See also:

• MONSTER (Lat. monstrum, from root of monere, to warn; i.e. something terrible or portentous)
• MONSTER, GEORG, COUNT ZU (1776-1844)

MONSTER (See also:

• LAT

Lat. monstrum, from See also:

• ROOT (late O.E. rot, adopted from Scand., cf. Norw. and Swed. rot, Dan. rod; the true O.E. word was wyrt, plant, represented in Ger. Wurz or Wurzel; the ultimate root is the same in both words, and is seen in Lat. radix)
• ROOT, ELIHU (1845– )

root of monere, to warn; i.e. something terrible or portentous)  . In See also:

• ZOOLOGY (from Gr. Nov, a living thing, and ?byos, theory)

zoology, monsters or monstrous births are the subject of See also:

• ANIMAL
• ANIMAL (Lat. animalis, from anima, breath, soul)

Animal Teratology, a See also:

• DEPARTMENT (Fr. departement, from departir, to separate into parts)

department of morphological See also:

• SCIENCE (Lat. scientia, from scire; to learn, know)

science treating of deviations from the normal development of the embryo . The See also:

• TERM

term " embryo " is conventionally limited, in human See also:

• ANATOMY
• ANATOMY (Gr. avaroyil, from ava-silo c', to cut up)

anatomy, to the ovum in the first three months of its See also:

• INTRA

intra-uterine existence, while it is still developing or acquiring the rudiments of its See also:

• FORM (Lat. forma)

form, the term " foetus " being applied to it in the subsequent months during which the organism grows on the lines of development already laid down . It is mostly in the first or embryonic See also:

• PERIOD
• PERIOD (Gr. irepioSos, a going or way round, circuit, aepi, round, and &Sis, way, road)

period that those deviations from the normal occur which See also:

• PRESENT

present themselves as monstrosities at the See also:

• TIME (0. Eng. Lima, cf. Icel. timi, Swed. timme, hour, Dan. time; from the root also seen in " tide," properly the time of between the flow and ebb of the sea, cf. O. Eng. getidan, to happen, " even-tide," &c.; it is not directly related to Lat. tempus)
• TIME, MEASUREMENT OF
• TIME, STANDARD

time of See also:

• BIRTH (a word common in various forms to Teutonic languages from the root of the verb " to bear ")

birth; these See also:

• EARLY
• EARLY, JUBAL ANDERSON (1816-1894)

early traces of deviation within the embryo may be slight, but they " grow with its growth and strengthen with its strength," until they amount to irreparable defects or accretions, often incompatible with extra-uterine See also:

• LIFE

life . The name of " teratology," introduced by See also:

• ETIENNE, CHARLES GUILLAUME (1778-1845)

Etienne See also:

• GEOFFROY
• GEOFFROY, ETIENNE FRANCOIS (1672-1731)
• GEOFFROY, JULIEN LOUIS (1743-1814)

Geoffroy St Hilaire (1822), is derived from rEpas, the See also:

• EQUIVALENT

equivalent of monstrum; teratology is a term new enough to have none but scientific associations, while the Latin word has a See also:

• LONG, GEORGE (1800-1879)
• LONG, JOHN DAVIS (1838– )

long See also:

• RECORD (Lat. recordari, to recall to mind, from cor, heart or mind)

record of superstitions identified with it . The myths of See also:

• SIREN

siren, satyr, See also:

• JANUS

Janus, cyclops and the like, with the corresponding figures in See also:

• NORTHERN

Northern See also:

• MYTHOLOGY

mythology, find a remote anatomical basis in monstrosities which have, for the most See also:

• PART

part, no life except in the foetal See also:

• STATE
• STATE, GREAT OFFICERS OF

state . The mythology of giants and dwarfs is, of course; better founded . The term See also:

• MONSTER (Lat. monstrum, from root of monere, to warn; i.e. something terrible or portentous)
• MONSTER, GEORG, COUNT ZU (1776-1844)

monster was originally used in the same sense as portent . See also:

• LUTHER, MARTIN (1483-1546)

Luther 1 speaks of the birth of a monstrous See also:

• CALF
• CALF, THE GOLDEN

calf, evidently the subject of contemporary talk, as pointing to some See also:

• GREAT

great impending See also:

• CHANGE (derived through the Fr. from the Late Lat. cambium, cambiare, to barter; the ultimate derivation is probably from the root which appears in the Gr. «a urmu', to bend)

change, and he expresses the See also:

• HOPE, ANTHONY
• HOPE, THOMAS (c. 1770-1831)

hope that the See also:

• CATASTROPHE (Gr. Karaurpoch, from KaraQrp4ecv, to over-turn)

catastrophe might be the Last See also:

• DAY (O. Eng. dreg, Ger. Tag; according to the New English Dictionary, " in no way related to the Lat. dies")
• DAY, JOHN (1574-1640?)
• DAY, THOMAS (1748-1789)

Day itself . The rise of more scientific views will be sketched in the course of the See also:

• ARTICLE (from Lat. articulus, a joint)

article . Although monstrosities, both in the human See also:

• SPECIES

species and in other animals, tend to repeat certain definite types of erroneous development, they do not fall readily into classes . The most usual grouping (originally suggested by G .

L . L . See also:

• BUFFON, GEORGE LOUIS LECLERC, COMTE DE (1707-1788)

Buffon, 1800) is into monstra per excessum, monstra per defectum, and monstra per fabricam alienam . It seems useful, however, to See also:

• PLACE (through Fr. from Lat. platea, street; Gr. IrAar6s, wide)

place the more See also:

• SIMPLE

simple cases of excess and of defect See also:

• SIDE
• SIDE (mod. Eski Adalia)

side by side; and it is necessary, above all, to See also:

• SEPARATE

separate the See also:

• DOUBLE
• DOUBLE (from the Mid. Eng. duble, the form which gives the present pronunciation, through the Old Er. duble, from Lat. duplus, twice as much)

double monsters from the single, the theory of the former being a distinct See also:

• CHAPTER (a shortened form of chapiter, a word still used in architecture for a capital; derived from O. Fr. chapitre, Lat. capitellum, diminutive of caput, head)

chapter in teratology . 1 . Monstrosities in a Single See also:

• BODY

Body.—The abnormality may extend to the body throughout, as in well-proportioned giants and dwarfs; or it may affect a certain region or member, as—to take the simplest See also:

• CASE
• CASE, JOHN (d. 1600)

case—when there is a See also:

• FINGER

finger or toe too many or too few . It is very See also:

• COMMON

common for one malformation to be correlated with several others, as in the extreme case of acardiac monsters, in which the non-development of the See also:

• HEART
• HEART, LUNG

heart is associated with the non-development of the See also:

• HEAD (in 0. Eng. heafad; the word is common to Teutonic languages; cf. Dutch hoofd, Ger. Haupt, generally taken to be in origin connected with Lat. caput, Gr. KerbOvi7)
• HEAD, SIR EDMUND WALKER, BART
• HEAD, SIR FRANCIS BOND, BART

head, and with other See also:

• RADICAL (Lat. radix, a root)

radical defects . Giants are conventionally limited to persons over 7 ft. in height . The normal proportions of the See also:

• FRAME

frame are adhered to more or less closely, except in the See also:

• SKULL

skull, which is relatively small; but. accurate measurements, even in the best-proportioned cases, prove, when reduced to a See also:

• SCALE
• SCALE (1) A

scale, that other parts besides the skull—notably the thigh-See also:

• BONE (a word common in various forms to Teutonic languages, in many of which it is confined to the shank of the leg, as in the German Bein)
• BONE, HENRY (1755-1834)

bone and the See also:

• FOOT

foot—may be undersized though overgrown . In persons who are merely very tall the great stature depends often on the inordinate length of the See also:

• LOWER

lower limbs; but in persons over q ft. the lower limbs are not markedly disproportionate . In many cases the muscles and viscera are not sufficient for the overgrown frame, and the individuals are usually, but not always, of feeble intelligence and languid disposition, and See also:

• SHORT, FRANCIS JOB (1857– )

short-lived . The See also:

• BRAIN (A.S. braegen)

brain-case especially is undersized—the Irish See also:

• GIANT (O.E. geant, through Fr. giant, O.Fr. gaiant, jaiant, jeant, med. pop. Lat. gagante—cf. Ital. gigante—by assimilation from gigantem, ace. of Lat. gigas, Gr. yiyas)

giant in the museum of Trinity See also:

• COLLEGE (Collegium)

College, See also:

• DUBLIN

Dublin, is the single exception to this See also:

• RULE

rule—but the bones of the See also:

• FACE (from Lat. fades, derived either from facere, to make, or from a root fa-, meaning " appear "; cf. Gr. cbatvstv)

face, and especially the lower See also:

• JAW (Mid. Eng. jawe, jowe and geowe, O. Eng. cheowan, connected with " chaw " and " chew," and in form with " jowl ")

jaw, are on a large scale .

Giants are never See also:

• BORN, IGNAZ, EDLER VON (1742–1791)

born of gigantic parents; in fact, sterility usually goes with this monstrosity . Their See also:

• SIZE

size is some-times excessive at birth, but more often the indications of great stature do not appear till later, it may be as See also:

• LATE

late as the ninth See also:

• YEAR

year; they attain their full height before the twenty-first year . They have been more frequently male than See also:

• FEMALE

female . 1 In a passage quoted by T . L . W . Bischoff from the 19th See also:

• VOLUME

volume of Luther's See also:

• WORKS

works, See also:

• HALLE (known as HALLE-AN-DER-SAALE, t0 distinguish it from the small town of Halle in Westphalia)
• HALLE, SIR CHARLES (originally KARL HALLE) (1819-1895)

Halle ed., p . 2416 . Dwarfs are conventionally limited to persons under 4 ft . They are more likely than giants to have the modulus of the body perfect . Where, disproportion occurs in the true See also:

• DWARF (A.S. dweorg, D. dwerg, Icel. dvergr)

dwarf it takes the form of a large-sized head, broad shoulders and capacious See also:

• CHEST (Gr. Kiarl, Lat. cista, O. Eng. cist, test, &c.)

chest, and undersized lower limbs . Dwarfs with See also:

• RICKETS

rickets are perhaps to be distinguished from true dwarfs; these are cases in which the spine is curved, and sometimes the bones of the limbs See also:

• BENT
• BENT (E1. BENI)
• BENT, JAMES THEODORE (1852–1897)

bent and the See also:

• PELVIS (Lat. for " basin," cf. Gr. 7rEX?a )

pelvis deformed .

As in the case of giants, dwarfs are seldom the progeny of dwarfs, who are, in fact, usually sterile; the unnatural smallness may be obvious at birth, but is more likely to make itself See also:

• MANIFEST (Lat. manifestus, clear, open to view)

manifest in the years of growth . Dwarfs are much more easily brought up than giants, and are stronger and longer-lived; they have usually also strong passions and acute intelligence . The legends of the dwarfs and giants are on the whole well based on fact . (See DWARF and GIANT.) Redundancy and Defect in Single Parts.—The simplest case of this redundancy is a See also:

• SIXTH

sixth See also:

• DIGIT (Lat. digit us, finger)

digit, well formed, and provided with muscles (or tendons), nerves, and bloodvessels like the others; it is usually a repetition of the little finger or toe, and it may be present on one or both hands, or on one or both feet, or in all four extremities; as in the giant of See also:

• GATH

Gath . The want of one, two, or more digits on See also:

• HAND
• HAND (a word common to Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Hand, Goth. handus)
• HAND, FERDINAND GOTTHELF (1786-185r)

hand or foot, or on both, is another simple See also:

• ANOMALY (from Gr. lwvw)

anomaly; and, like the redundancy, it is See also:

• APT

apt to repeat itself in the same See also:

• FAMILY

family . J . F . Meekel saw a girl who had an extra digit on each extremity, while a See also:

• SISTER

sister wanted four of the fingers of one hand . Where the supernumerary digits are more than one on each extremity, the whole set are apt to be rudimentary or stunted; they look as if two or more of the embryonic buds had been subject to cleavage down the See also:

• MIDDLE

middle and to See also:

• ARREST (Fr. arrester, arreeter, to stop or stay)

arrest of See also:

• LONGITUDINAL

longitudinal growth . There are several See also:

• AUTHENTIC (from Gr. aOO 'rns, one who does a thing himself)

authentic instances of a whole lower See also:

• LIMB

limb appearing at birth as two withered halves, as if from embryonic cleavage . Other redundancies of the See also:

• SKELETON

skeleton are extra vertebrae . (sometimes the See also:

• COCCYGEAL

coccygeal, giving the See also:

• APPEARANCE (from Lat. apparere, to appear)

appearance of a rudimentary tail), or an extra See also:

• RIB (from 0. Eng. ribb; the word appears' in many Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Rippe, Swed. reb)

rib .

A double See also:

• ROW, JOHN (c. 1525—1580)

row of See also:

• TEETH (O.E. Eel); plural of tooth, O.E. top)

teeth is occasionally met with; the most interesting case of this anomaly is that in which the rudiments of a double row exist from the first, but the phenomenon is sometimes produced by the See also:

• MILK (0. Eng. meoluc; from a common Indo-European root, cf. Lat. mulgere, Gr. ?t dXyetv)

milk teeth persisting along with the second set . Among redundancies of the soft parts, by far the most frequent relate to the mammary glands and especially to the nipples . These See also:

• ORGANS

organs are normally paired amongst mammals, and the glands of each pair are placed symmetrically on a curved See also:

• LINE

line See also:

• RUNNING

running from the axilla towards the pubes . When many pairs occur, the glands of each pair diverge less from the median line than those of the immediately anterior pair, the abdominal glands lying See also:

• CLOSE
• CLOSE (from Lat. clausum, shut)
• CLOSE, MAXWELL HENRY (1822-1903)

close together, those towards the axilla being farther apart . When only a single pair is normally present, the pair is abdominal, See also:

• PECTORAL

pectoral or axillary; and whether the normal be one pair or many pairs, additional glands are not infrequent, but occupy the expected position on the mammary lines, See also:

• ACCESSORY

Accessory glands ornipples in human beings, if anterior to the normal pair, See also:

• LIE, JONAS LAURITZ EDEMIL (1833—1908)
• LIE, MARIUS SOPHUS (1842–1899)

lie farther from the median ventral line, and See also:

• VICE

vice versa . Among the sense-organs there is a remarkable instance recorded of doubling of the appendages of the See also:

• LEFT

left See also:

• EYE
• EYE (O. Eng. edge, Ger. Auge; derived from an Indo-European root also seen in Lat. oc-ulus, the organ of vision (q.v.)

eye, but not of the eyeball itself; the left See also:

• HALF

half of the frontal bone is double, making two eye-sockets on that side, and the extra See also:

• ORBIT (from Lat. orbita, a track, orbis, a wheel)

orbit has an eyebrow and eyelid . The See also:

• EXTERNAL

external See also:

• EAR (common Teut.; O.E. are, Ger. Ohr, Du. oor, akin to Lat. auris, Gr. ovs)

ear (pinna) has also been found double on one side and its orifice has frequently been found doubled in See also:

• MAN
• MAN, ISLE OF (anc. Mona)

man and lower animals, and the additional ears lie in a definite relation to the branchial clefts of the embryo . Doubling of any of the See also:

• INTERNAL

internal organs or parts of organs may occur and innumerable cases have been recorded . Montrosities from Defective See also:

• CLOSURE (Fr. clooture)

Closure in the Middle Line.—Under this head come some of the commonest congenital malformations, including slight deficiencies such as harelip, and serious defects such as a See also:

• GAP

gap in the See also:

• CROWN

crown of the head with See also:

• ABSENCE (Lat. absentia)

absence of the brain . The embryo is originally a circular flattened disk spread out on one See also:

• POLE (FAMILY)
• POLE, REGINALD (1500-1558)
• POLE, RICHARD DE LA (d. 1525)
• POLE, WILLIAM (1814—1900)

pole of the yolk, and it is formed into a cylindrical body (with four appendages) by the See also:

• FREE

free margins of the disk, or rather its ventral laminae, folding inwards to meet in the middle line and so close in the pelvic, abdominal, thoracic, pharyngeal and oral cavities . Meanwhile, and indeed rather earlier, two longitudinal parallel ridges on the See also:

• TOP (cf. Dan. top, Ger. Topf, also meaning pot)

top or along the back of the disk have grown up and See also:

• UNITED

united in the middle line to form the second See also:

• BARREL (a word of uncertain origin common to Romance languages; the Celtic forms, as in the Gaelic baraill, are derived from the English)

barrel of the body—the neural See also:

• CANAL
• CANAL (from Lat. canalis, " channel " and " kennel " being doublets of the word)

canal—of small and See also:

• UNIFORM

uniform width in the lower three-fourths or See also:

• SPINAL

spinal region, but expanding into a wide chamber for the brain . This See also:

• DIVISION (from Lat. dividere, to break up into parts, separate)

division into neural (dorsal) and haemal (ventral) canals underlies all vertebrate development .

Imperfect closure along either of those embryonic lines of junction may produce various degrees of monstrosity . The simplest and commonest form, hardly to be reckoned in the present See also:

• CATEGORY (Gr. Karrlyopia, " accusation ")

category, is harelip with or without cleft See also:

• PALATE (Lat. palatum, possibly from the root of pascere, to feed)

palate, which results from defective closure of the ventral laminae at their extreme upper end . Another simple form, but of much more serious import, is a gap left in the neural canal at its lower end; usually the See also:

• ARCHES, COURT OF

arches of the lumbar vertebrae are deficient, and the fluid that surrounds the spinal See also:

• CORD (derived through the Fr. corde, from the Lat. chorda, Gr. xop(5rt, the string of a musical instrument)

cord bulges out in its membranes, producing a soft See also:

• TUMOUR (Lat. tumor, a swelling)

tumour under the skin at the lower part of the back . This is the See also:

• CONDITION (Lat. condicio, from condicere, to agree upon, arrange; not connected with conditio, from condere, conditum, to put together)

condition known as hydrorhachis, depending on the osseous defect known as See also:

• SPINA (Lat. for a thorn, or prickle, also backbone, whence spine)

spina bifida . More rarely the gap in the arches of the vertebrae is in the region of the See also:

• NECK (O. Eng. hnecca; the word appears in many Teutonic languages; cf. Dutch ride, Ger. Nacken; in O. E. the common word was heals; cf. Ger. Hals)

neck . If it extend all along the back, it will probably involve the skull also . Deficiency of the crown of the head, and in the spine as well, may be not always traceable to want of formative See also:

• POWER [WILLIAM GRATTAN] TYRONE (1797-1841)

power to close the canal in the middle line; an over-distended condition of the central canal of the cord and brain may prevent the closure of the bones, and ultimately See also:

• LEAD
• LEAD (pronounced iced)

lead to the disruption of the See also:

• NERVOUS

nervous organs themselves; and injuries to the See also:

• MOTHER

mother, with inflammation set up in the foetus and its appendages, may be the more remote cause . But it is by defect in the middle line that the See also:

• MISCHIEF

mischief manifests itself, and it is in that anatomical category that the malformations are included . The osseous deficiency at the crown of the head is usually accompanied by want of the See also:

• SCALP (0. Dutch schelpe, a shell)

scalp, as well as of the brain and membranes . The bones of the face may be well See also:

• DEVELOPED

developed and the features See also:

• REGULAR

regular, except that the eyeballs bulge forward under the closed lids; but there is an abrupt See also:

• HORIZONTAL

horizontal line above the orbits where the bones cease, the skin of the brow joining on to a spongy See also:

• KIND (O. E. ge-cynde, from the same root as is seen in " kin," supra)

kind of See also:

• TISSUE (Fr. tissu, tissue, participle of tisser, Lat. texere, to weave)

tissue that occupies the sides and See also:

• FLOOR (from O. Eng. flor, a word common to many Teutonic languages, cf. Dutch vloer, and Ger. Flur, a field, in the feminine, and a floor, masculine)

floor of the cranium . This is the commonest form of an anencephalous or brainless monster . There are generally See also:

• MERE
• MERE, ADALBERT (1838-1909)

mere traces of the brain, although, in some rare and curious instances, the hemispheres are developed in an exposed position on the back of the neck .

The See also:

• CRANIAL

cranial nerves are usually perfect, with the exception sometimes of the optic (and retina) . Vegetative existence is not impossible, and a brainless monster has been known to survive sixty-five days . The See also:

• CHILD
• CHILD, FRANCIS JAMES (1825-1896)
• CHILD, L
• CHILD, LYDIA MARIA (1802-1880)
• CHILD, SIR FRANCIS (1642-1713)
• CHILD, SIR JOHN (d. 1690)
• CHILD, SIR JOSIAH (163o - 1699)

child is usually a very large one . Closely allied, as we have seen, to the anencephalous condition is the condition of congenital hydrocephalus . The nervous See also:

• SYSTEM

system at its beginning is a neural canal, not only as regards its bony covering, but in its interior; a wide space lined by ciliated epithelium and filled with fluid extends along the See also:

• AXIS (Lat. for " axle ")

axis of the spinal cord, and expands into a See also:

• SERIES (a Latin word from serere, to join)

series of See also:

• CHAMBERS (the Fr. chambre, from Lat. camera, a room)
• CHAMBERS, EPHRAIM (d. 1740)
• CHAMBERS, GEORGE (1803-1840)
• CHAMBERS, ROBERT (18oz-1871)
• CHAMBERS, SIR WILLIAM (1726-1796)

chambers in the brain . As development proceeds the walls thicken at the expense of the internal spaces, the See also:

• ORIGINAL

original tubular or chambered See also:

• PLAN
• PLAN (from Lat. planes, flat)

plan of the central nervous system is departed from, and those organs assume the practically solid form in which we familiarly know them . If, however, the spaces persist in their embryonic proportions notwithstanding the thickening of the nervous substance forming their walls, there results an enormous brain which is more than half occupied inside with fluid, contained in spaces that correspond on the whole to the ventricles of the brain as normally bounded . A hydrocephalic foetus may survive its birth, and will be more apt to be affected in its See also:

• NUTRITION

nutrition than in its intelligence . In many cases the hydrocephalic condition does not come on till after the child is born . Returning to the ventral middle line, there may be defects of closure below the lips and palate, as in the See also:

• BREAST (a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. the Ger. Brust, possibly connected with an O. Sax. brustian, to bud)

breast-bone (fissure of the sternum), at the See also:

• NAVEL (O. Eng. nafela, a word common to Teutonic languages; of. Ger. Nobel, Swed. nafvel; the Sanskrit is nabhila; the English root is also seen in " nave," the hub of a wheel)

navel (the last point to close in any case), and along the middle line of the See also:

• ABDOMEN (a Latin word, either from abdere, to hide, or from a form adipomen, from adeps, fat)

abdomen generally . The commonest point for a gap in the middle line of the belly is at its lower part, an See also:

• INCH (O. Eng. ynce from Lat. uncia, a twelfthpart; cf. " ounce," and see As)

inch or two above the pubes . At that point inthe embryo there issues the allantois, a See also:

• BALLOON

balloon-like expansion from the ventral cavity, which carries on its See also:

• OUTER

outer See also:

• SURFACE

surface See also:

• BLOOD

blood-vessels from the embryo to interdigitate with those of the mother on the uterine surface .

Having served its temporary purpose of carrying the bloodvessels across a space, the balloon-like allantois collapses, and rolls up into the rounded See also:

• STEM (O. Eng. staefn, stemn, cf. Du. stain, Ger. Stamm, &c., probably related to " staff ")

stem-like umbilical cord through most of its extent; but a portion of the See also:

• SAC

sac within the body of the foetus is retained as the permanent urinary See also:

• BLADDER (from A.S. blaeddre, connected with bl¢wan, to blow, cf. Ger. blase)

bladder . That economical See also:

• ADAPTATION (from Lat. adaptare. to fit to)

adaptation of a portion of a vesicular See also:

• ORGAN

organ, originally formed for purposes of communication between the embryo and the mother, appears to See also:

• ENTAIL (from Fr. tailler, to cut; the old derivation from tales haeredes is now abandoned)

entail sometimes a defect in the See also:

• WALL (O. Eng. weal, weall, Mid. Eng. wal, wane, adapted from Lat. vallum, rampart; the original O. Eng. word for a wall was wag or tenth)
• WALL, RICHARD (1694-1778)

wall of the abdomen just above the pubes, and a defect in the anterior wall of the bladder itself . This is the distressing congenital condition of fissure of the urinary bladder, in which its interior is exposed through an opening in the skin; the pubic bones are separated by an See also:

• INTERVAL

interval, and the reproductive organs are See also:

• ILL

ill-formed; the urachus is wanting, and the umbilicus is always placed exactly at the upper end of the gap in the skin . A monstrosity recalling the cloacal arrangement of the See also:

• BIRD

bird is met with as a more extreme defect in the same parts . Hermaphroditism.—Although this anomalous condition does not fall under defective closure in the middle line, it may be said to be due to a similar failure of purpose, or to an uncertainty in the See also:

• NISUS

nisus formativus at a corresponding See also:

• STAGE (Fr. 6/age; from Lat. stare, to stand)

stage of development . Strictly speaking, a hermaphrodite is a creature containing ovaries and testes—the essential organs of each See also:

• SEX (Lat. sexes; possibly connected with secure, to cut)

sex . See also:

• EVIDENCE (Lat. evidentia, evideri, to appear clearly)

Evidence accumulates, however, that at least in all the higher vertebrates, including man, the sex is predetermined in the fertilized ovum, and it is more than doubtful if true hermaphroditism occurs . On the other hand, if there be no such double sex in the essential organs (as in the See also:

• MAJORITY (Fr. majorite; Med. Lat. majoritas; Lat. major, greater)

majority of so-called hermaphrodites) there is a great See also:

• DEAL

deal of doubling and See also:

• AMBIGUITY (Fr. ambiguite, med. Lat. ambiguitas, from Lat. ambiguus, doubtful; ambi, both ways, agere, to drive)

ambiguity entailed in the secondary or external organs and parts of See also:

• GENERATION (from Lat. generare, to beget, procreate; genus, stock, race)

generation . Those parts which are rudimentary or obsolete in the male but highly developed in the female, and those parts which are rudimentary in the female but highly developed in the male tend in the hermaphrodite to be developed equally, and all of them badly . Amongst human beings the greater number of so-called hermaphrodites are really See also:

• FEMALES

females, in which there is an abnormal development of the clitoris, but it also happens that true See also:

• MALES

males may be born with a small clitoris-like penis, with hypospadia—that is to say, with imperfect urethra, open on the ventral side, and with undescended testes . Failure of the development of the testes or ovary, or their removal in the adult condition induces an ambiguous condition of the body in which the secondary sexual characters approach those of the other sex . Experimental removal of the ovaries or testes, followed by implantation of organs of the other sex, has produced an See also:

• INVERSION (Lat. invertere, to turn about)

inversion of the secondary sexual characters .

Cyclops, Siren, &c.—The same feebleness of the formative See also:

• ENERGY (from the Gr. ivipyela; iv, in, ipyov, work)

energy which gives rise to some at least of the cases of defective closure in the middle line, and to the cases of ambiguous sex, leads also to imperfect separation of symmetrical parts . The most remarkable case of the kind is the cyclops monster . At a point corresponding to the See also:

• ROOT (late O.E. rot, adopted from Scand., cf. Norw. and Swed. rot, Dan. rod; the true O.E. word was wyrt, plant, represented in Ger. Wurz or Wurzel; the ultimate root is the same in both words, and is seen in Lat. radix)
• ROOT, ELIHU (1845– )

root of the See also:

• NOSE (O.Eng. nosu, cf. Dutch neus, Swed. nos, snout; the Aix in Provence. Both at Aix and at Lyons he acquired great connexion with O.Eng. nasu is obscure, cf. Ger. Nase, Lat. pares, distinction by his labours during outbreaks of the plague. In nostrils,

nose there is found a single orbital cavity, sometimes of small size and with no eyeball in it, at other times of the usual size of the orbit and containing an eyeball more or less See also:

• COMPLETE

complete . In still other cases, which indicate the nature of the anomaly, the orbital cavity extends for some distance on each side of the middle line, and contains two eyeballs lying close together . The usual nose is wanting but above the single orbital cavity there is often a nasal See also:

• PROCESS

process on the forehead, with which nasal bones may be articulated, and cartilages joined to the latter; these form the framework of a short fleshy protuberance like a small See also:

• PROBOSCIS

proboscis . The lower jaw is sometimes wanting in cyclopeans; the cheek-bones are apt to be small, and the mouth a small See also:

• ROUND (O. Fr. rond, Lat. rotundus, the Fr. is the source also of Du. rond; Ger., Swed., Dan. and Nor. rond)

round hole, or altogether absent; the See also:

• REST (O. Eng. rest, reste, bed, cognate with other Teutonic forms, e.g. Ger. Rast, Riiste, rest, and probably Gothic Rasta, league, i.e. resting or stopping place)

rest of the body may be well developed . The See also:

• KEY
• KEY (in O. Eng. tang; the ultimate origin of the word is unknown; it appears only in Old Frisian kei of other Teutonic languages; until the end of the 17th century the pronunciation was kay, as in other words in O. Eng. ending in aeg; cf. daeg, day; clang
• KEY (the phraseograms being indicated by hyphens)
• KEY, SIR ASTLEY COOPER (1821-1888)
• KEY, THOMAS HEWITT (1799-1875)

key to the cyclopean condition is found in the state of the brain . The olfactory nerves or lobes are frequently absent; the brain is very imperfectly divided into hemispheres, and appears as a somewhat See also:

• PEAR (Pyrus communis)

pear-shaped sac with thick walls, the longitudinal See also:

• PARTITION

partition of dura mater (falx cerebri) being wanting, the surface almost unconvoluted, the corpus callosum deficient, the basal ganglia rudimentary or fused . The optic chiasma and nerves are usually replaced by a single mesial See also:

• NERVE (Lat. nervus, Gr. vevpov, a bowstring)

nerve, but sometimes the chiasma and pair of nerves are present . The origin of this monstrosity See also:

• DATES

dates back to an early period of development, to the time when the future hemispheres were being formed as protrusions from the anterior cerebral vesicle or fore-brain; it may be conceived that, instead of two distinct buds from that vesicle, there was only a single outgrowth with imperfect traces of cleavage . That initial defect would carry with it naturally the undivided state of the cerebrum, and with the latter there would be the absence of olfactory lobes and of a nose, and a single eyeball placed where the nose should have been . A cyclops has been known to live for several days .

The monstrosity is not uncommon among the domestic animals, and is especially frequent in the See also:

• PIG
• PIG (a word of obscure origin, connected with the Low Ger. and Dut. word of the same meaning, bigge)

pig . Another curious result of defective separation. of symmetrical parts is the siren form of foetus, in which the lower limbs occur as a single tapering prolongation of the See also:

• TRUNK (Fr. tronc, Lat. truncus, cut off, maimed)

trunk like the hinder part of a See also:

• DOLPHIN

dolphin, at the end of which a foot (or both feet) may or may not be visible . The defects in the bones underlying this siren form are very various: in some cases there is only one limb (thigh and See also:

• LEG
• LEG (a word of Scandinavian origin, from the Old Norwegian leggr, cf. Swed. lagg, Dan. laeg; the O. Eng. word was sceanca, shank)

leg-bones) in the middle line; in others all the bones of each limb are present in more or less rudimentary condition, but adhering at prominent points of the adjacent surfaces . The pelvis and pelvic viscera See also:

• SHARE (O. Eng. scearu, chiefly in compounds, e.g. land-scearu, a share of land, from sceran to cut; cf. " shear" )

share in the abnormality . A much more common and harmless case of unseparated symmetrical parts is where the hand or foot has two, three, or more digits fused together . This syndactylous anomaly runs in families . Limbs Absent or Stunted.—Allied to these fused or unseparated states of the extremities, or of parts of them, are the class of deformities in which whole limbs are absent, or represented only by stumps . The trunk (and head) may be well formed, and the individual healthy; all four extremities may be reduced to short stumps either wanting hands and feet entirely, or with the latter fairly well developed; or the legs only may be rudimentary or wanting, or the arms only, or one extremity only . Although some of these cases doubtless depend upon aberrant or deficient formative power in the particular directions, there are others of them referable to the effects of See also:

• MECHANICAL

mechanical pressure, and even to See also:

• DIRECT

direct amputation of parts within the uterus . Acardiac and Acranial Monsters.—It sometimes happens in a twin pregnancy that one of the embryos fails to develop a heart and a complete vascular system of its own, depending for its nourishment upon blood derived from the See also:

• PLACENTA (Lat. for a cake)

placenta of its well-formed twin by means of its umbilical vessels . It grows into a more or less shapeless See also:

• MASS (O.E. maesse; Fr. messe; Ger. Messe; Ital. messa; from eccl. Lat. missa)
• MASS, IN

mass, in which all traces of the human form may be lost . Other viscera besides the heart will be wanting, and no head distinguishable; the most likely parts to keep the line of development are the lumbar region (with the kidneys), the pelvis, and the lower limbs .

The twin of this monster may be a healthy See also:

• INFANT (in early forms enfaunt, enfant, through the Fr. enfant, from Lat. infans, in, not, and fans, the present participle of fari, to speak)

infant . Reversed Position of the Viscera.— This is a developmental See also:

• ERROR (Lat. error, from errare, to wander, to err)

error associated with the retention of the right aortic See also:

• ARCH
• ARCH, JOSEPH (1826– )

arch as in birds, instead of the left as is usual in mammals . The position of all the unsymmetrical viscera is transposed, the See also:

• SPLEEN (Gr. o-1rXilv)

spleen and cardiac end of the See also:

• STOMACH (Gr. vrbsaxos from arbga, a mouth)

stomach going to the right side, the See also:

• LIVER (O. Eng. lifer; cf. cognate forms, Dutch lever, Ger. Leber, Swed. lefver, &c.; the O. H. Ger. forms are libara, lipora, &c.; the Teut. word has been connected with Gr. i'prap and Lat. jecur)

liver to the left, the caecum resting on the left iliac fossa, and the sigmoid flexure of the See also:

• COLON
• COLON (formerly known as ASPINWALL)

colon being attached to the right . This condition of situs inversus viscerum need cause no inconvenience; and it will probably remain undetected until the occasion should arise for a See also:

• PHYSICAL

physical diagnosis or See also:

• POST

post-mortem inspection . The causes of congenital anomalies are difficult to specify . There is no doubt that, in some cases, they are present in the sperm or germ of the See also:

• PARENT, SIMON NAPOLEON (1855– )

parent; the same anomalies recur in several See also:

• CHILDREN, LAW RELATING TO

children of a family, and it has been found possible, through a variation of the circumstances, to trace the See also:

• INFLUENCE (Late Lat. influentia, from influere, to flow in)

influence in some cases to the See also:

• FATHER

father alone, and in other cases to the mother alone . The remarkable thing in this743 parental influence is that the malformation in the child may not have been manifested in the body of either parent, or in the grandparents . More often the malformation is acquired by the embryo and foetus in the course of development and growth, either through the mother or in itself independently . Maternal impressions during pregnancy have often been alleged as a cause, and this See also:

• CAUSATION

causation has been discussed at great length by the best authorities . The See also:

• GENERAL
• GENERAL (Lat. generalis, of or relating to a genus, kind or class)

general See also:

• OPINION (Lat. opinio, from opinari, to think)

opinion seems to be that it is impossible to set aside the influence of subjective states of the mother altogether, but that there is no direct. connexion between the cause of the subjective state and the resulting anomaly . The See also:

• DOCTRINE

doctrine of maternal impressions has often been resorted to when any other explanation was either difficult or inconvenient; thus, See also:

• HIPPOCRATES

Hippocrates is said to have saved the virtue of a woman who gave birth to a See also:

• BLACK
• BLACK, ADAM (1784-1874)
• BLACK, JEREMIAH SULLIVAN (1810–1883)
• BLACK, WILLIAM (1841-1898)

black child by pointing out that there was a picture of a See also:

• NEGRO (from Lat. eager, black)

negro on the wall of her chamber . Injuries to the mother during pregnancy have been unquestionably the cause of certain malformations, especially of congenital hydrocephalus .

The embryo itself and its membranes may become the subject of inflammations, atrophies, hypertrophies, and the like; this causation is doubtless accountable for a See also:

• GOOD, JOHN MASON (1764-1827)

good many of them . But a very large See also:

• RESIDUE (through the French, from the Lat. residuum, a remainder, from residere, to remain)

residue of malformations must still be referred to variation in the embryonic cells and See also:

• CELL (from Lat. cella, probably from an Indo-European kal —seen in Lat. celare, to hide; another suggestion connects the word with Lat. cera, wax, taking the original meaning to refer to the honeycomb)

cell-See also:

• GROUPS
• GROUPS, THEORY

groups . The nisus formativus of the fertilized ovum is always subject to morphological See also:

• LAWS

laws, but, just as in extra-uterine life, there may be deviations from the beaten track; and even a slight deviation at an early stage will carry with it far-reaching consequences . This is particularly noticeable in double monsters . 2 . Double Monsters.—Twins are the physiological See also:

• ANALOGY (Gr. avaXo-yLa, proportion)

analogy of double monsters, and some of the latter have come very near to being two separate individuals . The Siamese twins, who died in 1874 at the See also:

• AGE (Fr. age, through late Lat. aetaticum, from aetas)

age of sixty, were joined only by a thick fleshy See also:

• LIGAMENT (Lat. ligamentum, from ligare, to bind)

ligament from the lower end of the breast-bone (xiphoid See also:

• CARTILAGE (Lat. cartilage, gristle)

cartilage), having the common navel on its lower border; the anatomical examination showed, however, that a process of peritoneum extended through the ligament from one abdominal cavity to the other, and that the blood-vessels of the two livers were in free communication across the same See also:

• BRIDGE

bridge . There are one or two cases on record in which such a ligament has been cut at birth, one, at least, of the twins surviving . From the most intelligible form of double monstrosity, like the Siamese twins, there are all grades of fantastic See also:

• FUSION

fusion of two individuals into one down to the truly marvellous condition of a small body or fragment parasitic upon a well-grown infant—the condition known as foetus in foetu . These monstrosities are deviations, not from the usual kind of twin gestation, but from a certain rarer physiological type of dual development . In by far the majority of cases twins have separate uterine appendages, and have probably been developed from distinct ova; but in a small proportion of (recorded) cases there is evidence, in the placental and enclosing structures, that the twins had been developed from two rudiments arising side by side on a single blastoderm . It is to the latter physiological category that double monsters almost certainly belong; and there is some direct embryological evidence for this opinion .

See also:

• ALLEN, BOG OF
• ALLEN, ETHAN (1739–1789)
• ALLEN, GRANT CHARLES GRANT BLAIRFINDIEI, (1848–1899)
• ALLEN, JAMES LANE (1850– )
• ALLEN, JOHN (1476–1534)
• ALLEN, or ALLEYN, THOMAS (1542-1632)
• ALLEN, WILLIAM (1532-1594)
• ALLEN, WILLIAM FRANCIS (183o-1889)

Allen See also:

• THOMSON, JAMES (1822-1892)
• THOMSON, JAMES (1834-1882)
• THOMSON, JAMES (r700-1748)
• THOMSON, JOHN (1778-184o)
• THOMSON, JOSEPH (1858-1895)
• THOMSON, SIR CHARLES WYVILLE (1830-1882)
• THOMSON, THOMAS (1773-1852)
• THOMSON, WILLIAM (1819-189o)

Thomson observed in the blastoderm of a See also:

• HEN

hen's See also:

• EGG (O.E. aeg, cf. Ger. Ei, Swed. aegg, and prob. Gr. u,ov, Lat. ovum)
• EGG, AUGUSTUS LEOPOLD (1816-1863)

egg at the sixteenth or eighteenth See also:

• HOUR

hour of See also:

• INCUBATION

incubation two "See also:

• PRIMITIVE

primitive traces" or rudiments of the backbone forming side by side; and in a See also:

• GOOSE (a common Teut. word, O. Eng. gOs, pl. ges, Ger. Gans, O. Norse gas, from Aryan root, ghans, whence Sans. hansa, Lat. anser (for hanser)
• GOOSE (GAME OF)

goose's egg incubated five days he found on one blastoderm two embryos, each with the rudiments of upper and lower extremities, See also:

• CROSSING

crossing or cohering in the region of the future neck, and with only one heart between them . A very large number of similar observations have been published and appear to be found in all cases where a large material is available . The developing ova of See also:

• FISH (O. Eng. fist, a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Dutch visch, Ger. Fisch, Goth. fisks, cognate with the Lat. piscis)
• FISH, HAMILTON (1808-1893)

fish, available in large See also:

• NUMBERS, BOOK OF
• NUMBERS, PARTITION OF

numbers in hatcheries, and the laboratory investigation of the chick and the See also:

• FROG

frog have provided cases of almost every degree of blending . The perfect physiological type appears to be two rudiments on one blastoderm, whose entirely separate development produces twins (under their rarer circumstances), whose nearly separate development produces such double monsters as the Siamese twins, and whose less separate development produces the various See also:

• GROTESQUE

grotesque forms of two individuals in one body . There can be no question of a literal fusion of two embryos; either the individuality of each was at no time complete, or, if there were two distinct primitive traces; the uni-axial type was approximately reverted to in the process of development, as in the formation of the abdominal and thoracic viscera, limbs, pelvis or head . Double monsters are divided in the first instance into those in which the doubling is symmetrical and equal on the two sides, and those in which a small or fragmentary foetus is attached to or enclosed in a foetus of See also:

• AVERAGE

average development—the latter class being the so-called cases of " See also:

• PARASITISM

parasitism." Symmetrical Double Monsters are subdivided according to the part or region of the body where the See also:

• UNION
• UNION (known locally as Union Hill and officially as Town of Union)

union or fusion exists —head, See also:

• THORAX (Gr. BWpaE, breastplate, also the part of the body covered by it)

thorax, umbilicus or pelvis . One of the simplest cases is a Janus head upon a single body, or there may be two pairs of arms with the two faces . Again, there may be one head with two necks and two complete trunks and pairs of extremities . Two distinct heads (with more or less of neck) may surmount a single trunk, broad at the shoulders but with only one pair of arms . The fusion, again, may be from the middle of the thorax downwards, giving two heads and two pairs of shoulders and arms, but only one trunk and one pair of legs . In another variety, the body may be double down to the See also:

• WAIST

waist, but the pelvis and lower limbs single . The degree of union in the region of the head, abdomen or pelvis may be so slight as to permit of two distinct organs or sets of organs in the respective cavities, or so great as to have the viscera in common; and there is hardly ever an intermediate condition between those extremes .

Thus, in the Janus head there may be two brains, or only one brain . The Siamese twins are an instance of union at the umbilical region, with the viscera distinct in every respect except a slight vascular See also:

• ANASTOMOSIS (a Greek word in which the second o is long, from avaaroµovv, to furnish with a mouth or outlet)

anastomosis and a common process of peritoneum; but it is more usual for union in that region to be more extensive, and to entail a single set of abdominal and thoracic viscera . The pelvis is one of the commonest regions for double monsters to be joined at, and, as in the head and abdomen, the junction may be slight or See also:

• TOTAL

total . The Hungarian sisters See also:

• HELENA
• HELENA, ST (c. 247-c. 327)

Helena and See also:

• JUDITH, THE BOOK OF

Judith (1701–1723) were joined at the sacrum, but had the pelvic cavity and pelvic organs separate; the same condition obtained in the See also:

• SOUTH
• SOUTH, ROBERT (1634–1716)

South Carolina negresses Millie and See also:

• CHRISTINA (1626–1689)
• CHRISTINA [MARIA CHRISTINA HENRIETTA DESIREE FELICITE RENIERE]

Christina, known as the " two-headed See also:

• NIGHTINGALE (O. Eng. Nihtegale, literally " singer of the night ")
• NIGHTINGALE, FLORENCE (1820–191o)

nightingale," and in the Bohemian sisters Rosalie and Josepha . More usually the union in the pelvic region is complete, and produces the most fantastic shapes of two trunks (each with head and arms) joining below at various angles, and with three or four lower limbs extending from the region of fusion, sometimes in a lateral direction, sometimes downwards . A very curious kind of double monster is produced by two otherwise distinct foetuses joining at the crown of the head and keeping the axis of their bodies in a line . It is only in rare instances that double monsters survive their birth, and the preserved specimens of them are mostly of foetal size . Unequal Double Monsters, Foetus in Foetu.—There are some well-authenticated instances of this most curious of all anomalies . The most celebrated of these See also:

• PARASITE (From Gr. irapa, beside, Tiros food)

parasite-bearing monsters was a Genoese, See also:

• LAZARUS (a contracted form of the Heb. name Eleazar, " God has helped," Gr. Aiq-apos)
• LAZARUS, EMMA (1849–1887)
• LAZARUS, HENRY (1815–1895)
• LAZARUS, MORITZ (1824–1903)
• LAZARUS, ST, ORDER OF

Lazarus Johannes Baptista Colloredo, born in 1716, who was figured as a child by Licetus, and again by See also:

• BARTHOLINUS, GASPARD [CASPAR BERTHELSEN], (1585-1629)

Bartholinus at the age of twenty-eight as a See also:

• YOUNG
• YOUNG, A
• YOUNG, ARTHUR (1741-1820)
• YOUNG, BRIGHAM (1801-1877)
• YOUNG, CHARLES MAYNE (1777–1856)
• YOUNG, EDWARD (1683–1765)
• YOUNG, JAMES (1811-1883)
• YOUNG, THOMAS (1773-1829)

young man of average stature . The parasite adhered to the lower end of his breast-bone, and was a tolerably well-formed child, wanting only one leg; it breathed, slept at intervals, and moved its body, but it had no separate nutritive functions . The parasite is more apt to be a See also:

• MINIATURE

miniature acardiac and See also:

• ACEPHALOUS

acephalous fragment, as in the case of the one See also:

• BORNE, KARL LUDWIG (1786–1837)

borne in front of the abdomen of a Chinaman figured by I . Geoffroy St Hilaire .

Sometimes the parasite is contained in a pouch under the skin of the abdominal wall, and in another class (of which there is a specimen in the Hunterian Museum) it has actually been included, by the closure of the ventral laminae, within the abdominal cavity of the foetus—a true foetus in foetu . Shapeless parasitic fragments containing masses of bone, cartilage and other tissue are found also in the space -behind the breast-bone (mediastinal teratoma), or growing fromthe See also:

• BASE

base of the skull and protruding through the mouth ("epignathous teratoma," appearing to be seated on the jaw), and, most frequently of all, attached to the sacrum . These last pass by a most interesting transition into common forms of congenital. sacral tumours (which may be of enormous size), consisting mainly of one kind of tissue having its physiological type in the curious gland-like body (coccygeal gland) in which the middle sacral artery comes to an end . The congenital sacral tumours have a tendency to become cystic, and they are probably related to the more perfect congenital cysts of the neck region, where there is another See also:

• MINUTE
• MINUTE (Lat. minutes, small; minuere, to make less)

minute gland-like body of the same nature as the coccygeal at the point of bifurcation of the common See also:

• CAROTID

carotid artery . Other tumours of the body, especially certain of the sarcomatous class, may be regarded from the point of view of monstra per excessum; but such cases suggest not so much a question of aberrant development within the blastoderm as of the indwelling spontaneity of a single post-embryonic tissue . (See TUMOUR AND See also:

• PATHOLOGY (from Gr. raBos, suffering)

PATHOLOGY.) Monstrosities in man and animals have attracted See also:

• ATTENTION (from Lat. ad-tendo, await, expect; the condition of being " stretched " or " tense ")

attention since the earliest times, and amongst primitive and uncivilized peoples have been regarded as of supernatural origin . See also:

• ARISTOTLE
• ARISTOTLE (384-322 B.C.)

Aristotle himself appears to have been the first to examine them as a naturalist, and to explain that although they were outside the usual course of nature they were in the strictest sense of natural origin . See also:

• PLINY, THE ELDER
• PLINY, THE YOUNGER

Pliny described many well-known forms, but did not distinguish between legendary and actual monstrosities . In the middle ages they were treated in the fullest spirit of superstition, and many See also:

• RELICS (Lat, reliquiae, the equivalent of the English " remains " in the sense of a dead body)

relics from such a point of view still survive . The human monstrosities were regarded as having been engendered in See also:

• WOMEN

women by the See also:

• DEVIL (Gr. &a,3oXos, " slanderer," from &ctflisXX sty, to slander)

devil who had See also:

• COMMERCE
• COMMERCE (Lat. commercium, from, cum, together, and rnerx, merchandise)

commerce with them either in his own form or in the See also:

• GUISE
• GUISE, HOUSE OF

guise of some animal . The belief still to be found amongst uneducated persons that unnatural union between women and male animals, or between men and female animals, may be fertile and produce monsters, is an attenuated form of the satanic See also:

• LEGEND (through the French from the med. Lat. legenda, things to be read, from legere, to read)

legend . The scientific appreciation of monsters has grown with the study of See also:

• EMBRYOLOGY

embryology .

See also:

• WILLIAM
• WILLIAM (1143-1214)
• WILLIAM (1227-1256)
• WILLIAM (1J33-1584)
• WILLIAM (A.S. Wilhelm, O. Norse Vilhidlmr; O. H. Ger. Willahelm, Willahalm, M. H. Ger. Willehelm, Willehalm, Mod.Ger. Wilhelm; Du. Willem; O. Fr. Villalme, Mod. Fr. Guillaume; from " will," Goth. vilja, and " helm," Goth. hilms, Old Norse hidlmr, meaning
• WILLIAM (c. 1130-C. 1190)
• WILLIAM, 13TH

William See also:

• HARVEY
• HARVEY, GABRIEL (c. 1545-1630)
• HARVEY, SIR GEORGE (1806-1876)
• HARVEY, WILLIAM (1578—1657)

Harvey in Exercitationes de generatione animalium (r651) first referred monstrosities to their proper place as abnormalities in embryonic See also:

• REPRODUCTION

reproduction . The doctrine of pre-formation (see See also:

• HEREDITY

HEREDITY) obsessed biological science until 1759 when C . F . See also:

• WOLFF (less correctly WOLF), CHRISTIAN (1679-1754)
• WOLFF, CASPAR FRIEDRICH (1733-1794)
• WOLFF, JOSEPH (1795–1862)

Wolff overthrew it, and Harvey's advance was not pursued, except that a number of anatomists published careful studies and descriptions of monsters or monstrous organs . Those who believed that the normal process of development was an unrolling and expansion of a pre-formed miniature of the adult had to apply a similar theory to monsters, and Sylvain Regis, a See also:

• CON

con-temporary of Malbranche, obtained See also:

• ACCEPTANCE (Lat. acceptare, frequentative form of accipere, to receive)

acceptance of his view that monstrous germs as well as normal germs had been created at the beginning of the See also:

• WORLD

world . A discussion almost as memorable as that between E . G . St Hilaire and See also:

• CUVIER, GEORGES LEOPOLD CHRETIEN FREDERIC DAGOBERT, BARON (1769-1832)

Cuvier on specific types was pursued in the See also:

• FRENCH
• FRENCH, DANIEL CHESTER (1850– )
• FRENCH, NICHOLAS (1604-1678)

French See also:

• ACADEMY, GREEK
• ACADEMY, ROYAL

Academy from 1724 to 1743, J . B . See also:

• WINSLOW, EDWARD (1595-1655)

Winslow, who supported the current pre-formationist view, having the better of the See also:

• ARGUMENT

argument with See also:

• LOUIS
• LOUIS (804–876)
• LOUIS (893–911)
• LOUIS, JOSEPH DOMINIQUE, BARON (1755-1837)
• LOUIS, or LEWIS (from the Frankish Chlodowich, Chlodwig, Latinized as Chlodowius, Lodhuwicus, Lodhuvicus, whence-in the Strassburg oath of 842-0. Fr. Lodhuwigs, then Chlovis, Loys and later Louis, whence Span. Luiz and—through the Angevin kings—Hungarian

Louis See also:

• LEMERY

Lemery, who was almost alone in a rational See also:

• INTERPRETATION (from Lat. interpretari, to expound, explain, inter pres, an agent, go-between, interpreter; inter, between, and the root pret-, possibly connected with that seen either in Greek 4 p4'ew, to speak, or irpa-rrecv, to do)

interpretation of monstrosities . From the time of Wolff it was accepted that normal and abnormal embryos alike developed by processes of epigenetic change . Wolff himself, however, and even J .

F . Meckel at the beginning of the 19th See also:

• CENTURY (from Lat. centuria, a division of a hundred men)

century, did not recognize the influence of physiological causes in the See also:

• PRODUCTION (Lat. productionem, from producere, to pro-duce)

production of abnormalities; they believed the latter to proceed certainly in an orderly and natural way, but from abnormal ova . E . G . St Hilaire was the first to See also:

• ATTEMPT (Lat. adtemptare, attentare, to try)

attempt experimental teratology and to See also:

• LAY

lay down that many monstrosities were the result of influences causing deviations from the normal course of embryonic development . I . G . St Hilaire, the son of E . G . St Hilaire, carried the experimental method little further, but published an elaborate descriptive See also:

• TREATISE

treatise on anomalies (See also:

• PARIS
• PARIS (also called ALEXANDROS)
• PARIS, ALEXIS PAULIN (1800-x881)
• PARIS, BRUNO PAULIN GASTON (1839-1903)
• PARIS, FRANCOIS DE (169o-1727)
• PARIS, LOUIS PHILIPPE ALBERT
• PARIS, TREATIES OF (1814-1815)

Paris, 1832–1837) which remains one of the most valuable records of the subject . A similar treatise with an incomparable See also:

• ATLAS

atlas of illustrations was issued by W . Vrolik, the great Dutch anatomist, between 184o and 1849, whilst A .

See also:

• FORSTER, FRANCOIS (179o-,872)
• FORSTER, FRIEDRICH CHRISTOPH (1791-1868)
• FORSTER, JOHANN GEORG ADAM (1754-1794)
• FORSTER, JOHN (1812-1876)
• FORSTER, JOHN COOPER (1823-1886)
• FORSTER, WILLIAM EDWARD (1818-1886)

Forster issued in x861 a valuable textbook with a very large number of illustrations chiefly from preparations in the museum at See also:

• WURZBURG

Wurzburg . The great museums devoted much attention to the collection and display of malformations, and no See also:

• ACCOUNT
• ACCOUNT (through O. Fr. acont, Late Lat. comptum, cornputare, to calculate)

account of the subject can be adequate which does not include reference to the magnificent series in the Museum of the Royal College of Surgeons of See also:

• ENGLAND
• ENGLAND, THE CHURCH OF

England, with the descriptive catalogues of the animal malformations written by B . T . Lowne (1893) and of the See also:

• VEGETABLE

vegetable malformations by M . T . Masters (1893) . The See also:

• WORK

work hitherto referred to, as well as a vast bulk of scattered contributions to teratology throughout the ,9th century, was chiefly descriptive, anatomical and embryological teratology, and carried the experimental side little beyond where it had been left by the St Hilaires . In 1891 Camille Dareste published his Recherches sur la production artificielle See also:

• DES

des monstruosites, ou essais de teratogenie experimentale; his experiments, chiefly on the developing egg of the See also:

• FOWL (Dan. Fugl, Ger. Vogel)

fowl, not only showed the probable cause of many of the most common abnormalities, but practically created a new See also:

• BRANCH (from the Fr. branche, late Lat. branca, an animal's paw)

branch of science, experimental embryology . Teratology has since become a side issue of the general study of the inter-relations between the inherited tendencies of the developing organism and the See also:

• PLAY

play of the circumambient See also:

• MEDIA

media, and must be studied in relation to the work of O . Hertwig, W . Roux, H . Driesch, O .

Butschli, J . Loeb and their school . J . Bla:1d See also:

• SUTTON
• SUTTON, SIR RICHARD (d. c. 1524)
• SUTTON, THOMAS (c. 1532—1611)

Sutton's popular See also:

• EVOLUTION

Evolution and Disease (1890) puts in a cogent way the relation between See also:

• COMPARATIVE

comparative anatomy and common abnormalities, whilst W . See also:

• BATESON (BATSON or BETSON), THOMAS

Bateson in his Materials for the Study of Variation (1894) describes the acquisition of new symmetries by abnormal organs, and discusses the possible relation between abnormalities and the origin of species . E . Schwalbe's Morphologie der Missbildungen (1906-1909) is a very complete study of the most See also:

• MODERN

modern developments of teratology, and contains a careful and elaborate See also:

• LIST (O.E. lisle, a Teutonic word, cf. Dut. lust, Ger. Leiste, adapted in Ital. lista and Fr. lisle)
• LIST, FRIEDRICH (1789-1846)

list of authorities from the earliest times . (C . C.; P . C .