chef, head, Lat. caput)

chief ethnographical divisions of the See also:

• ASIATIC

Asiatic peoples (see also See also:

• TURKS

TURKS) . The See also:

• EARLY
• EARLY, JUBAL ANDERSON (1816-1894)

early See also:

• HISTORY

history of the Mongols, like that of all central-Asian tribes, is extremely obscure . Even the meaning of the name " Mongol " is a disputed point, though a See also:

• GENERAL
• GENERAL (Lat. generalis, of or relating to a genus, kind or class)

general consent is now given to Schott's See also:

• ETYMOLOGY (Gr. grvµos, true, and X6yos, "account)

etymology of the word from mong, meaning brave . From the earliest and very scanty See also:

• NOTICE

notice we have of the Mongols in the history of the T'ang See also:

• DYNASTY (Gr. &vvaareta, sovereignty, the position of a hevnori7r, lord, ruler, from SuvaaBay to be able, Suvaµas, power)

dynasty of See also:

• CHINA

China (A.D . 619-690) and in See also:

• WORKS

works of later times, it appears that their See also:

• ORIGINAL

original camping-grounds were along the courses of the Kerulen, Upper Nonni and Argun See also:

• RIVERS
• RIVERS, ANTHONY WOODVILLE, or WYDEVILLE, 2ND EARL (c. 1442—1483)
• RIVERS, EARL
• RIVERS, RICHARD SAVAGE, 4TH EARL (c. 1660—1712)

rivers . But in the See also:

• ABSENCE (Lat. absentia)

absence of all See also:

• HISTORICAL

historical particulars of their origin, See also:

• LEGEND (through the French from the med. Lat. legenda, things to be read, from legere, to read)

legend, as is usual, has been busy with their early years . The Mongol historian Sanang Setzen gives currency to the myth that they sprang from a See also:

• BLUE (common in different forms to most European languages)

blue See also:

• WOLF
• WOLF (Canis lupus)
• WOLF, FRIEDRICH AUGUST (1759-1824)
• WOLF, HUGO (1860-1903)
• WOLF, JOSEPH (1820-1899)

wolf; and the soberest See also:

• STORY, JOHN (c. 1510-1571)
• STORY, JOSEPH (1779-1845)
• STORY, ROBERT HERBERT (1835-1907)
• STORY, WILLIAM WETMORE (1819—1895)

story on See also:

• RECORD (Lat. recordari, to recall to mind, from cor, heart or mind)

record is that their ancestor Budantsar was miraculously conceived of a Mongol widow . By See also:

• CRAFT (a word common to Teutonic languages for strength, or power; cf. Ger. Kraft)

craft and violence Budantsar gained the chieftainship over a tribe living in the See also:

• NEIGHBOUR (O. Eng. neahgebiir, from Walt, " nigh," " near ")

neighbour-See also:

• HOOD,
• HOOD, JOHN BELL (1831–1879)
• HOOD, SAMUEL HOOD, VISCOUNT (1724–1816)
• HOOD, SIR SAMUEL (1762-1814)
• HOOD, THOMAS (1799-1845)
• HOOD, TOM (1835–1874)

hood of his See also:

• MOTHER

mother's See also:

• TENT

tent, and thus See also:

• LEFT

left a heritage to his son . Varying fortunes attended the descendants of Budantsar, but on the whole their See also:

• POWER [WILLIAM GRATTAN] TYRONE (1797-1841)

power gradually increased, until Yesukai, the See also:

• FATHER

father of Jenghiz See also:

• KHAN (from the Turki, hence Persian and Arabic Khan)

Khan, who was eighth in descent from Budantsar, made his authority See also:

• FELT (cognate with Ger. Filz, Du. vilt, Swed. and Dan. fill; the root is unknown; the word has given Med. Lat. filtrum, " filter ")

felt over a considerable See also:

• AREA

area . How this dominion was extended under the See also:

• RULE

rule of Jenghiz Khan is shown in the See also:

• ARTICLE (from Lat. articulus, a joint)

article JENGHIZ KHAN, and when that See also:

• GREAT

great conqueror was laid to See also:

• REST (O. Eng. rest, reste, bed, cognate with other Teutonic forms, e.g. Ger. Rast, Riiste, rest, and probably Gothic Rasta, league, i.e. resting or stopping place)

rest in the valley of Kilien in 1227 he left to his sons an See also:

• EMPIRE

empire which stretched from the China See also:

• SEA (in O. Eng. sae, a common Teutonic word; cf. Ger. See, Dutch Zee, &c.; the ultimate source is uncertain)
• SEA, COMMAND OF THE

Sea to the See also:

• BANKS, GEORGE LINNAEUS (1821-1881)
• BANKS, NATHANIEL PRENTISS (1816–1894)
• BANKS, SIR JOSEPH
• BANKS, THOMAS (1735-1805)

banks of the See also:

• DNIEPER

Dnieper . Over the whole of this vast region Jenghiz Khan set his second surviving son Ogotai or Ogdai as khakan, or chief khan, while to the See also:

• FAMILY

family of his deceased eldest son Juji he assigned the See also:

• COUNTRY (from the Mid. Eng. contre or contrie, and O. Fr. cuntree; Late Lat. contrata, showing the derivation from contra, opposite, over against, thus the tract of land which fronts the sight, cf. Ger. Gegend, neighbourhood)

country from Kayalik and Khwarizm to the See also:

• BORDERS, THE

borders of Bulgar and Saksin " where'er the hoofs of Mongol See also:

• HORSE (a word common to Teutonic languages in such forms as hors, hros, ros; cf. the Ger. ross)

horse had tramped "; to Jagatai, his eldest surviving son, the territory from the borders of the See also:

• UIGHUR, or OUIGHOUR

Uighur country to See also:

• BOKHARA (Bokhara-i-Sherif)
• BOKHARA, or BUKHARA (the common central Asian pronunciation is Bukhara)

Bokhara; while Tulb, the youngest, received See also:

• CHARGE
• CHARGE (through the Fr. from the Late Lat. carricare, to load in a carrus or wagon; cf. " cargo ")

charge of the See also:

• HOME
• HOME, DANIEL DUNGLAS (1833-1886)
• HOME, EARLS OF

home country of the Mongols, the care of the imperial encampment and family, and of the archives of the See also:

• STATE
• STATE, GREAT OFFICERS OF

state . The See also:

• APPOINTMENT, POWER OF

appointment of Ogdai as his successor being contrary to the usual Mongol See also:

• CUSTOM (from O. Fr. costume, costume or coustume; Low Lat. costuma, a shortened form of consuetudo)

custom ogdal of See also:

• PRIMOGENITURE

primogeniture, gave rise to some bitterness of Khan. feeling among the followers of Jagatai .

But the commands of Jenghiz Khan subdued these murmurs, and Ogdai was finally led to the See also:

• THRONE

throne by his dispossessed See also:

• BROTHER

brother amid the plaudits of the assembled Mongols . In accordance with Mongol customs, Ogdai signalized his See also:

• ACCESSION (from Lat. accedere, to go to, to approach)

accession to the throne by distributing among his grandees presents from his father's treasures, and to his father's spirit he sacrificed See also:

• FORTY

forty maidens and numerous horses . Once fairly on the throne, he set himself vigorously to follow up the conquests won by his father . At the See also:

• HEAD (in 0. Eng. heafad; the word is common to Teutonic languages; cf. Dutch hoofd, Ger. Haupt, generally taken to be in origin connected with Lat. caput, Gr. KerbOvi7)
• HEAD, SIR EDMUND WALKER, BART
• HEAD, SIR FRANCIS BOND, BART

head of a large See also:

• ARMY
• ARMY (from Fr. armee, Lat. armata)

army he marched southwards into China to See also:

• COMPLETE

complete the ruin of the See also:

• KIN (0. E. cyn, a word represented in nearly all Teutonic languages, cf. Du. kunne, Dan. and Swed. kon, Goth kuni, tribe; the Teutonic base is kunya; the equivalent Aryan root gan- to beget, produce, is seen in Gr. 'yEvos, Lat. genus, cf. "kind")

Kin dynasty, which had already been so rudely shaken, while at the same See also:

• TIME (0. Eng. Lima, cf. Icel. timi, Swed. timme, hour, Dan. time; from the root also seen in " tide," properly the time of between the flow and ebb of the sea, cf. O. Eng. getidan, to happen, " even-tide," &c.; it is not directly related to Lat. tempus)
• TIME, MEASUREMENT OF
• TIME, STANDARD

time See also:

• TULA

Tula advanced into the See also:

• PROVINCE
• PROVINCE (Lat. provincia; perhaps a contraction of providentia)

province of Honan from the See also:

• SIDE
• SIDE (mod. Eski Adalia)

side of Shensi . Against this combined attack the Kin troops made a vigorous stand, but the skill and courage of the Mongols See also:

• BORE

bore down every opposition, and over a See also:

• HECATOMB (Gr. EKarept from EKarbv, a hundred, and t3ous, an ox)

hecatomb of slaughtered foes they captured Kai-feng Fu, the See also:

• CAPITAL (i.e. capital stock or fund)
• CAPITAL (Lat. caput, head)

capital of their enemies . From Kai-feng Fu the See also:

• EMPEROR (Fr. empereur, from the Lat. imperator)

emperor fled to Ju-ning Fu, whither the Mongols quickly followed . After sustaining a See also:

• SIEGE (0. Fr. sege, siege, mod. siege, seat, ultimately from sedere, to sit, cf. Class. Lat. obsidium, a siege)

siege for some See also:

• WEEKS, EDWIN LORD (1849-1903)

weeks, and enduring all the horrors of See also:

• STARVATION

starvation, the See also:

• GARRISON
• GARRISON, WILLIAM LLOYD (1805-1879)

garrison submitted to the Mongols, and at the same time the emperor committed See also:

• SUICIDE (from Lat. sui, of oneself, and cidium, from cued ere, to kill)

suicide by See also:

• HANGING

hanging . Thus See also:

• FELL
• FELL, JOHN (1625-1686)

fell in 1234 the Kin or " See also:

• GOLDEN

Golden " dynasty, which had ruled over the See also:

• NORTHERN

northern portion of China for more than a See also:

• CENTURY (from Lat. centuria, a division of a hundred men)

century . But though Ogdai's first care was to extend his empire in the See also:

• RICH, BARNABE (c. 1540-1617)
• RICH, CLAUDIUS JAMES (1787-1821)
• RICH, JOHN (1692-1761)
• RICH, PENELOPE, LADY (c. 1562–1607)
• RICH, RICHARD, 1ST BARON RICH (1490?-1567)

rich and fertile provinces of China, he was not forgetful of the See also:

• OBLIGATION

obligation under which Jenghiz Khan's conquests in western See also:

• ASIA

Asia had laid him to maintain his supremacy over the See also:

• KINGDOM

kingdom of Khwarizm . This was the more See also:

• INCUMBENT (from Lat. incumbere, to lean, lie upon)

incumbent on him since Jelal ed-din, who had been driven by Jenghiz into See also:

• INDIA
• INDIA, FRENCH

India, had returned, reinforced by the support of the See also:

• SULTAN (an Arabic word meaning " victorious " or " a ruler," sultat, dominion)

sultan of See also:

• DELHI, DEHLI

Delhi, whose daughter he had married, and, having reconquered his hereditary domains, had advanced westward as far as See also:

• TIFLIS

Tiflis and Kelat . Once more to dispossess the See also:

• YOUNG
• YOUNG, A
• YOUNG, ARTHUR (1741-1820)
• YOUNG, BRIGHAM (1801-1877)
• YOUNG, CHARLES MAYNE (1777–1856)
• YOUNG, EDWARD (1683–1765)
• YOUNG, JAMES (1811-1883)
• YOUNG, THOMAS (1773-1829)

young sultan, Ogdai sent a force of 300,000 men into Khwarizm . With such amazing rapidity did this army See also:

• MARCH
• MARCH (1) (from Fr. marcher, to walk; the earliest sense in French appears to be " to trample," and the origin has usually been found in the Lat. marcus, hammer; Low Lat. marcare, to hammer; hence to beat the road with the regular tread of a soldier: cf.
• MARCH, AUZIAS (c. "1395-1458)
• MARCH, EARLS OF
• MARCH, FRANCIS ANDREW (1825– )

march in pursuit of its foe that the advanced Mongol See also:

• GUARDS, AND HOUSEHOLD TROOPS

guards reached Amid (Diarbekr), whither Jelal ed-din had retreated, before that unfortunate See also:

• SOVEREIGN

sovereign had any See also:

• IDEA (Gr. Ibia, connected with i&eiv, to see; cf. Lat. species from specere, to look at)

idea of their approach .

Accompanied by a few followers, Jelal ed-din fled to the Kurdish Mountains, where he was basely murdered by a See also:

• PEASANT (O. Fr. paysant, Mod. paysan; Lat. pagensis, belonging to the pagus or country; cf. " pagan ")

peasant . The See also:

• PRIMARY

primary See also:

• OBJECT

object of the Mongol invasion was thus accomplished; but, with the See also:

• INSTINCT

instinct of their See also:

• RACE

race, they made this See also:

• CONQUEST

conquest but a stepping-See also:

• STONE
• STONE (0. Eng. shin; the word is common to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Stein, Du. steen, Dan. and Swed. sten; the root is also seen in Gr. aria, pebble)
• STONE, CHARLES POMEROY (1824-1887)
• STONE, EDWARD JAMES (1831-1897)
• STONE, FRANK (1800-1859)
• STONE, GEORGE (1708—1764)
• STONE, LUCY [BLACKWELL] (1818-1893)
• STONE, MARCUS (184o— )
• STONE, NICHOLAS (1586-1647)

stone to another, and without a moment's delay pushed on still farther westward . Unchecked and almost unopposed, they overran the districts of Diarbekr, See also:

• MESOPOTAMIA (Mevoaora)

Mesopotamia, Erbil and Kelat, and then advanced upon See also:

• AZERBAIJAN (also spelt ADERBIJAN; the Azerbadegan of medieval writers, the Athro patakan and Atropatene of the ancients)

Azerbaijan . In the following See also:

• YEAR

year (1236) they invaded See also:

• GEORGIA

Georgia and Great See also:

• ARMENIA (old Persian Armina, Armenian Hayasdan, or Hayq)

Armenia, committing frightful atrocities . Tiflis was among the cities captured by See also:

• ASSAULT (from Lat. ad, to or on, and saltare, to leap)

assault, and See also:

• KARS

Kars was surrendered at their approach in the vain See also:

• HOPE, ANTHONY
• HOPE, THOMAS (c. 1770-1831)

hope that submission would gain clemency from the victors . Meanwhile, in 1235, Ogdai despatched three armies in as many directions . One was directed against See also:

• KOREA
• KOREA, or COREA (CH'AO HSIEN, DAI HAN)

Korea, one against the Sung dynasty, which ruled over the provinces of China See also:

• SOUTH
• SOUTH, ROBERT (1634–1716)

south of the Yangtsze Kiang, and the third was sent westward into eastern See also:

• EUROPE

Europe . This last force was commanded by See also:

• BATU

Batu, the son of Juji, Ogdai's deceased eldest brother, who took with him the celebrated Sabutai Bahadur as his chief adviser . See also:

• BOLGARI, or BOLGARY

Bolgari, the capital See also:

• CITY (through Fr. cite, from Lat. civitas)

city of the Bulgars, fell before the force under Sabutai, while Batu pushed on over the See also:

• VOLGA (known to the Tatars as Etil, Jill or Atel; to the Finnish tribes as Rau, and to the ancients as Rha and Oarus)

Volga . With irresistible vigour and astonishing See also:

• SPEED, JOHN (1552–1629)

speed the Mongols made their way through the forests of See also:

• PENZA

Penza and See also:

• TAMBOV

Tambov, and appeared before the " beautiful city " of See also:

• RYAZAN

Ryazan . For five days they discharged a ceaseless See also:

• STORM (in O. Eng..storm, and so in Du. and Low Ger.; in O. H. Ger. and mod. Ger. Sturm; the root is probably that seen in " stir," to rouse, move, disturb, cf. Ger. storen)
• STORM, THEODOR WOLDSEN (1817-1888)

storm of shot from their balistas, and, having made a See also:

• BREACH (Mid. Eng. breche, derived from the common Teutonic root brec, which appears in " break," Ger. brechen, &c.)

breach in the defences, carried the city by assault on the 21st of See also:

• DECEMBER (Lat. decent, ten)

December 1237 . " The See also:

• PRINCE
• PRINCE (Lat. princeps, from primus capio, " I am the first to take "; Ital. principe, Fr. prince)

prince, with his mother, wife, sons, the boyars and the inhabitants, without regard to See also:

• AGE (Fr. age, through late Lat. aetaticum, from aetas)

age or See also:

• SEX (Lat. sexes; possibly connected with secure, to cut)

sex, were slaughtered with the See also:

• SAVAGE
• SAVAGE, MINOT JUDSON (1841– )
• SAVAGE, RICHARD (d. 1743)

savage See also:

• CRUELTY (through the O. Fr. crualte, mod. cruaute, from the Lat. crudelitas)

cruelty of Mongol revenge; some were impaled, some shot at with arrows for See also:

• SPORT (a contracted or shortened form of "disport," to amuse, divert oneself, O. Fr. se dis porter or deporter, to leave off work, hence to play, Lat. dis-, away, and portare, to carry; the origin of the meaning lies in the notion of turning away from ser

sport, others were flayed or had nails or splinters of See also:

• WOOD, ANTHONY A2 (1632-1695)
• WOOD, JOHN GEORGE (1827—1889)
• WOOD, MRS HENRY [ELLEN] (1814—1887)
• WOOD, SEARLES VALENTINE (1798—188o)

wood driven under their nails .

Priests were roasted alive, and nuns and maidens ravished in the churches before their relatives . ` No See also:

• EYE
• EYE (O. Eng. edge, Ger. Auge; derived from an Indo-European root also seen in Lat. oc-ulus, the organ of vision (q.v.)

eye remained open to weep for the dead.' " See also:

• MOSCOW (Russian Moskva)
• MOSCOW, (Russian Moskva)

Moscow, at this time a See also:

• PLACE (through Fr. from Lat. platea, street; Gr. IrAar6s, wide)

place of little importance, next fell into the hands of the invaders, who then advanced against See also:

• VLADIMIR
• VLADIMIR, ST (c. 956-1015)

Vladimir . After having held out for several days against the Mongol attacks, the city at length succumbed, and the horrors of Ryazan were repeated . If possible, a more dire See also:

• FATE

fate overtook the inhabitants of Kozelsk, near See also:

• KALUGA

Kaluga, where, in revenge for a partial defeat inflicted on a Mongol force, the followers of Batu held so terrible a "See also:

• CARNIVAL (Med. Lat. carnelevarium, from taro, tarns, flesh, and levare, to lighten or put aside; the derivation from valere, to say farewell, is unsupported)

carnival of See also:

• DEATH

death " that the city was renamed by its. captors Mobalig, " the city of woe." With the See also:

• TIDE (O. Eng. lid, cf. Ger. Zeit, time or season, connected with root of Sanskrit a-diti, endless)

tide of victory thus strong intheir favour the Mongols advanced against See also:

• KIEV
• KIEV, KIEFF, or KIYEFF

Kiev, "the mother of cities," and carried it by assault . The inevitable See also:

• MASSACRE

massacre followed, and the city was razed to the ground . Victorious and always advancing, the Mongols, having desolated this portion of See also:

• RUSSIA
• RUSSIA (Rossiya)

Russia, moved on in two divisions, one under Batu into See also:

• HUNGARY
• HUNGARY (Hungarian Magyarorszdg)

Hungary, and the other under Baidar and Kaidu into See also:

• POLAND (Polish Polska, Ger. Polen), (see POLAND, RUSSIAN, below)
• POLAND, RUSSIAN

Poland . Without a check, Batu marched to the neighbourhood of Pest, where the whole force of the kingdom was arrayed to resist him . The Hungarian army was posted on the wide See also:

• HEATH
• HEATH, BENJAMIN (1704-1766)
• HEATH, WILLIAM (1737—1814)

heath of Mohi, which is bounded by " the See also:

• VINE

vine-clad hills of Tokay," the mountains of Lomnitz, and the See also:

• WOODS, LEONARD (1774-1854)
• WOODS, SIR ALBERT (1816-1904)

woods of Diosgyor . To an army thus hemmed in on all sides defeat meant ruin, and Batu instantly recognized the dangerous position in which his enemies had placed themselves . To add to his chances of success he determined to deliver his attack by See also:

• NIGHT

night, and while the careless Hungarians were sleeping he launched his battalions into their midst . Panic-stricken and helpless, they fled in all directions, followed by their merciless foes . Two archbishops, three bishops, and many of the See also:

• NOBILITY

nobility were among the slain, and the roads for two days' See also:

• JOURNEY (through O. Fr. jornee or journee, mod. Fr. journee, from med. Lat. diurnata, Lat. diurnus, of or belonging to dies, day)

journey from the See also:

• FIELD (a word common to many West German languages, cf. Ger. Feld, Dutch veld, possibly cognate with O.E. f olde, the earth, and ultimately with root of the Gr. irAaror, broad)
• FIELD, CYRUS WEST (1819-1892)
• FIELD, DAVID DUDLEY (18o5-1894)
• FIELD, EUGENE (1850-1895)
• FIELD, FREDERICK (18o1—1885)
• FIELD, HENRY MARTYN (1822-1907)
• FIELD, JOHN (1782—1837)
• FIELD, MARSHALL (183 1906)
• FIELD, NATHAN (1587—1633)
• FIELD, STEPHEN JOHNSON (1816-1899)
• FIELD, WILLIAM VENTRIS FIELD, BARON (1813-1907)

field of See also:

• BATTLE

battle were strewn with corpses .

The See also:

• KING
• KING (O. Eng. cyning, abbreviated into cyng, cing; cf. O. H. G. chun- kuning, chun- kunig, M.H.G. kiinic, kiinec, kiinc, Mod. Ger. Konig, O. Norse konungr, kongr, Swed. konung, kung)
• KING [OF OCKHAM], PETER KING, 1ST BARON (1669-1734)
• KING, CHARLES WILLIAM (1818-1888)
• KING, CLARENCE (1842–1901)
• KING, EDWARD (1612–1637)
• KING, EDWARD (1829–1910)
• KING, HENRY (1591-1669)
• KING, RUFUS (1755–1827)
• KING, THOMAS (1730–1805)
• KING, WILLIAM (1650-1729)
• KING, WILLIAM (1663–1712)

king, See also:

• BELA
• BELA, LAS BELA

Bela IV., was saved by the fleetness of his horse, though closely pursued by a See also:

• BODY

body of Mongols, who followed at his heels as far as the See also:

• COAST (from Lat. costa, a rib, side)

coast of the Adriatic, burning and destroying everything in their way . Meanwhile Batu captured Pest, and on See also:

• CHRISTMAS (i.e. the Mass of Christ)

Christmas See also:

• DAY (O. Eng. dreg, Ger. Tag; according to the New English Dictionary, " in no way related to the Lat. dies")
• DAY, JOHN (1574-1640?)
• DAY, THOMAS (1748-1789)

Day 1241, having crossed the See also:

• DANUBE (Ger. Donau, Hungarian Duna, Rumanian Dunarea, Lat. Danubius or Danuvius, and in the lower part of its course Ister)

Danube on the See also:

• ICE (a word common to Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Eis)

ice, took See also:

• ESZTERGOM (Ger. Gran; Lat. Strigonium)

Esztergom by assault . While Batu had been thus triumphing, the force under Baidar and Kaidu had carried See also:

• FIRE (in O. Eng. f j'r; the word is common to West German languages, cf. Dutch vuur, Ger. Feuer; the pre-Teutonic form is seen in Sanskrit pu, pavaka, and Gr. irup; the ultimate origin is usually taken to be a root meaning to purify, cf. Lat. purus)

fire and See also:

• SWORD (0. Eng. sweord; ultimately from an Indo-European root meaning to wound)

sword into Poland . While laying See also:

• WASTE (O. Fr. wast, guast, gast, gaste; Lat. vastus, vast, desolate)

waste the country they received the announcement of the death of Ogdai, and at the same time a See also:

• SUMMONS (Fr. semonce, from semonner or semondre, Lat. summonere, summonitio)

summons for Batu to return eastwards into See also:

• MONGOLIA

Mongolia . While his lieutenants had been thus carrying his arms in all directions, Ogdai had been giving himself up to ignoble ease and licentiousness . Like many Mongols, he was much given to drink, and it was to a disease produced by this cause that he finally succumbed on the 1th of December 1241 . He was succeeded by his son Kuyuk, who reigned only seven years . Little of his See also:

• CHARACTER (Gr. xapareri7p, from xap&crew, to scratch)

character is known, but it is noticeable that his two ministers to whom he left the entire conduct of affairs were Christians, as also were his doctors, and that a See also:

• CHRISTIAN
• CHRISTIAN, WILLIAM (1608-1663)

Christian See also:

• CHAPEL

chapel stood before his tent . This leaning towards See also:

• CHRISTIANITY

Christianity, how-ever, brought no peaceful tendencies with it . On the death of Kuyuk dissensions which had been for a See also:

• LONG, GEORGE (1800-1879)
• LONG, JOHN DAVIS (1838– )

long time smouldering between the houses of Ogdai and Jagatai See also:

• BROKE, or BROOKE, ARTHUR (d. 1563)
• BROKE, SIR PHILIP BOWES VERE, BART

broke out into open See also:

• WAR
• WAR (O. Eng. werre, Fr. guerre, of Teutonic origin; cf. O.H.G. werran, to confound)

war, and after the See also:

• SHORT, FRANCIS JOB (1857– )

short and disputed reigns of Kaidu and Chapai, grandsons of Ogdai, the lordship passed away for ever from the See also:

• HOUSE
• HOUSE (O. Eng. hiss, a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Dut. huis, Ger. Haus; in Gothic it is only found in gudhiss, a temple; it may be ultimately connected with the root of " hide," conceal)

house of Ogdai . It did not go, however, to the house of Jagatai, but to that of Tule . On the 1st of See also:

• JULY

July 1251 Mangu, the eldest son of Tule, and See also:

• NEPHEW

nephew to Ogdai, was elected khakan .

With perfect impar- tiality, Mangu allowed the See also:

• LIGHT

light of his countenance Mangu to fall upon the Christians, Mahommedans and Khan . Buddhists among his subjects although See also:

• SHAMANISM

Shamanism was recognized as the state See also:

• RELIGION
• RELIGION, FOLKLORE, CUSTOM

religion . Two years after his accession his See also:

• COURT
• COURT (from the O. Fr. court, Late Lat. cortis, curtis, a popular form of class. Lat. cohors, gen. cohortis; the mod. Fr. form tour is due to the influence of the Lat. curia, the word used in medieval documents to translate " court " in the feudal sense)
• COURT, ANTOINE (1696-176o)

court was visited by See also:

• RUBRUQUIS (or RUBROUCK), WILLIAM OF

Rubruquis (q.v.) and other Christian monks, who were hospitably received . The description given by Rubruquis of the khakan's See also:

• PALACE (Lat. Palatium, the name given by Augustus to his residence on the Palatine Hill)

palace at See also:

• KARAKORUM (Turkish, " black stone debris ")

Karakorum shows how wide was the See also:

• INTERVAL

interval which separated him from the See also:

• NOMAD (Gr. voµas, voµabes, wandering)

nomad, tent-living See also:

• LIFE

life of his forefathers . It was " surrounded by See also:

• BRICK (derived according to some etymologists from the Teutonic bricke, a disk or plate; but more authoritatively, through the French brique, originally a " broken piece," applied especially to bread, and so to clay, from the Teutonic brikan, to break)

brick walls . . . . Its See also:

• SOUTHERN

southern side had three doors . Its central See also:

• HALL
• HALL (generally known as SCHWABISCH-HALL, tc distinguish it from the small town of Hall in Tirol and Bad-Hall, a health resort in Upper Austria)
• HALL (O.E. heall, a common Teutonic word, cf. Ger. Halle)
• HALL, BASIL (1788-1844)
• HALL, CARL CHRISTIAN (1812–1888)
• HALL, CHARLES FRANCIS (1821-1871)
• HALL, CHRISTOPHER NEWMAN (1816—19oz)
• HALL, EDWARD (c. 1498-1547)
• HALL, FITZEDWARD (1825-1901)
• HALL, ISAAC HOLLISTER (1837-1896)
• HALL, JAMES (1793–1868)
• HALL, JAMES (1811–1898)
• HALL, JOSEPH (1574-1656)
• HALL, MARSHALL (1790-1857)
• HALL, ROBERT (1764-1831)
• HALL, SAMUEL CARTER (5800-5889)
• HALL, SIR JAMES (1761-1832)
• HALL, WILLIAM EDWARD (1835-1894)

hall was like a See also:

• CHURCH
• CHURCH (according to most authorities derived from the Gr. Kvpcaxov [&wµa], " the Lord's [house]," and common to many Teutonic, Slavonic and other languages under various forms—Scottish kirk, Ger. Kirche, Swed. kirka, Dan. kirke, Russ. tserkov, Buig. cerk
• CHURCH, FREDERICK EDWIN (1826-1900)
• CHURCH, GEORGE EARL (1835–1910)
• CHURCH, RICHARD WILLIAM (1815–189o)
• CHURCH, SIR RICHARD (1784–1873)

church, and consisted of a See also:

• NAVE

nave and two aisles, separated by columns . Here the court sat on great occasions . In front of the throne was placed a See also:

• SILVER

silver See also:

• TREE (0. Eng. treo, treow, cf. Dan. tree, Swed. Odd, tree, trd, timber; allied forms are found in Russ. drevo, Gr. opus, oak, and 36pv, spear, Welsh derw, Irish darog, oak, and Skr. dare, wood)
• TREE, SIR HERBERT BEERBOHM (1853- )

tree, having at its See also:

• BASE

base four lions, from whose mouths there spouted into four silver basins See also:

• WINE (Lat. vinum, Gr. oivos)

wine, kumiss, hydromel and terasine . At the See also:

• TOP (cf. Dan. top, Ger. Topf, also meaning pot)

top of the tree a silver See also:

• ANGEL

angel sounded a See also:

• TRUMPET (Fr. trompette, clairon; Ger. ,Trompete, Klarino, Trummet; Ital. tromba, trombetta, clarino)
• TRUMPET, SPEAKING AND HEARING

trumpet when the reservoirs that supplied the four fountains wanted replenishing." On his accession complaints reached Mangu that dissensions had broken out in the province of See also:

• PERSIA

Persia, and he therefore sent a force under the command of his brother Hulagu to punish the Ismailites or Assassins H`lag"' (q.v.), who were held to be the cause of the disorder . Marching by See also:

• SAMARKAND

Samarkand and See also:

• KARSHI

Karshi, Hulagu crossed the See also:

• OXUS

Oxus and advanced by way of See also:

• BALKH

Balkh into the province of Kuhistan or See also:

• KOHISTAN

Kohistan .

The terror of the Mongol name induced Rukneddin Gurshah II . (Rokn al-din), the chief of the Assassins, to deprecate the wrath of Hulagu by offers of submission, and he was so far successful that he was able to See also:

• PURCHASE

purchase a temporary See also:

• IMMUNITY (from Lat. immunis, not subject to a munus or public service)

immunity from massacre by dismantling fifty of the See also:

• PRINCIPAL

principal fortresses in Kohistan . But when once the country had thus been left at the See also:

• MERCY (adapted from Fr. merci, Lat. merces, reward)
• MERCY (or MERCI), FRANZ, FREIHERR VON

mercy of the invaders, their belief in the old saying " Stone dead hath no See also:

• FELLOW

fellow " sharpened their battle-axes, and, sparing neither See also:

• MAN
• MAN, ISLE OF (anc. Mona)

man, woman, nor See also:

• CHILD
• CHILD, FRANCIS JAMES (1825-1896)
• CHILD, L
• CHILD, LYDIA MARIA (1802-1880)
• CHILD, SIR FRANCIS (1642-1713)
• CHILD, SIR JOHN (d. 1690)
• CHILD, SIR JOSIAH (163o - 1699)

child, they exterminated the unhappy See also:

• PEOPLE

people . Rukneddin having been killed, 1256 (see AssnssINs), Hulagu marched across the snowy mountains in the direction of See also:

• BAGDAD, or BAGHDAD

Bagdad to attack the last Abbasid See also:

• CALIPH, CALIF

caliph and his Seljuk protectors . On arriving before the See also:

• TOWN

town he demanded its surrender . This being refused, he laid siege to the walls in the usual destructive Mongol See also:

• FASHION (adapted from Fr. facon, agon, Lat. factio, making, facere, to do or make)

fashion, and at length, finding resistance hopeless, the caliph was induced to give himself up and to open the See also:

• GATES, HORATIO (1728-1806)

gates to his enemies . On the 15th of See also:

• FEBRUARY

February 1258 the Mongols entered the walls and sacked the city-(see See also:

• CALIPHATE

CALIPHATE ad fin) . While at Bagdad Hulagu gave his astronomer, Nasir al-din permission to build an See also:

• OBSERVATORY

observatory . The town of See also:

• MARAGHA

Maragha was the site chosen, and, under the superintendence of Nasir al-din and four western Asiatic astronomers who were associated with him, a handsome observatory was built, and furnished with "armillary See also:

• SPHERES, MUSIC OF THE

spheres and astrolabes, and with a beautifully-executed terrestrial globe showing the five climates." The fall of Bagdad was almost contemporaneous with the end of the See also:

• SELJUKS

Seljuks of See also:

• KONIA

Konia as an See also:

• INDEPENDENT

independent power, though their actual destruction did not take place until 1308 (see SELJUKS) . One terrible result of the Mongol invasion was a fearful See also:

• FAMINE (Lat. fames, hunger)

famine, which desolated the provinces of See also:

• IRAK

Irak-Arabi, Mesopotamia, See also:

• SYRIA

Syria and See also:

• RUM
• RUM (according to Skeat, a corruption of Malay brum or bram; the adjective " rum," i.e. " queer," being a distinct word, in Gipsy rem)

Rum . But, though the inhabitants starved, the Mongols had strength and See also:

• ENERGY (from the Gr. ivipyela; iv, in, ipyov, work)

energy left to continue their onward march into Syria . See also:

• ALEPPO (native Haleb)

Aleppo was stormed and sacked, See also:

• DAMASCUS

Damascus surrendered (126o) and Hulagu was meditating the See also:

• CAPTURE (from Lat. capere, to take; Fr. prise maritime; Ger. Wegnahme)

capture of See also:

• JERUSALEM (Heb. ^S0-r, Yerushalaim, pronounced as a dual)
• JERUSALEM, SYNOD OF (1672)

Jerusalem with the object of restoring it to the Christians when he received the See also:

• NEWS

news of Mangu's death, and, as in See also:

• DUTY (from " due," that which is owing, O. Fr. deu, dil, past participle of devoir; Lat. debere, debitum; cf. " debt ")

duty See also:

• BOUND, or BOUNDARY (from O. Fr. bonde, Med. Lat. bodena or butina, a frontier line)

bound, at once set out on his return to Mongolia, leaving Kitboga (Kitubuka) in command of the Mongol forces in Syria .

Hitherto a See also:

• VASSAL (Fr. vassal, vassaut, vassault, &c,)

vassal of Mangu, as is shown by his striking coins bearing the name of Mangu as well as his own, Hulagu was now recognized as ruler of the conquered provinces . He assumed the See also:

• TITLE (0. Fr. title, mod. titre, from Lat. titulus)

title of ilkhan, and, although acknowledging the khakan as supreme See also:

• LORD
• LORD (O. Eng. hldford, i.e. hldfweard, the warder or keeper of bread, hlIf, loaf; the word is not represented in any other Teutonic language)
• LORD, JOHN (1810-1894)

lord, was practically independent . The title of ilkhan was that See also:

• BORNE, KARL LUDWIG (1786–1837)

borne by his successors, who ruled over Persia for about a century (see infra, " The Ilkhans of Persia ") . While Hulagu was prosecuting these conquests in western Asia, Mangu and his next brother Kublai were pursuing a like course in southern China . Southward they even advanced into Tong-king, and westward they carried their arms over the frontier into See also:

• TIBET, or THIBET

Tibet . But in one respect there was a vast difference between the two See also:

• CAMPAIGNS

campaigns . Under the See also:

• WISE, HENRY ALEXANDER (1806-1876)
• WISE, ISAAC MAYER (1819-1900)

wise command of Kublai all indiscriminate massacres were forbidden, and probably for the first time in Mongol history the inhabitants and garrisons of captured cities were treated with humanity . While carrying on the war in the province of Szech'uen Mangu was seized with an attack of See also:

• DYSENTERY (from the Gr. prefix Ova-, in the sense of " bad," and Evmpov, the intestine)

dysentery, which proved fatal after a few days' illness . His body was carried into Mongolia on the backs of two asses, and, in pursuance of the custom of slaughtering every one encountered on the way, 20,000 persons were, according to Marco See also:

• POLO (Tibetan pulu, ball)
• POLO, GASPAR GIL (?153o-1591)
• POLO, MARCO (c. 1254-1324)

Polo, put to the sword . At the Kuriltai, or See also:

• ASSEMBLY, UNLAWFUL

assembly of notables, which was held at Shang-tu after the death of Mangu, his brother Kublai (see KUBLAI KHAN) was elected khakan . For See also:

• THIRTY

thirty-five years he sat on the Mongol throne, and at his death in 1294, in his seventy-ninth year, he was succeeded by his son Timur Khan, or, as he was otherwise called, Oldjeitu or Uldsheitu Khan (See also:

• CHINESE, JAPANESE AND

Chinese Yuen-See also:

• CHENG

cheng) . The reign of this sovereign was chiefly remarkable for the healing of the See also:

• DIVISION (from Lat. dividere, to break up into parts, separate)

division which had for thirty years separated the families of Ogdai and Jagatai from that of the ruling khakan .

Uldsheitu was succeeded by his nephew Khaissan, who wasgathered to his fathers in February 1311, after a short reign; and at the early age of thirty-one . His nephew and successor, Buyantu (Chinese Yen-tsung), was a man of considerable culture, and substantially patronized Chinese literature . Among other benefits which he conferred on letters, he rescued the celebrated inscription-bearing " stone drums," which are commonly said to be of the Chow See also:

• PERIOD
• PERIOD (Gr. irepioSos, a going or way round, circuit, aepi, round, and &Sis, way, road)

period (1122–255 B.C.), from the decay and ruin to which they were left by the last emperor of the Kin dynasty, and placed them in the gateway of the See also:

• TEMPLE
• TEMPLE, FREDERICK (1821-1902)
• TEMPLE, RICHARD
• TEMPLE, SIR RICHARD, BART
• TEMPLE, SIR WILLIAM, BART

temple of See also:

• CONFUCIUS [K'ung tsze] (550 or 551-478 B.C.)

Confucius at See also:

• PEKING, or PEKIN

Peking, where they now stand . After a reign of nine years, Buyantu was succeeded by his son Gegen (Chinese Ying-tsung), who perished in 132 by the See also:

• KNIFE (0. E. cuff, a word appearing in different forms in many Teutonic languages, cf. Du. knijf, Ger. Kneif, a shoe-maker's knife, Swed. knif; the ultimate origin is unknown; Skeat finds the origin in the root of " nip," formerly " knip "; Fr. canif is a

knife of an See also:

• ASSASSIN (properly Hashish n, from Hashish, the opiate made from the juice of hemp leaves)

assassin . YissunTimur (Chinese Tai-ting-ti), who was the next sovereign, devoted himself mainly to the See also:

• ADMINISTRATION (Lat. administrare, to serve)

administration of his empire . He divided China, which until that time had been apportioned into twelve provinces, into eighteen provinces, and rearranged the See also:

• SYSTEM

system of state See also:

• GRANARIES

granaries, which had fallen into disorder . His court was visited by See also:

• FRIAR (from the Lat. (rater, through the Fr. frere)

Friar See also:

• ODORIC (c. 1286-1331)

Odoric, who gives a See also:

• MINUTE
• MINUTE (Lat. minutes, small; minuere, to make less)

minute description of the palace and its inhabitants . Speaking of the palace this writer says: " Its See also:

• BASEMENT

basement was raised about two paces from the ground, and within there were twenty-four columns of See also:

• GOLD
• GOLD [symbol Au, atomic weight 195.7(H = 1),197.2(0 =16)]

gold, and all the walls were hung with skins of red See also:

• LEATHER (a word which appears in all Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Leder, Dutch leer or leder, Swed. leder, and in such Celtic forms as Welsh llader)
• LEATHER, ARTIFICIAL

leather, said to be the finest in the See also:

• WORLD

world . In the midst of the palace was a great See also:

• JAR

jar more than two paces in height, made of a certain See also:

• PRECIOUS (O. Fr. precios, mod. precieux, Lat. pretiosus, of high value or price, pretium)

precious stone called merdacas (See also:

• JADE
• JADE, or JAHDE

jade); its See also:

• PRICE
• PRICE, BARTHOLOMEW (1818–1898)
• PRICE, BONAMY (1807-1888)
• PRICE, RICHARD (1723-1791)

price exceeded the value of four large towns . . Into this See also:

• VESSEL (O. Fr. vaissel, from a rare Lat. vascellum, dim. of vas, vase, urn)

vessel drink was conducted by certain conduits from the court of the palace, and beside it were many golden goblets, from which those drank who listed . . When the khakan sat on his throne the See also:

• QUEEN
• QUEEN (O.E. cwen, wife, related to "quean," O.E. cwene, a hussy; cf. Gr. yvvi7: from root gan-, to produce; cf. genus, " kin," &c.)

queen was on his left See also:

• HAND
• HAND (a word common to Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Hand, Goth. handus)
• HAND, FERDINAND GOTTHELF (1786-185r)

hand, and a step See also:

• LOWER

lower two others of his See also:

• WOMEN

women, while at the bottom of the steps stood the other ladies of his family . All those who were married wore upon their heads the See also:

• FOOT

foot of a man as it were a cubit and a See also:

• HALF

half in length, and at the top of the foot there were certain See also:

• CRANES (so called from the resemblance to the long neck of the bird, cf. Gr. 'y pavor, Fr. grue)

cranes' feathers, the whole foot being set with great pearls, so that if there were in the whole world any See also:

• FINE

fine and large pearls they were to be found in the decoration of those ladies." The following years were years of great natural and See also:

• POLITICAL

political See also:

• CONVULSIONS

convulsions .

Devastating floods swept over China, carrying death and ruin to thousands of homes; earthquakes made desolate whole districts; and in more than one See also:

• PART

part of the empire the See also:

• BANNERS, FEAST OF (Jap. Nobori-no-Sekku)

banners of revolt were unfurled . Under various leaders the rebels captured a number of cities in the provinces of Kiang-nan and Honan, and took See also:

• POSSESSION
• POSSESSION (Lat. possessio, possidere, to possess)

possession of Hang-chow, the capital of the Sung emperors . At the same time pirates ravaged the coasts and swept the imperial vessels off the sea . In 1355 a Buddhist See also:

• PRIEST (Ger. Priester, Fr. pretre)

priest named Chu Yuen-chang became so impressed with the misery of his countrymen that he threw off his See also:

• VESTMENTS

vestments and enrolled himself in the See also:

• REBEL, JOHANN PETER (176o-1826)

rebel army . His military See also:

• GENIUS (from Lat. genere, gignere)

genius soon raised him to the position of a See also:

• LEADER, BENJAMIN WILLIAMS (1831– )

leader, and with extraordinary success he overcame with his See also:

• RUDE, FRANCOIS (1784–1855)

rude levies the trained legions of the Mongol emperor . While unable to defeat or check the rebels in the central provinces, Toghon Timur Khan was also called upon to See also:

• FACE (from Lat. fades, derived either from facere, to make, or from a root fa-, meaning " appear "; cf. Gr. cbatvstv)

face a See also:

• REBELLION

rebellion in Korea . Nor were his arms more fortunate in the See also:

• NORTH
• NORTH, BARONS
• NORTH, MARIANNE (1830—1890)
• NORTH, ROGER (1653-1734)
• NORTH, SIR THOMAS (1535?-16o1?)

north than in the south . An army which was sent to suppress the revolt was cut to pieces almost to a man . These events made a See also:

• DREAM (from a root dreug, connected with Germ. trugen, to deceive)

dream which the emperor dreamt about this time of easy See also:

• INTERPRETATION (from Lat. interpretari, to expound, explain, inter pres, an agent, go-between, interpreter; inter, between, and the root pret-, possibly connected with that seen either in Greek 4 p4'ew, to speak, or irpa-rrecv, to do)

interpretation . He saw in his See also:

• SLEEP (0. Eng. slcepan; Ger. schlafen; cf. Lat. labi, to glide, and " slip ")

sleep " a See also:

• WILD, JONATHAN (c. 1682-1725)

wild See also:

• BOAR (0. Eng. bar; the word is found only in W. Ger. languages, cf. Dutch beer, Ger. Eber)

boar with See also:

• IRON [symbol Fe, atomic weight 55.85 (0=16)]

iron tusks See also:

• RUSH
• RUSH, BENJAMIN (1745–1813)
• RUSH, RICHARD (1780–1859)

rush into the city and See also:

• WOUND (O. Eng. wund,connected with a Teutonic verb, meaning to strive, fight, suffer, seen in O. Eng. winnan, whence Eng. " win ")

wound the people, who were driven hither and thither without finding shelter . Meanwhile the See also:

• SUN
• SUN (0. Eng. sonne, Ger. sonne. Fr. soleil, Lat. sol, Gr. ijXior, from which comes helio- in various English compounds)

sun and the See also:

• MOON (a common Teutonic word, cf. Ger. Mond, Du. maan, Dan. maane, &c., and cognate with such Indo-Germanic forms as Gr. µlip, Sans. ma's, Irish mi, &c.; Lat. uses luna, i.e. lucna, the shining one, lucere, to shine, for the moon, but preserves the word i
• MOON, SIR RICHARD, 1ST BARONET (1814-1899)

moon rushed together and perished." " This dream," said the diviner, " is a prophecy that the khakan will lose his empire." The fulfilment followed closely on the prophecy . By a subterfuge the rebels, after having gained possession of most of the central provinces of the empire, captured Peking .

But Toghon Timur by a hasty See also:

• FLIGHT

flight escaped from his enemies, and sought safety on the shores of the Dolon-nor in Mongolia . For a time the western provinces of China continued to hold out against the rebels, but with the flight of Toghon Timur the Mongol troops lost See also:

• HEART
• HEART, LUNG

heart, and in 1368 the ex-Buddhist priest ascended the throne as the first sovereign of the Ming or "See also:

• BRIGHT, JOHN (1811-188g)
• BRIGHT, SIR CHARLES TILSTON

Bright" dynasty, under the title of Hung-wu . Thus ended the See also:

• SOVEREIGNTY

sovereignty of the house of Jenghiz Khan in China, nor need we look far to find the cause of its fall . Brave and See also:

• HARDY, ALEXANDRE (1569?-1631)
• HARDY, SIR THOMAS DUFFUS (1804-1878)
• HARDY, SIR THOMAS MASTERMAN
• HARDY, THOMAS (1840- )

hardy the Mongols have always shown themselves to be; but The Mongols the capacity for consolidating the fruits of victory, expelled for establishing a settled See also:

• FORM (Lat. forma)

form of See also:

• GOVERNMENT
• GOVERNMENT (0. Fr. governement, mod. gouvernement, O. Fr. governer, mod. gouverner, from Lat. gubernare, to steer a ship, guide, rule; cf. Gr. xv(3epvav)

government, and from china. for gaining the See also:

• ALLEGIANCE (Mid. Eng. ligeaunce; med. Lat. ligeantia, &c.; the al- was probably added through confusion with another legal term, allegeance, an allegation; the Fr. allegeance comes from the English; the word is formed from " liege," of which the derivatio

allegiance of the conquered peoples, have invariably been wanting in them . Not content with having recovered China, the emperor Hungwu sent an army of 400,000 men into Mongolia in pursuit of the forces which yet remained to the khakan . Even on their own ground the disheartened Mongols failed in their resistance to the Chinese, and at all points suffered disaster . Meanwhile Toghon Timur, who did not long survive his defeat, was succeeded in the khakanate by Biliktu Khan, who again in 1379 was followed by Ussakhal Khan . During the reign of this last prince the Chinese again invaded Mongolia, and inflicted a crushing defeat on the khan's forces in the neighbourhood of See also:

• LAKE
• LAKE, GERARD LAKE, 1ST VISCOUNT (1744-1808)

Lake Buyur . Besides the slain, 2994 See also:

• OFFICERS

officers and 77,000 soldiers are said to have been taken prisoners, and an immense See also:

• BOOTY (apparently influenced by " boot," O. Eng. bot, ad-vantage or profit, through an adaptation from an earlier form cognate with Ger. Beute and Fr. butin)

booty to have been secured . This defeat was the final ruin of the eastern See also:

• BRANCH (from the Fr. branche, late Lat. branca, an animal's paw)

branch of the Mongols, who from this time surrendered the supremacy to the "western division of the tribe . At first the Keraits or Torgod, as in the early days before Jenghiz Khan See also:

• ROSE
• ROSE (Rosa)
• ROSE, GEORGE (1744-1818)
• ROSE, HUGH JAMES (1795—1838)
• ROSE, WILLIAM STEWART (1775-1843)

rose to power, exercised lordship over the eastern Mongols, but from these before long the supremacy passed to the Oirad, who for fifty years treated them as vassals . Notwithstanding their subjection, however, the Keraits still preserved the imperial See also:

• LINE

line, and khakan after khakan assumed the nominal sovereignty of the tribe, while the real power rested with the descendants of Toghon, the Oirad chief, who had originally attached them to his See also:

• SCEPTRE

sceptre .

Gradually, however, the Mongol tribes broke away from all governing centres, and established scattered communities with as many chiefs over the whole of eastern Mongolia . The discredit of having finally disintegrated the tribe is generally attached to Lingdan Khan (1604-1634), of whom, in reference to his arrogant and brutal character, has been quoted the Mongolian See also:

• PROVERB (Lat. proverbium, from pro, forth, publicly, verbum, word; the Greek equivalent is irapolµia, from 7rapa, alongside, and oiµos, way, road, i.e. a wayside saying; Ger. Sprichwort)

proverb: " A raging khakan disturbs the state, and a raging saghan (See also:

• ELEPHANT

elephant) overthrows his keepers." At this time the Mongols, though scattered and in isolated bodies, had recovered somewhat from the See also:

• SHOCK, or COLLAPSE

shock of the disaster The which they had suffered at the hand of the first Ming Chakhars. sovereign of China . When first driven northwards, they betook themselves to the banks of the Kerulen, from whence they had originally started on their victorious career; but gradually, as the Chinese power became weaker among the frontier tribes, they again pushed southwards, and at this time had established colonies in the Ordus country, within the northern See also:

• BEND