See also:

• MOSAIC (corresponding to Lat. opus musivum, from Gr. µovoeiov, an artificial grotto often decorated with mosaics; the word is only found in the sense of mosaic in late Greek, which generally uses k oXI yrlµa)

MOSAIC (corresponding to See also:

• LAT

Lat. See also:

• OPUS ('O7rois)

opus musivum, from Gr. µovoeiov, an artificial grotto often decorated with mosaics; the word is only found in the sense of mosaic in See also:

• LATE

late See also:

• GREEK
• GREEK, ETRUSCAN AND

Greek, which generally uses k oXI yrlµa)  , the fitting together of many, generally small, pieces of See also:

• MARBLE (from Lat. marmor, Gr. pApµapos, shining stone)

marble, opaque See also:

• GLASS
• GLASS (O.E. glees, cf. Ger. Glas, perhaps derived from an old Teutonic root gla-, a variant of glo-, having the general sense of shining, cf. " glare," " glow ")
• GLASS, STAINED

glass, coloured See also:

• CLAYS, PAUL JEAN (1819-1900)

clays, or other substances, so as to See also:

• FORM (Lat. forma)

form a See also:

• PATTERN

pattern . See also:

• ANCIENT
• ANCIENT (also spelt ANTIENT; derived, through the Fr. ancien, old, from the late Lat. antianum, from ante, before)

Ancient See also:

• MOSAIC (corresponding to Lat. opus musivum, from Gr. µovoeiov, an artificial grotto often decorated with mosaics; the word is only found in the sense of mosaic in late Greek, which generally uses k oXI yrlµa)

Mosaic.—The earliest existing specimens of mosaic belong to one of the less important branches of the See also:

• ART

art—namely, the ornamentation on a small See also:

• SCALE
• SCALE (1) A

scale of jewellery, See also:

• IVORY (Fr. ivoire, Lat. ebur)
• IVORY, SIR JAMES (1765-1842)

ivory thrones, and other See also:

• FURNITURE (from " furnish," Fr. fournir)

furniture, or more rarely of some elaborate architectural See also:

• ORNAMENT (Lat. ornare, to adorn)

ornament . Most of this sort of mosaic resembles in See also:

• EXECUTION (from Lat. ex-sequor, exsecutus, follow or carry out)

execution what are called cloisonne enamels . In the Louvre and in the See also:

• BRITISH

British Museum are preserved some very beautiful ivory carvings in See also:

• LOW, SETH (1850- )
• LOW, WILL HICOK (1853- )

low See also:

• RELIEF

relief, some from See also:

• NINEVEH (Heb. m}'?, in classical authors Nivos, Ninus; LXX. Ntsetni, Nnveun: Assyrian Nind or Ninua)

Nineveh and others from See also:

• EGYPT

Egypt, in which figures of deities, ornaments formed of the See also:

• LOTUS

lotus and See also:

• PAPYRUS

papyrus See also:

• PLANTS

plants and royal cartouches are enriched by small pieces of glass, or lapis-lazuli and other See also:

• GEM (Lat. gemma, a bud,—from the root gen, meaning " to produce,"—or precious stone; in the latter sense the Greek term is > d>os)
• GEM, ARTIFICIAL

gem-like stones, which are let into holes made in the ivory . Each See also:

• MINUTE
• MINUTE (Lat. minutes, small; minuere, to make less)

minute piece is separated from the next by a thin See also:

• WALL (O. Eng. weal, weall, Mid. Eng. wal, wane, adapted from Lat. vallum, rampart; the original O. Eng. word for a wall was wag or tenth)
• WALL, RICHARD (1694-1778)

wall or cloison of ivory, about as thick as cardboard, which thus forms a See also:

• WHITE
• WHITE, ANDREW DICKSON (1832– )
• WHITE, GILBERT (1720–1793)
• WHITE, HENRY KIRKE (1785-1806)
• WHITE, HUGH LAWSON (1773-1840)
• WHITE, JOSEPH BLANCO (1775-1841)
• WHITE, RICHARD GRANT (1822-1885)
• WHITE, ROBERT (1645-1704)
• WHITE, SIR GEORGE STUART (1835– )
• WHITE, SIR THOMAS (1492-1567)
• WHITE, SIR WILLIAM ARTHUR (1824--1891)
• WHITE, SIR WILLIAM HENRY (1845– )
• WHITE, THOMAS (1628-1698)
• WHITE, THOMAS (c. 1550-1624)

white outline and sets off the brilliance of the coloured stones . Excavations at Tel-el-Yehudia in See also:

• LOWER

Lower Egypt have brought to See also:

• LIGHT

light some mosaics on a larger scale, but treated in the same way . These are caps of columns, wall tiles, and other See also:

• OBJECTS

objects, either of white See also:

• LIMESTONE

limestone or earthenware, in which designs, chiefly some forms of the papyrus, are formed by bits of glass or enamelled earthenware, let into a sinking in the the or See also:

• COLUMN (Lat. columna)

column . This form of mosaic was employed by the Greeks: the See also:

• ERECHTHEUM

Erechtheum at See also:

• ATHENS
• ATHENS ['AN vat, Athenae, modem colloquial Greek `Ath va]

Athens, built in the See also:

• MIDDLE

middle of the 5th See also:

• CENTURY (from Lat. centuria, a division of a hundred men)

century B.C., had the bases of some of its white marble columns ornamented with a See also:

• PLAIT (through O. Fr. pleit, from Lat. plicitum, folded, plicare, to fold)

plait-like See also:

• DESIGN (Fr. desiin, drawing; Lat. designare, to mark out)

design, in which pieces of coloured glass were inserted to emphasize the See also:

• MAIN (from the Aryan root which appears in " may " and " might," and Lat. magnus, great)
• MAIN (Lat. Moenus)

main lines of the pattern . Another, quite different, sort of mosaic was known to the Egyptians of the Ptolemaic and See also:

• ROMAN

Roman periods . This is made entirely of glass and is extremely minute . The finest known specimen is in the British Museum: it is a small tablet about s in. square, apparently the See also:

• BEZEL (from an O. Fr. word, cf. Mod. Fr. biseau, basile, possibly connected with Lat. bis, twice)

bezel of a See also:

• RING (O.E. hring; a word common to Teutonic languages; and probably cognate with the Lat. circus, Gr. KtpKOS or KpLKOS, Skt'. chakra, wheel, circle, cf. also " harangue "); in art, a band of circular shape of varying sizes, made of any material and used f

ring, on which is represented the sacred See also:

• HAWK (O. Eng. hafoc or heafoc, a common Teutonic word, cf. Dutch havik, Ger. Habicht; the root is hab-, haf-, to hold, cf. Lat. accipiter, from capere)

hawk—every See also:

• FEATHER (0. Eng. (ether, Ger. Feder, from an Indo-European root seen also in Gr. lrrepov, and aEreo-Oat, to fly)

feather on the See also:

• BIRD

bird's wing being produced with a See also:

• GREAT

great number of See also:

• COLOURS, MILITARY

colours and tints, each quite distinct, and so minute that a strong magnifying glass is required to distinguish its details, The way in which this mosaic was produced is extremely ingenious . See also:

• NUMBERS, BOOK OF
• NUMBERS, PARTITION OF

Numbers of See also:

• LONG, GEORGE (1800-1879)
• LONG, JOHN DAVIS (1838– )

long sticks of various-coloured glass were arranged in such a way that their ends produced the figure of the hawk; other sticks of See also:

• BLUE (common in different forms to most European languages)

blue glass were placed all See also:

• ROUND (O. Fr. rond, Lat. rotundus, the Fr. is the source also of Du. rond; Ger., Swed., Dan. and Nor. rond)

round so as to form the ground .

The whole bundle of sticks of glass when looked at endwise now presented the figure of the hawk with a blue background, immensely larger than it after-wards became . The bundle was then heated till the sticks melted together, and the whole thick See also:

• ROD (O.E. rodd, probably related to Norw. rudda, stick, rodda, stake)
• ROD, EDOUARD (1857-1910)

rod, softened by See also:

• FIRE (in O. Eng. f j'r; the word is common to West German languages, cf. Dutch vuur, Ger. Feuer; the pre-Teutonic form is seen in Sanskrit pu, pavaka, and Gr. irup; the ultimate origin is usually taken to be a root meaning to purify, cf. Lat. purus)

fire, was See also:

• DRAWN

drawn out to a greatly diminished thickness . A slice of the rod was then cut off and its faces polished—the design, much reduced in See also:

• SIZE

size, of course being equally visible at both sides of the slice; and thus the microscopic minuteness of the mosaic was produced with astonishing delicacy and refinement; many slices, each showing the same mosaic. could be cut from the same rod . Far more important was the use of mosaic on a large scale, either for pavements or for walls and vaulted ceilings . We are told by See also:

• PLINY, THE ELDER
• PLINY, THE YOUNGER

Pliny (H . N. See also:

• XXXVI

xxxvi . 184) that the practice of decorating pavements " after the See also:

• FASHION (adapted from Fr. facon, agon, Lat. factio, making, facere, to do or make)

fashion of See also:

• PAINTING

painting was due to the Greeks, and there is no See also:

• REASON (Lat. ratio, through French raison)

reason to doubt the truth of this statement, although no mosaic See also:

• PAVEMENT (Lat. pavimentu;n, a floor beaten or rammed hard, from pavire, to beat)

pavement discovered in See also:

• GREECE

Greece can be dated with certainty to a See also:

• PERIOD
• PERIOD (Gr. irepioSos, a going or way round, circuit, aepi, round, and &Sis, way, road)

period preceding the Roman occupation . This is true even of the pavement in the See also:

• TEMPLE
• TEMPLE, FREDERICK (1821-1902)
• TEMPLE, RICHARD
• TEMPLE, SIR RICHARD, BART
• TEMPLE, SIR WILLIAM, BART

temple of See also:

• ZEUS

Zeus at See also:

• OLYMPIA

Olympia (fig . 1; Olympia, Baudenkmdler, vol. ii. pl. cv.) . The simplest See also:

• CLASSIFICATION (Lat. classis, a class, probably from the root cal-, cla-, as in Gr. icaMce, clamor)

classification of mosaics is that of Gauckler (Daremberg and Saglio, Dictionnaire See also:

• DES

des anliquites, s.v . " Musivum See also:

• OPUS ('O7rois)

Opus "), who distinguishes the following: a . Opus . tessellatum, consisting of cubes of marble or See also:

• STONE
• STONE (0. Eng. shin; the word is common to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Stein, Du. steen, Dan. and Swed. sten; the root is also seen in Gr. aria, pebble)
• STONE, CHARLES POMEROY (1824-1887)
• STONE, EDWARD JAMES (1831-1897)
• STONE, FRANK (1800-1859)
• STONE, GEORGE (1708—1764)
• STONE, LUCY [BLACKWELL] (1818-1893)
• STONE, MARCUS (184o— )
• STONE, NICHOLAS (1586-1647)

stone, regularly disposed in See also:

• SIMPLE

simple patterns .

This was largely used for pavements, especially in Roman times . b . Opus vermiculatum, consisting of cubes (not always regularly shaped) generally of coloured See also:

• MARBLES

marbles or more See also:

• PRECIOUS (O. Fr. precios, mod. precieux, Lat. pretiosus, of high value or price, pretium)

precious materials, when these were obtainable, disposed so as to obtain a pictorial effect . The art of mosaic is mainly concerned with this See also:

• BRANCH (from the Fr. branche, late Lat. branca, an animal's paw)

branch of See also:

• WORK

work . c . Opus musivum, properly applied to the mosaic decoration of walls and vaulted ceilings (camerae), in which cubes of glass or See also:

• ENAMEL (formerly " amel," derived through the Fr. amail, emmll, esmail, from a Latin word smaltum, first found in a 9th-century life of Leo IV.)

enamel were used . The glass was rendered opaque by the addition of See also:

• OXIDE

oxide of See also:

• TIN (Lat.- stannum, whence the chemical symbol " Sn "; atomic weight =117.6, 0=16)

tin, and coloured with other metallic oxides; when melted it was See also:

• CAST (from the verb meaning " to throw "; the word is Scand. in origin, cf. Dan. kaste, and Swed. kasta; " cast " in Middle Eng. took the place of the A.S. weor pan, cf. Ger. werf en)

cast into See also:

• FLAT (a modification of O. Eng. flet, an obsolete word of Teutonic origin, meaning the ground beneath the feet)

flat slabs, generally about 2 in. thick, and then broken into small cubes . d . Opus sectile, a See also:

• SPECIES

species of marqueterie in marble or other coloured materials used to produce pictures and patterns . Under the later See also:

• EMPIRE

empire a particular variety of this, called opus alexandrinum2 mainly composed of See also:

• PORPHYRY (IlopcPisptos) (A.D. 233-c. 304)

porphyry, red and See also:

• GREEN, A
• GREEN, ALEXANDER HENRY (1832—1896)
• GREEN, DUFF (1791—1875)
• GREEN, JOHN RICHARD (1837—1883)
• GREEN, MATTHEW (1696-1737)
• GREEN, THOMAS HILL (1836-1882)
• GREEN, VALENTINE (1739–1813)
• GREEN, WILLIAM HENRY (.1825–1900)

green,' was much in use . Judging from the description given by See also:

• VITRUVIUS (MARCUS VITRUVIUS POLLIO)

Vitruvius (vii . I), and an examination of numerous specimens of Roman See also:

• TESSELLATED (Lat. tessellatus,)

tessellated mosaics, the See also:

• PROCESS

process of manufacture was the following .

The See also:

• EARTH
• EARTH (a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Erde, Dutch aarde, Swed. and Dan. jord; outside Teutonic it appears only in the Gr. 'pq'e, on the ground; it has been connected by some etymologists with the Aryan root ar-, to plough, which is seen in
• EARTH, FIGURE OF
• EARTH, FIGURE OF THE

earth was first carefully rammed down to a See also:

• FIRM

firm and even See also:

• SURFACE

surface; on this was laid a thick See also:

• BED
• BED (a common Teutonic word, cf. German Bett, probably connected with the Indo-European root bhodh, seen in the Lat. fodere, to dig; so " a dug-out place " for safe resting, or in the same sense as a garden " bed ")

bed of stones, dry rubbish, and See also:

• LIME
• LIME (O. Eng. lim, Lat. limes, mud, from linere, to smear)

lime, called " rudus," from 6 to 9 in. deep, and above this another layer, 4 to 6 in. thick, called " See also:

• NUCLEUS (Lat. for the kernal of a nut, nux, the stone of fruit)

nucleus," of one See also:

• PART

part of lime to three of pounded See also:

• BRICK (derived according to some etymologists from the Teutonic bricke, a disk or plate; but more authoritatively, through the French brique, originally a " broken piece," applied especially to bread, and so to clay, from the Teutonic brikan, to break)

brick, mixed with See also:

• WATER

water; on this, while still soft, the pattern could be sketched out with a wooden or See also:

• METAL
• METAL (through Fr. from Lat. metallum, mine, quarry, adapted from Gr. µATaXAov, in the same sense, probably connected with ,ueraAAdv, to search after, explore, µeTa, after, aAAos, other)

metal point, and the tesserae or small bits of marble See also:

• STUCK, FRANZ (1863— )

stuck into it, with their smoothest See also:

• SIDE
• SIDE (mod. Eski Adalia)

side uppermost . Lime, pounded white marble, and water were then mixed to the consistency of cream, forming a very hard-setting See also:

• CEMENT (from Lat. caementum, rough pieces of stone, a shortened form of caedimentum, from caedere, to cut)

cement, called marmoratum . This cement, while fluid, was poured over the marble surface, and well brushed into all the interstices between the tesserae . When the See also:

• CONCRETE
• CONCRETE (Lat. concretes, participle of concrescere, to grow together)

concrete and cement were both set, the surface of the pavement was rubbed down and polished . The usual Roman pavement was made of pieces of marble, averaging from See also:

• HALF

half to a See also:

• QUARTER (through Fr. from Lat. quartarius, fourth part)

quarter of an See also:

• INCH (O. Eng. ynce from Lat. uncia, a twelfthpart; cf. " ounce," and see As)

inch square, but rather ' In the less prosperous provinces of the empire, such as See also:

• BRITAIN (Gr. Hperavuml vi7vot, Bperravia; Lat. Britannia, rarely Britannia)

Britain, these costly materials could not be obtained, and native See also:

• SANDSTONE

sandstone, &c., was used . 2 The biographer of See also:

• SEVERUS
• SEVERUS, SULPICIUS (c. 363–c. 425)

Severus See also:

• ALEXANDER
• ALEXANDER (1461-1506)
• ALEXANDER (ALEXANDER OF BATTENBERG) (1857-1893)
• ALEXANDER (ALEXANDER OsxENOVici) (1876-1903)
• ALEXANDER, ARCHIBALD (1772—1851)
• ALEXANDER, FRANCIS (1800—1881)
• ALEXANDER, GEORGE (1858— )
• ALEXANDER, JOHN WHITE (1856- )
• ALEXANDER, JOSEPH ADDISON (18o9—186o)
• ALEXANDER, SIR JAMES EDWARD (1803—1885)
• ALEXANDER, WILLIAM (1824— )
• ALEXANDER, WILLIAM LINDSAY (1808—1884)

Alexander (Hist . Aug., c . 25, 7) attributes the invention of opus alexandrinum to that See also:

• EMPEROR (Fr. empereur, from the Lat. imperator)

emperor; but this is clearly a false derivation . This technique was doubtless invented at See also:

• ALEXANDRIA
• ALEXANDRIA (Arab. Iskenderia)

Alexandria . 3 This latter is often, but wrongly, called See also:

• SERPENTINE

serpentine.irregular in shape . A few other, but quite exceptional, kinds of mosaic pavements have been found, such as that at the Isola See also:

• FARNESE
• FARNESE, ALEXANDER (1545-1592)
• FARNESE, ELIZABETH (1692-1766)

Farnese, 9 m. from See also:

• ROME
• ROME (Roma)

Rome, made of See also:

• TILE (0. Eng. tigel, Fr. tuile, connected with Lat. tegula)

tile-like slabs of green glass, and a See also:

• FINE

fine "sectile " pavement on the See also:

• PALATINE (from Lat. palatium, a palace,)

Palatine See also:

• HILL
• HILL (0. Eng. hyll; cf. Low Ger. hull, Mid. Dutch hul, allied to Lat. celsus, high, collis, hill, &c.)
• HILL, A
• HILL, AARON (1685-175o)
• HILL, AMBROSE POWELL
• HILL, DANIEL HARVEY (1821-1889)
• HILL, DAVID BENNETT (1843–1910)
• HILL, GEORGE BIRKBECK NORMAN (1835-1903)
• HILL, JAMES J
• HILL, JOHN (c. 1716-1775)
• HILL, MATTHEW DAVENPORT (1792-1872)
• HILL, OCTAVIA (1838– )
• HILL, ROWLAND (1744–1833)
• HILL, SIR ROWLAND (1795-1879)

Hill, made of various-shaped pieces of glass, in See also:

• BLACK
• BLACK, ADAM (1784-1874)
• BLACK, JEREMIAH SULLIVAN (1810–1883)
• BLACK, WILLIAM (1841-1898)

black, white, and deep yellow . In some cases—e.g. in the " See also:

• HOUSE
• HOUSE (O. Eng. hiss, a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Dut. huis, Ger. Haus; in Gothic it is only found in gudhiss, a temple; it may be ultimately connected with the root of " hide," conceal)

House of the Faun " at See also:

• POMPEII

Pompeii—glass tesserae in small quantities have been mixed with the marble ones, for the See also:

• SAKE

sake of greater brilliance of See also:

• COLOUR (Lat. color, connected with celare, to hide, the root meaning, therefore, being that of a covering)

colour .

Few countries are richer than See also:

• ENGLAND
• ENGLAND, THE CHURCH OF

England in remains of Roman mosaics; the great pavements of See also:

• YORK
• YORK (HOUSE OF)
• YORK, EDMUND OF LANGLEY, DUKE OF (1341-1402)
• YORK, EDWARD
• YORK, FREDERICK AUGUSTUS, DUKE OF (1763-1827)
• YORK, RICHARD, DUKE

York, Woodchester, See also:

• CIRENCESTER (traditionally pronounced Ciceter)

Cirencester, and many other places are as elaborate in design and as skilfully executed as any that now exist even in Rome itself . In what-ever See also:

• COUNTRY (from the Mid. Eng. contre or contrie, and O. Fr. cuntree; Late Lat. contrata, showing the derivation from contra, opposite, over against, thus the tract of land which fronts the sight, cf. Ger. Gegend, neighbourhood)

country these mosaics are found, their See also:

• STYLE
• STYLE (from Gr. a-6'1ms, a column; a different word from that used in literature, see below)

style and method of treatment are always much the same; the materials only of which the tesserae are made vary according to the stone or marble supplied by each country . In England, for instance, limestone or See also:

• CHALK

chalk often takes the See also:

• PLACE (through Fr. from Lat. platea, street; Gr. IrAar6s, wide)

place of the white marble so See also:

• COMMON

common in See also:

• ITALIAN

Italian and See also:

• NORTH
• NORTH, BARONS
• NORTH, MARIANNE (1830—1890)
• NORTH, ROGER (1653-1734)
• NORTH, SIR THOMAS (1535?-16o1?)

North See also:

• AFRICAN

African mosaics; while, instead of red marble, a fine sort of burnt See also:

• CLAY (from O. Eng. claeg, a word common in various forms to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Klei)
• CLAY, CASSIUS MARCELLUS (1810-1903)
• CLAY, CHARLES (1801–1893)
• CLAY, FREDERIC (1838–1889)
• CLAY, HENRY (1777–1852)

clay or red sandstone is generally used; other makeshifts had to be resorted to, and many of the Romano-British mosaics are made entirely without marble . It is perhaps partly owing to the great See also:

• WEALTH

wealth of See also:

• NORTHERN

Northern See also:

• AFRICA
• AFRICA, ROMAN

Africa in marbles of many colours and of varying shades that the finest of all Roman mosaics have been found in See also:

• ALGERIA
• ALGERIA (Algerie)

Algeria and See also:

• TUNIS

Tunis, especially those from See also:

• CARTHAGE
• CARTHAGE (Phoenician Kart-hadshat, " New City "; Gr. Kapxn5c; v, Lat. Carthago or Carchedon)
• CARTHAGE, SYNODS OF

Carthage, some of which have been brought to the British Museum . See Archaeologic, xxxviii . 202 . The range of colour in the marble tesserae is very great, and is made use of with wonderful See also:

• TASTE (from Lat. taxare, to touch sharply; tangere, to touch)

taste and skill: there are three or four different shades of red, and an equal number of yellows and greens, the last colour in all its tints being almost See also:

• PECULIAR

peculiar to this part of Africa, and one of the most pleasant and harmonious in almost any See also:

• COMBINATION (Lat. combinare, to combine)

combination . Deep black, browns and bluish-greys are also abundant . The mosaics from Carthage are no less excellent in design than in the richness and beauty of their materials . Large spaces are filled by See also:

• GRAND

grand sweeping curves of See also:

• ACANTHUS (the Greek and Latin name for the plant, connected with &sib a sharp point)

acanthus and other leaves, drawn with wonderful boldness and freedom of See also:

• HAND
• HAND (a word common to Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Hand, Goth. handus)
• HAND, FERDINAND GOTTHELF (1786-185r)

hand, and varied with great wealth of invention . Without the use of very small tesserae, much richness of effect is given by gradations of tints, suggesting light and \rr,rirt,f'rrrrrrrr rnrrnrrn nrrrrrrrrrr rrrrnr,rrY II shade, without a painful See also:

• ATTEMPT (Lat. adtemptare, attentare, to try)

attempt to represent actual relief . The colours of the marbles used here and elsewhere by the See also:

• ROMANS
• ROMANS, EPISTLE TO THE

Romans are so quiet and harmonious that it would have been almost impossible to produce with them a harsh or glaring design, and when used with the skill and strong See also:

• ARTISTIC

artistic feeling of the mosaic workers at Carthage the result is a real masterpiece of decorative design .

The finest of the later examples in Rome is that which decorates the vault of the See also:

• AMBULATORY (Med. Lat. ainbulatorium, a place for walking, from ambulare, to walk)

ambulatory of the circular See also:

• CHURCH
• CHURCH (according to most authorities derived from the Gr. Kvpcaxov [&wµa], " the Lord's [house]," and common to many Teutonic, Slavonic and other languages under various forms—Scottish kirk, Ger. Kirche, Swed. kirka, Dan. kirke, Russ. tserkov, Buig. cerk
• CHURCH, FREDERICK EDWIN (1826-1900)
• CHURCH, GEORGE EARL (1835–1910)
• CHURCH, RICHARD WILLIAM (1815–189o)
• CHURCH, SIR RICHARD (1784–1873)

church of S . Costanza, built by See also:

• CONSTANTINE

Constantine the Great, outside the walls of Rome . This very interesting mosaic might from its style and materials have been executed in the 1st century, and is equal in beauty to any work of the See also:

• KIND (O. E. ge-cynde, from the same root as is seen in " kin," supra)

kind in See also:

• ITALY
• ITALY (Italia)

Italy . It shows no trace whatever of the See also:

• BYZANTINE

Byzantine See also:

• INFLUENCE (Late Lat. influentia, from influere, to flow in)

influence which, in the next century, introduced into Italy a novel style of mosaic, in materials of the most glittering splendour . Survivals of this classical style of mosaic are found in North Africa and the See also:

• EAST
• EAST, ALFRED (1849- )

East . At Kabr-Hiram, near See also:

• TYRE (Phoen. and Hebr. =" rock," Assyr. S'urru, Egypt. Dara, Early Lat. Sarra)

Tyre, See also:

• RENAN, ERNEST (1823-1892)

Renan discovered among the ruins of a small three-apsed See also:

• CHRISTIAN
• CHRISTIAN, WILLIAM (1608-1663)

Christian church of the 4th century A.D. a fine mosaic pavement, covering the See also:

• NAVE

nave and aisles, thoroughly classical in style . A very similar mosaic, of about the same date, was discovered at Nebi Yunas, near See also:

• SIDON (Phoen. ins, Hebrew 1-rs, Assyr. Sidunnu, Egypt. Diduna)

Sidon . See also:

• MEDIEVAL

Medieval Mosaics.—These may be divided into four See also:

• PRINCIPAL

principal classes: (1) those used to decorate walls and vaults, made of glass cubes; (2) those for pavements, made of marble, partly in large shaped pieces, and partly in small tesserae; (3) glass in small pieces, either rectangular or triangular, used to enrich marble pulpits, columns, and other architectural features; (4) See also:

• WOOD, ANTHONY A2 (1632-1695)
• WOOD, JOHN GEORGE (1827—1889)
• WOOD, MRS HENRY [ELLEN] (1814—1887)
• WOOD, SEARLES VALENTINE (1798—188o)

wood mosaics . 1 . In the Byzantine period the glass See also:

• CUBE (Gr. K46os, a cube)

cube mosaic was exclusively employed in mural decoration . At first natural colouring was used, and backgrounds, if not in See also:

• LOCAL

local colour, were generally blue; but the use of See also:

• GOLD
• GOLD [symbol Au, atomic weight 195.7(H = 1),197.2(0 =16)]

gold, both for backgrounds and for the high See also:

• LIGHTS, CEREMONIAL USE OF

lights on drapery, &c., gradually prevailed . Owing to the intense conservatism of Byzantine art, no See also:

• REGULAR

regular stages of progression can be traced in this class of mosaic .

Some of the 5th-century mosaics at See also:

• RAVENNA
• RAVENNA, EXARCHATE OF

Ravenna are, in every way, as fine as those of the 12th, and it was not till the end of the 13th century that any important See also:

• CHANGE (derived through the Fr. from the Late Lat. cambium, cambiare, to barter; the ultimate derivation is probably from the root which appears in the Gr. «a urmu', to bend)

change in style took place . The mosaics of the 9th century are inferior in See also:

• DRAWING

drawing and See also:

• GENERAL
• GENERAL (Lat. generalis, of or relating to a genus, kind or class)

general treatment to those both of the earlier and later See also:

• TIME (0. Eng. Lima, cf. Icel. timi, Swed. timme, hour, Dan. time; from the root also seen in " tide," properly the time of between the flow and ebb of the sea, cf. O. Eng. getidan, to happen, " even-tide," &c.; it is not directly related to Lat. tempus)
• TIME, MEASUREMENT OF
• TIME, STANDARD

time, while in Italy at least this art was almost entirely See also:

• EXTINCT

extinct during the loth and rrth centuries . Extreme splendour of colour and See also:

• JEWEL, JOHN (1522-1571)

jewel-like brilliance combined with the most stately grandeur of form are the main characteristics of this sort of decoration . A " See also:

• MAJESTY (Fr. majeste; Lat. majestas, grandeur, greatness, from the base mag-, as in magnus, great, major, greater, &c.)

majesty," or See also:

• COLOSSAL

colossal central figure of See also:

• CHRIST (Gr. X pLQTOS, Anointed)
• CHRIST, WILHELM VON (1831-1906)

Christ with See also:

• SAINTS, BATTLE OF THE

saints See also:

• STANDING

standing on each side, is the most frequent See also:

• MOTIVE (from Lat. movere, to move)

motive . In many cases, especially in the 5th and 6th centuries, Christ was represented as a See also:

• LAMB (a word common to Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Lamm)
• LAMB, CHARLES (1775–1834)

lamb, to whom the twelve apostles, in the form of See also:

• SHEEP
• SHEEP (from the Anglo-Saxon sceap, a word common in various forms to Teutonic languages; e.g. the German Schaf)

sheep, are paying See also:

• ADORATION (Lat. ad, to, and os, mouth; i.e. " carrying to one's mouth ")

adoration . Christ, the See also:

• GOOD, JOHN MASON (1764-1827)

Good Shepherd, is sometimes depicted as a beardless youth, seated among a circle of sheep—the treatment of the motive being obviously taken from See also:

• PAGAN
• PAGAN (Lat. paganus, of or belonging to a pagus, a canton, county district, village, commune)

Pagan representations of See also:

• ORPHEUS

Orpheus playing to the beasts . The See also:

• TOMB (Gr. Tuµ/3a, Tuµ(3os, probably allied to Lat. tumulus, literally a swelling, tumere, to swell)

tomb of Galla Placidia has a good example of this subject, with much of the old Roman See also:

• GRACE (Fr. grace, Lat. gratia, from grates, beloved, pleasing; formed from the root cra-, Gr. xav-, cf. xaipw, x6p,ua, Xapts)
• GRACE, WILLIAM GILBERT (1848– )

grace in the drawing and See also:

• COMPOSITION
• COMPOSITION (Lat. compositio, from componere, to put together)

composition . Frequently the Virgin See also:

• MARY
• MARY (1457-1482)
• MARY (1496-1533)
• MARY, QUEEN OF SCOTS

Mary, or the See also:

• PATRON

patron See also:

• SAINT (lat. sanctus, " holy ")

saint of the church, occupies the central space in the See also:

• APSE
• APSE (Gr. alkir, a fastening, especially the felloe of a wheel; Lat. absis)

apse, with ranges of other saints on each side . The " See also:

• DOOM (Old Eng. dOm, a word common to Tent. languages for that which is set up or ordered, from " do," in its original meaning of " place "; cf, Gr. &Ass, from stem of ri'rust)

Doom," or Last See also:

• JUDGMENT

Judgment, is a favourite subject for domes and See also:

• SANCTUARY (from the late Lat. sanctuarium, a sacred place)

sanctuary See also:

• ARCHES, COURT OF

arches; the See also:

• FLORENCE
• FLORENCE (Ital. Firenze, Lat. Florentia)

Florence.See also:

• BAPTISTERY (Baptislerium, in the Greek Church 4wrurrilpiov)

baptistery has one of the grandest mosaic pictures of this subject, executed in the 13th century . The earlier baptisteries usually subject, the See also:

• SCENE (Fr. scene, Lat. scaena, Gr. oflvil, a tent or booth, a stage or scene)

scene of Christ's See also:

• BAPTISM

baptism—the See also:

• RIVER

river See also:

• JORDAN (the down-comer; Arab. esh-Sheri'a, the watering-place)
• JORDAN, CAMILLE (1771—1821)
• JORDAN, DOROTHEA (1762—1816)
• JORDAN, THOMAS (1612 ?–1685)
• JORDAN, WILHELM (1819–1904)

Jordan being sometimes personified in a very classical manner, as an old See also:

• MAN
• MAN, ISLE OF (anc. Mona)

man with flowing See also:

• BEARD (A.S. beard, O. H. and Mod. Ger. Bart, Dan. beard, Icel. bar, rim, edge, beak of a ship, &c., O. Slay. barda, Russ. barodd. Cf. Welsh barf, Lat.. barba, though, according to the New English Dictionary, the connexion is for phonetic reasons doubtful)
• BEARD, WILLIAM HOLBROOK (1825-1900)

beard, holding an See also:

• URN (Lat. urna, either from root of urere, to burn, being made of burnt clay, or connected with urceus, Gr. I5pxa, jar)

urn from which a stream pours forth . S . Vitale at Ravenna has in the sanctuary a very interesting See also:

• REPRESENTATION

representation of Justinian and his empress See also:

• THEODORA
• THEODORA (d. 1057)

Theodora (see fig .

3), attended by a numerous See also:

• SUITE (Suite de pieces; Ordre; Partita)

suite of courtiers and ladies ; these mosaics are certainly of the 6th century, and may be contemporary with Justinian, though the fact that he and Theodora are each represented with a circular nimbus appears to indicate that they were not then alive . In mosaics of the best periods the treatment of the forms and draperies is broad and simple, a just amount of relief being expressed by delicate gradations of tints . In mosaics of the 9th century the drawing is very awkward, and the folds of the See also:

• ROBES (Fr. robe, Late Lat. roba, raupa, meaning (1)

robes are rudely expressed in outline, with no See also:

• SUGGESTION

suggestion of light and shade . A further application of this work was to the decoration of broad bands over the columns of the nave, as at S . Maria See also:

• MAGGIORE, LAGO (Lacus Verbanus of the Romans; Fr. Lac Majeur; Ger. Langensee)

Maggiore in Rome, 4th century, and in the two churches of S . Apollinare at Ravenna, 6th century . In some cases almost the whole 885 interior of the church was encrusted in this magnificent way, as at See also:

• MONREALE (contraction of monte-reale, so called from a palace built here by Roger I.)

Monreale See also:

• CATHEDRAL

Cathedral, the See also:

• CAPELLA, MARTIANUS MINNEUS FELIX

Capella Palatina of See also:

• PALERMO (Greek, Havopuos; Latin, Panhormus, Panormus)

Palermo, and S . See also:

• MARK
• MARK, CARL (1858– )
• MARK, GOSPEL OF ST
• MARK, ST

Mark's at See also:

• VENICE
• VENICE (continued)
• VENICE (Venezia)

Venice . In these churches the mosaics See also:

• COVER (from the Fr. convert, from couvrir, to cover, Lat. cooperire)

cover soffits and angles entirely, and give the effect of a See also:

• MASS (O.E. maesse; Fr. messe; Ger. Messe; Ital. messa; from eccl. Lat. missa)
• MASS, IN

mass of solid gold and colour producing the utmost conceivable splendour of decoration) . In many cases vaulted ceilings were covered with these mosaics, as the tomb of Galla Placidia, A.D . 450, and the two baptisteries at Ravenna, 5th and 6th centuries . For exteriors, the large use of mosaic was usually confined to the See also:

• WEST
• WEST, BENJAMIN (1738-1820)
• WEST, NICHOLAS (1461-1533)

west See also:

• FACADE

facade, as at S .

Miniato, Florence; S . Maria Maggiore, Rome; and S . Mark's, Venice . In almost all cases the figures are represented on a gold ground, and gold is freely used in the dresses and ornaments —See also:

• RICH, BARNABE (c. 1540-1617)
• RICH, CLAUDIUS JAMES (1787-1821)
• RICH, JOHN (1692-1761)
• RICH, PENELOPE, LADY (c. 1562–1607)
• RICH, RICHARD, 1ST BARON RICH (1490?-1567)

rich jewels and See also:

• EMBROIDERY (M.E. embrouderie, from O. Fr. embroder, Mod. Fr. broder)

embroidery being represented in gold, See also:

• SILVER

silver, sparkling reds, blues and other colours, so as to give the utmost splendour of effect to the figures and their drapery . The revival of the art of painting in Italy and the introduction of See also:

• FRESCO (Ital. for cool, " fresh ")

fresco work in the 14th century gave the deathblow to the 1 Unfortunately the See also:

• WORLD

world-wide fame of S . Mark's and the other great churches of Italy has subjected these extraordinary See also:

• WORKS

works to the fatal process of " restoration," and wherever any sign of decay in the cement backing (the tesserae themselves are quite indestructible) has given the least excuse the " restorers " have destroyed whole masses of ancient work, and supplied its place with worthless See also:

• MODERN

modern copies . The mosaics of the S . Mark's baptistery, and of the apses at S . Miniato, at See also:

• PISA
• PISA, COUNCIL OF (1409)

Pisa, and many other places have in this way been wantonly renewed in See also:

• RECENT

recent times . true art of wall-mosaics . Though at first the simple and archaic style of See also:

• CIMABUE, GIOVANNI (1240 to about 1302)

Cimabue and his pupils Jacopo da Turrita, See also:

• GIOTTO

Giotto, and Taddeo See also:

• GADDI

Gaddi was equally applicable to painting or mosaic, yet soon the development of art into greater See also:

• REALISM (from Low Lat. realis, appertaining to res, things, as opposed to ideas and imaginations)

realism and complexity required a method of expression unfettered by the necessities and canons of mosaic work . Pietro See also:

• CAVALLINI, PIETRO (c. 1259-1344)

Cavallini, a Roman artist, was one of the last who worked according to the old traditions .

His mosaic of the See also:

• BIRTH (a word common in various forms to Teutonic languages from the root of the verb " to bear ")

birth of the Virgin in S . Maria in Cosmedin, Rome, executed about the middle of the 14th century, is not without merit, though his See also:

• SUPERIOR

superior knowledge of form has only caused his composition to be somewhat feeble and insipid compared with the works of the earlier artists . Even in the r 5th century a few good mosaics were produced at Venice and else-where . The mosaics from See also:

• TITIAN
• TITIAN (c. 1477-1576)

Titian's pictures on the west end of S . Mark's at Venice, See also:

• RAPHAEL (Hebrew smm, " God heals ")

Raphael's in the Chigi See also:

• CHAPEL

Chapel in S . Maria del Popolo, and many large pictures in S . See also:

• PETER
• PETER (Lat. Petrus from Gr. irfpos, a rock, Ital. Pietro, Piero, Pier, Fr. Pierre, Span. Pedro, Ger. Peter, Russ. Petr)
• PETER (PEDRO)
• PETER, EPISTLES OF
• PETER, ST

Peter's in Rome are the most striking examples of these . The following See also:

• LIST (O.E. lisle, a Teutonic word, cf. Dut. lust, Ger. Leiste, adapted in Ital. lista and Fr. lisle)
• LIST, FRIEDRICH (1789-1846)

list, in See also:

• CHRONOLOGICAL

chronological See also:

• ORDER
• ORDER (through Fr. ordre, for earlier ordene, from Lat. ordo, ordinis, rank, service, arrangement; the ultimate source is generally taken to be the root seen in Lat. oriri, rise, arise, begin; cf. " origin ")
• ORDER, HOLY

order, comprises a selection from among the most important glass wall-mosaics during the period when mosaic-working was a real art.' . 4th Century . Rome . S . Costanza .

S . Maria Maggiore—square panels over the columns of the nave . S . Pudenziana . S . Giovanni in Laterano—chapel of SS . Rufina e Seconda . See also:

• NAPLES
• NAPLES (Ital. Napoli, and Lat. Neapolis)
• NAPLES, KINGDOM OF

Naples . S . Restituta—baptistery . sth Century . Ravenna .

Orthodox Baptistery—vault . Tomb of Galla Placidia—vault, 450 . See also:

• ARCHBISHOP (Lat. archiepiscopus, from Gr. apxceatorcoros)

Archbishop's Chapel—vault . Rome . S . See also:

• PAOLO (GIROLAMO GASPARE)5 (1532-1600)

Paolo fuori le mura—triumphal See also:

• ARCH
• ARCH, JOSEPH (1826– )

arch . S . Maria Maggiore—square pictures over nave columns, and triumphal arch (?), S . Sabina—figures on west wall: See also:

• MILAN
• MILAN (Ital. Milano, Ger. Mailand, anc. Mediolanum, q.v.)

Milan . S . Ambrogio, Chapel of S . Satiro=vault .

Fundi . Cathedral—apse . See also:

• NOLA

Nola . Cathedral—apse . 6th Century . Ravenna . Arian Baptistery—vault . S . Apollinare Nuovo—apse and nave, with 9th-century additions . S . Vitale—apse and whole sanctuary, c . 547 .

S . Apollinare in Classe—apse and nave, 549 . Rome . SS . See also:

• COSMAS

Cosmas and Damian—apse . Milan . S . Lorenzo, Chapel of S . Aquilinus—vault . See also:

• CONSTANTINOPLE
• CONSTANTINOPLE, COUNCILS OF

Constantinople . S . See also:

• SOPHIA (1630-1714)

Sophia—walls and vault, c .

550 . Thessalonica . Church of St See also:

• GEORGE
• GEORGE, 8TH MARQUESS OF TWEEDDALE (1787-1876)
• GEORGE, HENRY (1839—1897)
• GEORGE, LAKE
• GEORGE, SAINT (d. 303)

George—apse, &c . ; and S . Sophia See also:

• DOME (Lat domus, house; Ital. duomo, cathedral)

dome and apse . See also:

• TREBIZOND (Gr. Trapezus)

Trebizond . S . Sophia—apse . 7th Century . Rome . S . Agnese fuori le mura—apse, 626 .

S . Teodoro . S . Stefano Rotondo . S . Venanzio, baptistery of Lateran . See also:

• JERUSALEM (Heb. ^S0-r, Yerushalaim, pronounced as a dual)
• JERUSALEM, SYNOD OF (1672)

Jerusalem . " Dome of the See also:

• ROCK
• ROCK (O.Fr. rake, Sp. rota, Ital. rocca; possibly from a Lat. form rupica, from rupes, rock)
• ROCK, DANIEL (1799–187t)

Rock "—arches of ambulatory, 688 . 8th Century . Rome . Baptistery of S . Giovanni in Laterano .

SS . See also:

• NEREUS

Nereus and See also:

• ACHILLES
• ACHILLES (Gr. 'AxtXXeus)

Achilles . Jerusalem . See also:

• MOSQUE (through Fr. mosquie; Span. mezquila, from Arab. masjid, sajada, to adore)

Mosque of Al-Aksa—on dome . See also:

• MOUNT, WILLIAM SIDNEY (1807-1868)

Mount See also:

• SINAI

Sinai . Chapel of the Transfiguration . 9th Century . Rome . S . See also:

• CECILIA, SAINT

Cecilia in Trastevere—apse . S . Marco—apse .

S . Maria della Navicella—apse, and " Chapel of the Column." S . Prassede—triumphal arch . Milan . S . Ambrogio—apse, 832. zoth Century . See also:

• CORDOVA (Span. C6rdoba)
• CORDOVA (Span. Cordoba; Lat. Corduba)

Cordova . See also:

• MIHRAB

Mihrab (sanctuary) of Mosque . zzth Century . Jerusalem . " Dome of the Rock "—See also:

• BASE

base of See also:

• CUPOLA (Ital., from Lat. cupula, small cask or vault, cupa, tub)

cupola, 1027 . Constantinople .

Church of S . Saviour—walls and domes . 12th Century . Venice . S . Mark's—See also:

• NARTHEX (Gr. vapOr7E, the name of the plant giant=fennel, in Lat. ferula)

narthex, apse and walls of nave and aisles . 3 It must be remembered that the earlier mosaics have in most cases suffered much from restoration . See also:

• CAPUA (anc. Casilinum;, a town and archiepiscopal see of Campania, Italy, in the province of Caserta, 7 M. W. by rail from the town oI Caserta. Pop. (1901) 14
• CAPUA (mod. S. Maria di Capua Vetere)

Capua . Cathedral—apse . See also:

• TORCELLO

Torcello . Cathedral—apse . See also:

• MURANO (anc. Ammariuno)

Murano .

Cathedral—apse . See also:

• SALERNO (anc. Salernum)

Salerno: Cathedral—apse . Palermo . Capella Palatina, begun I132—the whole walls . Church of La Martorana—vault . Monreale . Cathedral—the whole walls, 1170-1190 . See also:

• BETHLEHEM
• BETHLEHEM (Heb. " House of Bread," or, according to a more questionable etymology, " of [the god] Lakhmu ")

Bethlehem . Church of the Nativity, 1169 . See also:

• CEFALU (anc. Cephaloedium)

Cefalu . Cathedral—apse, 1148 . Rome .

S . Clemente—apse . S . Francesca See also:

• ROMANA

Romana—apse . S . Maria in Trastevere—apse . 13th Century . Florence . Baptistery vault, begun c . 1225 by Fra Jacopo . S . Miniato—apse and west front .

Rome . S . Paolo fuori le mura—apse . S . Clemente—triumphal arch, 1297 . S . Giovanni in Laterano—apse by Jacopo da Turrita, I290 . S . Maria Maggiore—apse and west end by Jacopo da Turrita and Taddeo Gaddi . S . Maria in Trastevere—apse by Pietro Cavallini, I291 . 14th Century .

Florence . Baptistery, finished by See also:

• ANDREA, GIOVANNI (1275-1348)

Andrea Tafi . Pisa . Cathedral—east apse by Cimabue, 1302, north and See also:

• SOUTH
• SOUTH, ROBERT (1634–1716)

south apses by his pupils . Rome . S . Peter's—navicella, in See also:

• ATRIUM (either from ater, black, referring to the blackening of the walls from the smoke of the hearth, or from the Greek aiOpeov, open to the sky, or from an Etruscan town, Atria, where the style of building is supposed to have originated)

atrium by Giotto . S . Maria in Cosmedin—on walls by Pietro Cavallini, c . 1340 . Venice . SS .

Giovanni e Paolo—in arch over effigy of See also:

• DOGE

Doge See also:

• MOROSINI

Morosini . The Byzantine origin of these great wall-mosaics, wherever they are found, is amply proved both by See also:

• INTERNAL

internal and documentary See also:

• EVIDENCE (Lat. evidentia, evideri, to appear clearly)

evidence . The gorgeous mosaics of S . Sophia and S . Saviour's in Constantinople, 6th century, and the later ones in the monasteries of Mount See also:

• ATHOS (Gr. "Aytov "Opos; Turk. Aineros; Ital. Monte Santo)

Athos, at See also:

• SALONICA, SALONIKA

Salonica and at See also:

• DAPHNE

Daphne near Athens, are identical in style with those of Italy of the same date . Moreover, the even more beautiful mosaic work in the " Dome of the Rock " at Jerusalem, 7th and 11th centuries, and that in the sanctuary of the great mosque of Cordova, of the loth century, are known to be the work of Byzantine artists, in spite of their thoroughly See also:

• ORIENTAL

Oriental design . The same is the See also:

• CASE
• CASE, JOHN (d. 1600)

case with the rarer mosaics of See also:

• GERMANY
• GERMANY (Ger. Deutschland)

Germany, such as those in S . Gereon at See also:

• COLOGNE (Ger. Koln, or officially, since 1900, Coln)

Cologne and at See also:

• PARENZO

Parenzo . A very remarkable, almost unique, specimen of Byzantine mosaic is now preserved in the " See also:

• OPERA (Italian for " work ")

Opera del Duomo," Florence . This is a See also:

• DIPTYCH (Gr. &sravxos, two-folding), (I) A

diptych of the 11th century, of extremely minute, almost microscopic work, in tesserae of glass and metal, perhaps the only example of tesserae made of solid metal . It has figures of saints and See also:

• INSCRIPTIONS (from Lat. inscribere, to write upon)

inscriptions, each tessera being scarcely larger than a See also:

• PIN (a doublet with " pen " from Lat. pinna, feather, pinnacle, which is said to contain the same root as irirvs, pine tree, and properly to mean a sharp point or end)

pin's See also:

• HEAD (in 0. Eng. heafad; the word is common to Teutonic languages; cf. Dutch hoofd, Ger. Haupt, generally taken to be in origin connected with Lat. caput, Gr. KerbOvi7)
• HEAD, SIR EDMUND WALKER, BART
• HEAD, SIR FRANCIS BOND, BART

head . This beautiful diptych originally belonged to the imperial chapel in Constantinople, and was brought to Florence in the 14th century .

2 . The second medieval class, mosaic pavements, though of great beauty, are of less artistic importance . This so-called opus alexandrinum is very common throughout Italy and in the East, and came to greatest perfection in the 13th century . It is made partly of small marble tesserae forming the main lines of the pattern, and partly of large pieces used as a ground or See also:

• MATRIX

matrix . It is generally designed in large flowing bands which interlace and enclose circles, often of one stone sliced from a column . The finest example is that at S . Mark's, Venice, of the 12th century . The materials are mainly white marble, with green and red porphyry, and sometimes glass . Besides the countless churches in Italy possessing these beautiful pavements, such as S . Lorenzo, S . Marco, S . Maria Maggiore, and S .

Maria in Trastevere, in Rome, there are in England, in the Chapel of the See also:

• CONFESSOR

Confessor, and in front of the high See also:

• ALTAR (Lat. altare, from alias, high; some ancient etymological guesses are recorded by St Isidore of Seville in Etymologiae xv. 4)

altar at See also:

• WESTMINSTER
• WESTMINSTER, MARQUESSES AND DUKES OF
• WESTMINSTER, STATUTES OF
• WESTMINSTER, SYNODS OF

Westminster, very fine specimens of this work, executed about 1268 by a Roman artist called Odericus, who was brought to England by See also:

• ABBOT (from the Hebrew ab, a father, through the Syriac abba, Lat. abbas, gen. abbatis, O.E. abbad, fr. late Lat. form abbad-em changed in 13th century under influence of the Lat. form to abbat, used alternatively till the end of the 17th century; Ger. Ab
• ABBOT, EZRA (1819-1884)
• ABBOT, GEORGE (1603-1648)
• ABBOT, ROBERT (1588?–1662?)
• ABBOT, WILLIAM (1798-1843)

Abbot See also:

• WARE

Ware, on the occasion of a visit made by the latter to Rome . Another See also:

• ENGLISH

English example is the mosaic pavement in front of the See also:

• SHRINE (Lat. scrinium, a case or chest for books, hence a casket; from scribere, to write, Fr. ecrin, Ital. scrigno)

shrine of See also:

• BECKET, THOMAS (c. 1118—1170)

Becket at See also:

• CANTERBURY
• CANTERBURY, CHARLES

Canterbury; this is probably the work of an Englishman, though the materials are See also:

• FOREIGN

foreign, as it is partly inlaid with See also:

• BRONZE

bronze, a peculiarity never found in Italy . Palermo and Monreale are especially rich in examples of sectile mosaic, used both for pavements and walls —in the latter case generally for the lower part of the walls the upper part being covered with the glass mosaics . Fig . 4 gives a specimen of this mosaic from Monreale cathedral . Its See also:

• CHIEF (from Fr. chef, head, Lat. caput)

chief characteristic is the See also:

• ABSENCE (Lat. absentia)

absence of curved lines, so largely used in the splendid opus Alexandrinum of Italy, arising from the fact that this class of Oriental design was mainly used for the delicate panelling in wood on their pulpits, doors, &c.—wood being a material quite unsuited for the See also:

• PRODUCTION (Lat. productionem, from producere, to pro-duce)

production of large curves . 3 . Glass mosaic, used to ornament ambones, pulpits, tombs, bishops' thrones, baldacchini columns, architraves, and other marble objects, is chiefly Italian . The designs, when it is used to enrich flat surfaces, such as panels or architraves, are very similar to those of the pavements last described . The white marble is used as a matrix, in which sinkings are made to hold the glass tesserae; See also:

• TWISTED

twisted columns are frequently ornamented with a See also:

• SPIRAL

spiral See also:

• BAND

band of this glass mosaic, or flutings are suggested by parallel bands on straight columns . The cloisters of S . Giovanni in Laterano and S .

Paolo fuori le mura have splendid examples of these enriched shafts and architraves . This style of work was largely employed from the 6th to the 14th centuries . One See also:

• FAMILY

family in Italy, the See also:

• COSMATI

Cosmati, during the whole of the 13th century, was especially skilled in this See also:

• CRAFT (a word common to Teutonic languages for strength, or power; cf. Ger. Kraft)

craft . The See also:

• PULPIT (from Lat. pulpitum, a staging, platform: equivalents are Fr. chaire d'eglise, Ital. pulpito, Ger. Kanzel)

pulpit in S . Maria in Ara Coeli, Rome, is one of the finest specimens (see fig . 5), as are also the ambones in S . Clemente and S . Lorenzo, and that in Salerno cathedral . The tomb of See also:

• HENRY
• HENRY (1129-1195)
• HENRY (c. 1108-1139)
• HENRY (c. 1174–1216)
• HENRY (Fr. Henri; Span. Enrique; Ger. Heinrich; Mid. H. Ger. Heinrich and Heimrich; O.H.G. Haimi- or Heimirih, i.e. " prince, or chief of the house," from O.H.G. heim, the Eng. home, and rih, Goth. reiks; compare Lat. rex " king "—" rich," therefore " mig
• HENRY, EDWARD LAMSON (1841– )
• HENRY, JAMES (1798-1876)
• HENRY, JOSEPH (1797-1878)
• HENRY, MATTHEW (1662-1714)
• HENRY, PATRICK (1736–1799)
• HENRY, PRINCE OF BATTENBERG (1858-1896)
• HENRY, ROBERT (1718-1790)
• HENRY, VICTOR (1850– )
• HENRY, WILLIAM (1795-1836)

Henry III . (1291), and the shrine of the Confessor (1269) at Westminster are the only examples of this work in England . They were executed by " Petrus civis See also:

• ROMANUS

Romanus," probably a See also:

• PUPIL (Lat. pupillus, orphan, minor, dim. of pupus, boy, allied to puer, from root pm- or peu-, to beget, cf. "pupa," Lat. for " doll," the name given to the stage intervening between the larval and imaginal stages in certain insects)

pupil of the Cosmati . In See also:

• INDIA
• INDIA, FRENCH

India, especially during the 17th century, many See also:

• MAHOMMEDAN

Mahommedan buildings were decorated with fine marble inlay of the class now called " Florentine." This is sectile mosaic, formed by shaped pieces of various coloured marbles let into a marble matrix .

A great See also:

• DEAL

deal of the See also:

• INDIAN

Indian mosaic of this sort was executed by Italian workmen; the finest examples are at See also:

• AGRA

Agra, such as the Taj Mahal . 4 . Mosaics in wood are largely used in Mahommedan buildings, especially from the 14th to the 17th centuries . The finestspecimens of this work are at See also:

• CAIRO
• CAIRO (Arabic Misr-al-Kahira, or simply Misr)

Cairo and See also:

• DAMASCUS

Damascus, and are used chiefly to decorate the magnificent pulpits and other woodwork in the mosques . The patterns are very delicate and complicated, worked in inlay of small pieces of various coloured See also:

• WOODS, LEONARD (1774-1854)
• WOODS, SIR ALBERT (1816-1904)

woods, often further enriched by bits of See also:

• MOTHER

mother-of-See also:

• PEARL
• PEARL, THE

pearl and minutely carved ivory . This art was also practised largely by the See also:

• COPTS

Copts of Egypt, and much used by them to ornament the magnificent iconostases and other screens in their churches . Another application of wood to mosaic work, called " intarsiatura," was very common in Italy, especially in See also:

• TUSCANY
• TUSCANY (Toscana)

Tuscany and See also:

• LOMBARDY

Lombardy, during the 15th and See also:

• EARLY
• EARLY, JUBAL ANDERSON (1816-1894)

early 16th centuries . Its chief use was for the decoration of the stalls and lecterns in the church choirs . Very small bits of various coloured woods were used to produce geometrical patterns, while figure subjects, views of buildings with strong See also:

• PERSPECTIVE (Lat. peespicere, to see through)

perspective effects, and even landscapes, were very skilfully produced by an inlay of larger pieces . Ambrogio See also:

• BORGOGNONE, AMBROGIO (fl. 1473–1524)

Borgognone, Raphael, and other great painters, often See also:

• DREW
• DREW, SAMUEL (1765-1833)

drew the designs for this sort of work . The mosaic figures in the panels of the stalls at the Certosa near See also:

• PAVIA (anc. Ticinum, q.v.)

Pavia were by Borgognone, and are extremely beautiful . The stalls in See also:

• SIENA

Siena cathedral and in S .

Pietro de' Casinensi at See also:

• PERUGIA (anc. Perusia)

Perugia, the latter from Raphael's designs, are among the finest works of this sort, which are very numerous in Italy . It has also been used on a smaller scale to ornament furniture, and especially the " Cassoni," or large trousseau coffers, on which the most costly and elaborate decorations were often lavished . Christian.—See also:

• THEOPHILUS

Theophilus, Diversarum artium schedula, ii . 15; S . See also:

• KENSINGTON

Kensington Museum Art See also:

• INVENTORY (post-class. Lat. inventarium, a list or repertory, from invenire to find)

Inventory, pt. i . (187o) ; Renan, See also:

• MISSION

Mission de Phenicie (1875) ; Garrucci, Arte cristiana (1872–1882), vol. iv.; De See also:

• ROSSI, LUIGI DE
• ROSSI, PELLEGRINO LUIGI EDOARDO, COUNT (1787-1848)

Rossi, Musaici cristiani di See also:

• ROMA

Roma (1876–1894) ; See also:

• PARKER, JOHN HENRY (1806-1884)
• PARKER, JOSEPH (183o-1902)
• PARKER, MARTIN (c. 1600-c. 1656)
• PARKER, MATTHEW (1504-1575)
• PARKER, SAMUEL (164o-1688)
• PARKER, SIR GILBERT (1862— )
• PARKER, SIR HYDE, BART
• PARKER, THEODORE (1810-186o)

Parker, See also:

• ARCHAEOLOGY (from Gr. &pxa1a, ancient things, and Xoyos, theory or science)

Archaeology of Rome, and Mosaic Pictures in Rome and Ravenna (1866) ; Barbet de See also:

• JOUY, VICTOR JOSEPH ETIENNE DE (1764-1846)

Jouy, See also:

• LES

Les Mosaiques chretiennes de Rome (1857) ; See also:

• GRAVINA
• GRAVINA, GIOVANNI VINCENZO (1664—1718)

Gravina, Duomo di Monreale, Palermo (1859 seq.); Serradifalco, Monreale ed altre chiese siculo-normanne (1838) ; Salazaro, Mon. dell' arte merid. d'Italia (1882) ; M . D . See also:

• WYATT, JAMES (1746–1813)

Wyatt, Geometrical Mosaics of the Middle Ages (1849); Salzenberg, Alt-christliche Baudenkmale von Constantinopel (1854); Pulgher, Eglises byzantines de Constantinople (1883); . Texier and Pullan, Byzantine See also:

• ARCHITECTURE (Lat. architectura, from the Gr. ap)(LTEKrwv, a master-builder)

Architecture (1864); Quast, Alt-christliche Bauwerke von Ravenna (1842); J . P . See also:

• RICHTER, ADRIAN LUDWIG (1803-1884)
• RICHTER, ERNST FRIEDRICH EDUARD (1808–1879)
• RICHTER, EUGEN (1839–1906)
• RICHTER, HANS (1843– )
• RICHTER, JEREMIAS BENJAMIN (1762–1807)
• RICHTER, JOHANN PAUL FRIEDRICH (1763–1825)

Richter, See also:

• DIE
• DIE (Fr. de, from Lat. datum, given)

Die Mosaiken von Ravenna (1878) ; M. de See also:

• VOGUE, EUGENE MELCHIOR, COMTE DE (1848- )

Vogue, Eglises de la terre sainte (1860) See also:

• MILANESI, GAETANO (1813-1895)

Milanesi, Del Arte del vetro pel musaico (16th century, reprinted at See also:

• BOLOGNA
• BOLOGNA, GIOVANNI DA (1524–1608)

Bologna in 1864) ; Rohault de See also:

• FLEURY [ABRAHAM JOSEPH BENARD] (1750-.1822)
• FLEURY, ANDRE HERCULE DE (1653-1743)
• FLEURY, CLAUDE (1640-1723)

Fleury, Monuments de Pise (1866) ; J . Kreutz, See also:

• BASILICA

Basilica di S .

Marco, Venezia (1843) ; Gaily See also:

• KNIGHT, CHARLES (1791-1873)
• KNIGHT, DANIEL RIDGWAY (1845– )
• KNIGHT, JOHN BUXTON (1843–1908)

Knight, Ecclesiastical Architecture of Italy (1842–1844) ; C . G . Fossati, Aya Sophia (1852); A . N . See also:

• DIDRON, ADOLPHE NAPOLEON (1806-1867)

Didron, " La peinture en mosaIque," Gaz. des B . Arts, xi . 442 ; Gerspach, La Mosaique (1883) ; A . L . See also:

• FROTHINGHAM, OCTAVIUS BROOKS (1822-1895)

Frothingham, " Les mosaiques de See also:

• GROTTAFERRATA

Grottaferrata," Gaz. arch . (1883) ; E . Miintz, La Mosaique chretienne See also:

• PENDANT (through Fr. from Lat. pendere, to hang)

pendant les premiers siecles (1893); G . Clausse, Basiliques et mosaiques chretiennes (1893) ; Ainalov, Mosaiken des IV. u .

V . Jahrhunderts (1895) ; P . Saccardo, Les Mosaiques de Saint Marc a Venise (1896) ; A . A . Pavlovsky, Iconographie de la chapelle palatine (1895) ; Di Marzo, Delle Belle arti in Sicilia; Sangiorgi, Il Battistero della basilica Ursiana di Ravenna (1900) ; J . Kurth, Die Mosaiken der christlichen Aera, I . Die Mosaiken von Ravenna (1902); J . P . Richter and A . C . See also:

• TAYLOR
• TAYLOR, ANN (1782-1866)
• TAYLOR, BAYARD (1825–1878)
• TAYLOR, BROOK (1685–1731)
• TAYLOR, ISAAC (1787-1865)
• TAYLOR, ISAAC (1829-1901)
• TAYLOR, JEREMY (1613-1667)
• TAYLOR, JOHN (158o-1653)
• TAYLOR, JOHN (1704-1766)
• TAYLOR, JOSEPH (c. 1586-c. 1653)
• TAYLOR, MICHAEL ANGELO (1757–1834)
• TAYLOR, NATHANIEL WILLIAM (1786-1858)
• TAYLOR, PHILIP MEADOWS (1808–1876)
• TAYLOR, ROWLAND (d. 1555)
• TAYLOR, SIR HENRY (1800-1886)
• TAYLOR, THOMAS (1758-1835)
• TAYLOR, TOM (1817-1880)
• TAYLOR, WILLIAM (1765-1836)
• TAYLOR, ZACHARY (1784-1850)

Taylor, The See also:

• GOLDEN

Golden See also:

• AGE (Fr. age, through late Lat. aetaticum, from aetas)

Age of Classic Christian Art (1904; on the mosaics of S . Maria Maggiore, which the authors assign to the 2nd or 3rd century A.D.; some excellent reproductions are given) ; Schmitt and Kluge, " Kachrie Djami " (Bulletin de l'institut imperiale russe a Constantinople, xi., 1906; See also:

• TEXT (Lat. textum, woven fabric, from texere, to weave)

text in See also:

• RUSSIAN

Russian) .

Moslem.—Hessemer, Arabische and alt-italienische Bauverzierungen (1853); Prisse d'Avennes, L'Art arabe (1874–188o) ; Prangey, Mosquee de Cordoue (183o) ; See also:

• OWEN, JOHN (1616-1683)
• OWEN, JOHN [OVENUS Or AUDOENUS] (c. 1560-1622)
• OWEN, ROBERT (1771-1858)
• OWEN, SIR HUGH (1804-1881)
• OWEN, SIR RICHARD (1804–1892)

Owen See also:

• JONES
• JONES, ALFRED GILPIN (1824-1906)
• JONES, EBENEZER (182o-186o)
• JONES, ERNEST CHARLES (1819-1869)
• JONES, HENRY (1831-1899)
• JONES, HENRY ARTHUR (1851- )
• JONES, INIGO (1573-1651)
• JONES, JOHN (c. 1800-1882)
• JONES, MICHAEL (d. 1649)
• JONES, OWEN (1741-1814)
• JONES, OWEN (1809-1874)
• JONES, RICHARD (179o-1855)
• JONES, SIR ALFRED LEWIS (1845-1909)
• JONES, SIR WILLIAM (1746-1794)
• JONES, THOMAS RUPERT (1819– )
• JONES, WILLIAM (1726-1800)

Jones, See also:

• ALHAMBRA, THE

Alhambra (1842) ; De Vogue, Temple de Jerusalem (1864); Texier, Asie Mineure (1862) and L'Armenie et la Perse (1842–1852) ; Bourgoin, Les Arts arabes (1868) ; Coste, Monuments modernes de la Perse (1867) ; Flandin and Coste, Voyage en Perse (1843–1854) ; Gayet, L'Art arabe (1893) . Wood Mosaic-Tarsia.—Omati del taro di S . Pietro Cassinense di Perugia (183o) ; Caffi, various works on Rafaello de See also:

• BRESCIA
• BRESCIA (anc. Brixia)

Brescia and other intarsiatori (1851); Tarsie ed intagli di S . Lorenzo in Genova (1878); and See also:

• SCHERER, EDMOND HENRI ADOLPHE (1815-1889)
• SCHERER, WILHELM (1841-1886)

Scherer, Technik and Geschichte der Intarsia (1891) . (J . H. m.; H . S . J.) See also:

• EWE

ewe Modern Mosaic.—The art of mosaic for mural decoration has never been deeply implanted in the artistic sensibilities of the north of See also:

• EUROPE

Europe, nor has it been employed much either in See also:

• FRANCE
• FRANCE, ANATOLE (1844– )

France, or Germany, or England . It ceased to be generally adopted in Italy when fresco, oil and See also:

• TEMPERA (the Italian term), or DISTEMPER

tempera painting came into vogue . See also:

• GOTHIC

Gothic architecture is See also:

• ILL

ill-suited to its robust claims as a decorative art; and the incoming fashion for the latest and least interesting development of classical architecture, " See also:

• PALLADIAN

Palladian," divorced not only it, but mural painting also, from all architectural schemes . To be properly consequent and effective, buildings, ecclesiastical or public, should be constructed with the intention of being covered almost entirely by mosaics, which demand rich environment, marble or other colour; mosaic is essentially a colour See also:

• MEDIUM

medium . It is therefore scarcely surprising that when mural decoration became pre-eminently pictorial, and gestures and expression See also:

• GREW, NEHEMIAH (1641-1712)

grew complicated, elaborate, and naturalistic, an art limited in its See also:

• POWERS, HIRAM (1805-1873)

powers of presenting such manifestation of realistic design was relegated into the limbo of obscurity .

There are no instances of the use of mosaic in England after the Roman occupation . The See also:

• NORMANS

Normans, who derived it from the Greeks and See also:

• SARACENS

Saracens, and adopted it in See also:

• SICILY (Ital. Sicilia)

Sicily, did not import it either to France or England . Although English churches, and See also:

• FRENCH
• FRENCH, DANIEL CHESTER (1850– )
• FRENCH, NICHOLAS (1604-1678)

French also, were highly decorated with polychromy from early times up to the 16th century, there is no evidence of mosaic ever having been used . The revival of a school of mosaicists in Rome during the s7th century, employed in the decoration of St Peter's, and here and there sparsely engaged in other churches, led to the See also:

• IDEA (Gr. Ibia, connected with i&eiv, to see; cf. Lat. species from specere, to look at)

idea which See also:

• WREN (O. Eng. wrcknna, Mid. Eng. wrenne; Icel. rindill)
• WREN, SIR CHRISTOPHER (1632-1723)

Wren would have carried into effect, namely, making use of mosaic for the cathedral of St See also:

• PAUL
• PAUL (PAULUS)

Paul's in See also:

• LONDON

London; but his See also:

• SCHEME (Lat. schema, Gr. oxfjya, figure, form, from the root axe, seen in exeiv, to have, hold, to be of such shape, form, &c.)

scheme, if it was ever really entertained, was not carried out, as we all know; and the art, which might have become the fashion in England, remained an See also:

• EXOTIC (Gr. EWTIK6s, foreign, from few, outside)

exotic . Even See also:

• LATE

late into the years of the 19th century mosaic decoration was regarded by classical purists as a barbarous art, and the glorious decorations in that material to be seen in Sicily, Italy, Greece, See also:

• ASIA

Asia See also:

• MINOR
• MINOR (Lat. for smaller, lesser)
• MINOR, ROBERT CRANNELL (1839-1904)

Minor and See also:

• RUSSIA
• RUSSIA (Rossiya)

Russia were disregarded as works of high art . They were in many cases cut out to provide See also:

• ROOM

room for extravagant and vulgar designs in fresco or tempera, unmeaning, undecorative, and wholly abominable as decoration . Those Roman mosaics over the altars in St Peter's, being copies of celebrated oil pictures, while they cannot be denied excellence as such and marvellous dexterity, reveal the worst possible taste, for they attempt to represent adequately, in cubes, touches of the See also:

• BRUSH (from Fr. brosse, which, like the English word, means both the undergrowth of a wood and the instrument; if the word in both these meanings is ultimately the same, then the origin is from a bundle of brushwood used as a brush or broom, but this is h
• BRUSH, GEORGE DE FOREST (1855– )

brush which were spontaneous, fluid, thick and thin, and as sensitive and spontaneous as the See also:

• FINGER

finger pressure on the See also:

• VIOLIN

violin See also:

• STRING

string, so accurate that the least deviation from See also:

• ABSOLUTE (Lat. absolvere, to loose, set free)

absolute position produces discord . The restrictions on mosaic are many, and some are obvious . In the first place, mosaic is not suited for a small scale of design . It is true that in the Opera del Duomo in Florence there is a See also:

• MINIATURE

miniature mosaic (executed in the rzth century) of extraordinary beauty, which must have taken a lifetime to execute; but still this remains a curiosity, a See also:

• BIT (from the verb " to bite," either in the sense of a piece bitten off, or an act of biting, or a thing that bites or is bitten)

bit of craftsmanship rather than a great work of art . There is also a copy of Mr See also:

• HOLMAN, JAMES (1786–1857)

Holman See also:

• HUNT, ALFRED WILLIAM (183o-1896)
• HUNT, HENRY (1i73-1835)
• HUNT, HENRY JACKSON (1819-1889)
• HUNT, JAMES HENRY LEIGH (1784-1859)
• HUNT, ROBERT (1807-1887)
• HUNT, THOMAS STERRY (1826-1892)
• HUNT, WILLIAM HENRY (1790—1864)
• HUNT, WILLIAM HOLMAN (1827-1910)
• HUNT, WILLIAM MORRIS (1824-1879)

Hunt's " Finding the Saviour in the Temple," executed for See also:

• CLIFTON

Clifton See also:

• COLLEGE (Collegium)

College by assistants in Messrs See also:

• POWELL, FREDERICK YORK (1850-1904)
• POWELL, GEORGE (c. 1658-1714)
• POWELL, JOHN WESLEY (1834–1902)
• POWELL, VAVASOR (1617-1670)

Powell's See also:

• ESTABLISHMENT (0. Fr. establissement, Fr. etablissement, late Norm. Fr. establishement, from O. Fr. establir, Fr. etablir, Lat. stabilire, to make stable)

establishment in White-friars, London; it is admirably done, no doubt, but it is a long way behind the See also:

• ORIGINAL

original, which is a design wholly ill adapted to mosaic . There are several other instances, notably one by Mr H .

See also:

• HOLIDAY

Holiday of " The Last Supper," where mosaic has been employed to translate a beautiful design which would have been more satisfactorily executed either in oil or water colours . The primal and most obvious See also:

• LIMITATION, STATUTES OF

limitation is in matters of detail—detail as regards a multiplicity of forms, many gradations either of colour or See also:

• TONE, THEOBALD WOLFE (1763-1798)

tone and naturalistic accidents . In this respect good mosaic is like good basso relievo; it is accomplished by firmly pronounced outlines, unconfused masses, large planes unbroken up by small adjuncts, and generalized and conventionalized forms and simple colour . So all small curves, as well as small tints, should be eliminated, because it is not in the nature of the material to do them See also:

• JUSTICE (Lat. justitia)

justice . One can scarcely conceivea choice less happy for mosaic than the centre See also:

• GROUP

group taken out of the upper portion of the Disputa fresco in the Vatican by Raphael, yet this florid piece of work, so facile in creation, was chosen to be executed on the eastern wall of the See also:

• MORNING

morning chapel in St Paul's . It is useless to illustrate the many similar mistakes that have been made . They were made in some of the earlier work in the See also:

• CHOIR (0. Fr. cuer from Lat. chorus; pronounced quire, and until the end of the 17th century so spelt, the spelling being altered to agree with the Fr. chceur)

choir of St Paul's . The best example of mosaic on a small scale is in Ravenna, the tomb of Galla Placidia; the best upon a large scale is the great Christ at the east end of the cathedral at Monreale . These two works absolutely justify the means to the end . Interesting are the designs made by See also:

• SIR

Sir See also:

• EDWARD

Edward Burne-Jones for the mosaics for the See also:

• AMERICAN

American church in Rome, but the execution and colour are alike monotonous . The cathedral of See also:

• CHESTER
• CHESTER, EARLS OF

Chester contains a See also:

• SERIES (a Latin word from serere, to join)

series of mosaic pictures designed by Mr See also:

• CLAYTON, JOHN MIDDLETON (1796–1856)

Clayton . The See also:

• GUARDS, AND HOUSEHOLD TROOPS

Guards' chapel in St See also:

• JAMES
• JAMES (Gr. 'IlrKw,l3or, the Heb. Ya`akob or Jacob)
• JAMES (JAMES FRANCIS EDWARD STUART) (1688-1766)
• JAMES, 2ND EARL OF DOUGLAS AND MAR(c. 1358–1388)
• JAMES, DAVID (1839-1893)
• JAMES, EPISTLE OF
• JAMES, GEORGE PAYNE RAINSFOP
• JAMES, HENRY (1843— )
• JAMES, JOHN ANGELL (1785-1859)
• JAMES, THOMAS (c. 1573–1629)
• JAMES, WILLIAM (1842–1910)
• JAMES, WILLIAM (d. 1827)

James's is adorned likewise by the same artist, under the direction of the late Sir See also:

• ARTHUR (Fr. Arius)
• ARTHUR, CHESTER ALAN (1830 – 1886)

Arthur See also:

• BLOMFIELD, CHARLES JAMES (1786-1857)
• BLOMFIELD, EDWARD VALENTINE (1788-1816)
• BLOMFIELD, SIR ARTHUR WILLIAM (1829-1899)

Blomfield .

In the chapel for the school at Giggleswick are mosaics designed by T . G . See also:

• JACKSON
• JACKSON, ANDREW (1767-1845)
• JACKSON, CYRIL (1746-1819)
• JACKSON, FREDERICK GEORGE (186o– )
• JACKSON, HELEN MARIA (1831–1885)
• JACKSON, MASON (c. 1820-1903)
• JACKSON, THOMAS (1579-1640)
• JACKSON, THOMAS JONATHAN (1824-1863)
• JACKSON, WILLIAM (1730-1803)

Jackson, R.A., admirably and broadly treated in true mosaic See also:

• CHARACTER (Gr. xapareri7p, from xap&crew, to scratch)

character; these were executed in situ, and not, according to the modern See also:

• HABIT (through the French from Lat. habitus, from habere, to have, hold, or, in a reflective sense, to be in a certain condition; in many of the English senses the French use habitude, not habit)

habit, upon See also:

• PAPER
• PAPER (Fr. papier, from Lat. papyrus)

paper, away from their environment and by a foreign firm . Those mosaic pictures which are placed in niches in the great See also:

• GALLERY (through Ital. galleria, from Med. Lat. galeria, of which the origin is unknown)

gallery of South Kensington Museum are failures qud mosaic, though the designs in many instances are fine, notably those by See also:

• LORD
• LORD (O. Eng. hldford, i.e. hldfweard, the warder or keeper of bread, hlIf, loaf; the word is not represented in any other Teutonic language)
• LORD, JOHN (1810-1894)

Lord See also:

• LEIGHTON, FREDERICK LEIGHTON, BARON (183o–1896)
• LEIGHTON, ROBERT (161x—1684)

Leighton and Val See also:

• PRINSEP, JAMES (1999-1840)
• PRINSEP, VALENTINE CAMERON (1838-1904)

Prinsep; but their execution is uninteresting, because the cubes are laid so flatly and so evenly that they suggest an oil picture applique upon a flat ground . Messrs Powell have been employed on several occasions to decorate churches with mosaic . This firm has adopted the old style, and rejected the new one initiated by Dr Salviati of Venice . If we observe the surface of a fine See also:

• GREEK
• GREEK, ETRUSCAN AND

Greek mosaic, such as that of Andrea Tafi in the Baptistery of Florence, or the few remains of unrestored mosaic in St Mark's, Venice, or indeed other works scattered over Italy, we shall see that it is rough, not smooth; that the cubes are irregular in shape; that there is always a space of the ground colour See also:

• LEFT

left, red or white, and visible between each cube . In modern mosaic, with rare exceptions, restoration or other, the cubes have been jammed up closely together, and the surface is as smooth as a piece of paper; thereby is engendered a See also:

• MECHANICAL

mechanical and uninteresting surface, over which light plays with monotony, and hence that brilliant and scintillating effect so essentially the character of true mosaic is absent . This defect-and it is a See also:

• GRAVE

grave one—is evident in the works in mosaic more or less recently set up in See also:

• PARIS
• PARIS (also called ALEXANDROS)
• PARIS, ALEXIS PAULIN (1800-x881)
• PARIS, BRUNO PAULIN GASTON (1839-1903)
• PARIS, FRANCOIS DE (169o-1727)
• PARIS, LOUIS PHILIPPE ALBERT
• PARIS, TREATIES OF (1814-1815)

Paris, notably in the apse of the See also:

• PANTHEON (Lat. pantheum or pantheon; Gr. srav& ov, all-holy, from re, s, all, and Oeor god)

Pantheon, the east end of the Madeleine, and the vaulting of the great See also:

• STAIRCASE

staircase of the Louvre . Those in the apse are finely designed, but scarcely look like mosaic, those in the Madeleine still less so, and the last not at all . The artist who designs for this material must set aside all the principles he has learned to estimate in paint, either of oil or tempera . As an instance of a painter, pre-eminently delicate in his colour and tone, failing as a mosaic designer we may quote Cimabue, whose beautiful designs in the cathedral at Pisa would have been far more effective had the artist painted them upon the wall with the medium in the requirements of which he was so great a See also:

• MASTER (Lat. magister, related to tnagis, more, as the corresponding minister is to minus, less; the English form is due partly to the O. Eng. maegister, and partly to O. Fr. maistre, mod. maitre; cf. Du. meester, Ger. Meister, Ital. maestro)

master .

The same See also:

• CRITICISM
• CRITICISM (from the Gr. KpiTrlS, a judge, Kpivew, to decide, to give an authoritative opinion)

criticism may apply to the mosaics in recent years set up on the west front of See also:

• SANTA

Santa Maria del Fiore in Florence . The very first principles which go to make a fine picture are just those which should be avoided in mosaic—elaborate modelling, delicate transitions of light and shade and picturesque effects of dark and light, materialistic resemblance indeed . The designer for mosaic should ever See also:

• BEAR
• BEAR, BLACK
• BEAR, BROWN
• BEAR, GRIZZLY
• BEAR, ISABELLINE
• BEAR, WHITE

bear in mind his material,, and in his designs for it he should accentuate those characteristics which belong essentially and specifically to mosaic and to no other technique . If he is a painter, he must forget his lessons in that art and take up with new ones—those which See also:

• TEACH [THATCH OR THACH], EDWARD (d. 1718)

teach broad masses of colour obtained in lines . He will find that effects gained by a technique employed in oil colour look bald and ridiculous when translated into mosaic . Water-colour and See also:

• PASTEL

pastel are by far the best See also:

• MEDIA

media for cartoons to be copied in mosaic . We do not know how these were executed in ancient days; probably the design was drawn on the wall, and there were no cartoons . The master not only invented, but he was the master-workman also, and that is how it should be . The See also:

• PROBABILITY (Lat. probabilis, probable or credible)

probability is that the See also:

• CUSTOM (from O. Fr. costume, costume or coustume; Low Lat. costuma, a shortened form of consuetudo)

custom of drawing the design upon the wall practised by the early frescanti was the survival of a method adopted by the mosaicists, just as their method repeated that of Roman and Greek wall-painters . Of course this See also:

• DIRECT

direct method leads to a large style, a style harmonizing with environment, scale, &c.; the tendency is to draw large in a large See also:

• BUILDING

building, to draw small in a small one . Anyhow, this is quite certain, that all the fine Byzantine and 13th century mosaics, as well as wall paintings, were executed in situ and not away, as was the usual custom in England and elsewhere until recently . Mr Harry Powell has permitted the writer to make use of some of his reflections upon the mosaicist's art in the following notes .

The mosaicist should not See also:

• SEPARATE

separate the artistic from the technical details of his craft . He must study not only the decorative effect, form, colour and spacing of his design, but the surface to be covered as well as the materials with which he builds . Surface.—Good brick-work, the See also:

• MORTAR

mortar See also:

• JOINTS

joints slightly cut back, affords the best See also:

• FOUNDATION (Lat. fundatio, from fundare, to found)

foundation for mosaic . The hollow and See also:

• SHARP, GRANVILLE (1735-1813)
• SHARP, JAMES (1618-1679)
• SHARP, JOHN (1645-1714)
• SHARP, RICHARD (1759-1835)
• SHARP, WILLIAM (1749-1824)
• SHARP, WILLIAM (1856-1905)

sharp-edged joints provide a See also:

• KEY
• KEY (in O. Eng. tang; the ultimate origin of the word is unknown; it appears only in Old Frisian kei of other Teutonic languages; until the end of the 17th century the pronunciation was kay, as in other words in O. Eng. ending in aeg; cf. daeg, day; clang
• KEY (the phraseograms being indicated by hyphens)
• KEY, SIR ASTLEY COOPER (1821-1888)
• KEY, THOMAS HEWITT (1799-1875)

key for the cement into which the cubes will be set, and they diminish the See also:

• RISK

risk of sagging, a not uncommon event if the cement is not welded to the wall by being well pressed into the joints . If the mosaic is to be applied on stone, the stone must be notched and well roughened to provide support . Whether the surface is brick or stone, it must be well saturated with boiled oil to prevent suction, because if too much suction takes place the See also:

• POWDER (through O. Fr. puldre, modern poudre, from Lat. pulvis, pulveris, dust)

powder only of the cement will remain and the cubes will drop out . Cement.—A cement suitable for mosaic is one which retains its tenacity, which can be applied in layers, which sets slowly, and which is not liable to change colour after long exposure . These conditions are best met by an oil cement . One consisting of equal weights of white oxide of See also:

• ZINC

zinc and carbonate of zinc, mixed with See also:

• DOUBLE
• DOUBLE (from the Mid. Eng. duble, the form which gives the present pronunciation, through the Old Er. duble, from Lat. duplus, twice as much)

double boiled oil and containing small proportions of See also:

• WAX

wax, gold size and slacked lime gives good results . This cement can either be white or red, white where greyness of tone is desirable, red where a richer effect is desirable . It is generally mixed with a small portion of oxide of See also:

• IRON [symbol Fe, atomic weight 55.85 (0=16)]

iron or oxide of See also:

• MANGANESE (symbol Mn; atomic weight, 54.93 (0=16)], a metallic chemical element. Its dioxide (pyrolusite)

manganese, which prevents the whiteness of the joints from rendering adjacent tints See also:

• GREY, CHARLES GREY, 2ND EARL (1764-1845)
• GREY, HENRY GREY, 3RD EARL (1802-1894)
• GREY, LADY JANE (1537-1554)
• GREY, SIR EDWARD
• GREY, SIR GEORGE (1812–1898)

grey from a distance . Atmospheric Corrosion.—As the See also:

• ATMOSPHERE (Gr. fir µ6r, vapour; orkaipa, a sphere)

atmosphere of modern towns is more corrosive than that of medieval Venice or medieval Rome, it is important that, in choosing the cement and the materials to be imbedded in it, the mosaicist should be certain that they are impervious to atmospheric impurities .

Glass.—Although marble, mother of pearl, and other substances have been, and are still, occasionally used, the predominant material in ancient as well as modern mosaics is glass . When prepared with due regard to the continuing proportions of its ingredients, glass is impervious to the See also:

• ACTION

action of See also:

• ORDINARY (med. Lat. ordinarius, Fr. ordinaire)

ordinary acids, and is practically indestructible . It can be made to assume almost every shade and tint of colour (see GLASS) . There are many kinds of glass, but for mosaic work either a potash-See also:

• LEAD
• LEAD (pronounced iced)

lead or a soda-lime glass is usually employed . Both of these glasses can be rendered opaque by mixing with the ingredients either oxide of tin or a mixture of See also:

• FELSPAR, or FELDSPAR

felspar and fluorspar . Glass rendered opaque by the admixture of felspar and fluorspar has a See also:

• BRIGHT, JOHN (1811-188g)
• BRIGHT, SIR CHARLES TILSTON

bright, vitreous, easily leaned surface, and readily develops brilliant colours . Production of Colours.—Colours are obtained by mixing and melting with the ingredients of the opaque glass small proportions of certain metallic oxides . Oxide of chalk gives a See also:

• PURPLE

purple blue; oxide of See also:

• COPPER (symbol Cu, atomic weight 63.1, H=1, or 63.6, O = 16)

copper gives a See also:

• PEACOCK (Lat. Pavo, O. Eng. Pawe, Du. pauuw, Ger. Pfau, Fr. Paon)
• PEACOCK, GEORGE (1791–1858)
• PEACOCK, SIR BARNES (1810-189o)
• PEACOCK, THOMAS LOVE (1785-1866)

peacock blue; oxide of copper with oxide of iron gives a green; oxide of copper mixed with oxide of iron and a strong reducing See also:

• AGENT (from Lat. agere, to act)

agent gives a red; oxide of See also:

• CHROMIUM (symbol Cr. atomic weight 52.1)

chromium a green; oxide of See also:

• NICKEL
• NICKEL (symbol Ni, atomic weight 58.68 (0=16))

nickel a purple; oxide of See also:

• URANIUM [symbol U, atomic weight 238.5 (0=16)]

uranium a yellow; and oxide of manganese a See also:

• VIOLET

violet—or a black if a larger quantity of oxide is used . Manufacture of Glass Slabs.—The mixtures, in a See also:

• STATE
• STATE, GREAT OFFICERS OF

state of powder, are shovelled into crucibles standing round the See also:

• GRATE (from Lat. crates, a hurdle)

grate of a See also:

• FURNACE

furnace, and when See also:

• FUSION

fusion is See also:

• COMPLETE

complete the viscous glass can be coiled upon the heated end of an iron rod and removed for use, very much in the way that thick See also:

• TREACLE

treacle may be coiled round the bowl of a See also:

• SPOON (O. Eng. span, a chip or splinter of wood, cf. Du. spoon, Ger. Spahn, in same sense, probably related to Gr. r4 v, wedge)

spoon . A mass of molten glass, thus collected, is allowed to fall upon a flat iron table, and is pressed into a slab about 6 in. square and 4 in. thick . The slabs are removed to an See also:

• OVEN (O. Eng. of n,Ger. Ofen, cf. Gr. Irvin, oven)

oven, where they are allowed to cool slowly, and when cool are removed and broken by a See also:

• HAMMER, FRIEDRICH JULIUS (1810-1862)

hammer er a miniature See also:

• GUILLOTINE

guillotine into tesserae or cubes The fractured edge of the tesserae is used for the surface of the mosaic . Gold and Silver Slabs.—The tesserae containing gold or silver See also:

• LEAF (O. Eng. leaf, cf. Dutch loof, Ger. Laub, Swed. lof, &c.; possibly to be referred to the root seen in Gr. Ma-eta, to peel, strip)

leaf are as impervious to surface corrosions from the effects of atmosphere as the solid colours .

The process of manufacturing a gold or silver slab for mosaic work is to spread the metallic leaf on a very thin See also:

• TRAY

tray of transparent glass, about 5 in. in See also:

• DIAMETER (from the Cr. &a, through, µErpov, measure)

diameter,889 and after it has been heated to See also:

• PRESS (through Fr. presse from Lat. pressare, frequentative of premere, to crush, squeeze, press)

press upon the surface of the leaf a mass of molten glass, so as to create cohesion between the molten lass and the glass tray through the pores of the metallic leaf. he slabs thus formed contain gold, silver or See also:

• PLATINUM [symbol Pt, atomic weight 145.0 (0=16)]

platinum leaf hermetically imprisoned between two layers of glass . The slabs are cut up into tesserae or cubes by means of a See also:

• DIAMOND

diamond or glass-cutter's See also:

• WHEEL (0. Eng. hweol, hweohl, &c., cognate with Icel. hjol, Dan. hiul, the Indo-European root is seen in Sanskrit chakra, Gr. r in Aos, circle, whence " cycle ")
• WHEEL, BREAKING ON THE

wheel . Only one surface can be used for mosaic work . Tinted Metals.—By using coloured glass for the thin glass trays which form the surface of the metallic slabs a variety of tinted metallic effects are obtained . Moreover, if the glass which is to form the background is coloured, and if the slab after it has been cooled is strongly reheated, the leaf becomes sufficiently disintegrated to allow the colour of the background to show through, with the result that the colour effect of the metallic leaf is modified . See also:

• PALETTE (the Fr. diminutive of pale, spade, blade of an oar, from Lat. Pala, spade, baker's shovel or peel; cf. pandere, to spread)

Palette and Tools.—The palette of the mosaic worker is a shallow See also:

• BOX
• BOX (Gr. irl or, Lat. buxus, box-wood; cf. 2r6Eir, a pyx)

box with many partitions, each See also:

• DIVISION (from Lat. dividere, to break up into parts, separate)

division containing different-coloured tesserae . The only tools required are clippers, for shaping the tesserae, and a pointed See also:

• AWL (0. Eng. ael; at one time spelt nawl by a confusion with the indefinite article before it)

awl for pricking through the See also:

• CARTOON (Ital. cartone, pasteboard)

cartoon into the cement the outlines of the design . Although the process and tools are simple, it requires prolonged training of mind, hand, See also:

• EYE
• EYE (O. Eng. edge, Ger. Auge; derived from an Indo-European root also seen in Lat. oc-ulus, the organ of vision (q.v.)

eye and fingers to enable a workman to create in mosaic a living representation as distinguished from a lifeless copy of the master craftsman's design . Drawing directly on the Wall . Curved Surfaces . If the mosaicist desires to draw his cartoon directly upon the wall, a necessary See also:

• PROCEDURE (Fr. procedure, from Lat. procedere, to go for-ward)

procedure where curved surfaces are presented, he goes to work in the following manner . He causes a See also:

• MODEL (0. Fr. modelle, mod. modele; It. modello, pattern, mould; from Lat. modus, measure, standard)

model to be made to scale of a dome, semi-dome or spandrel and upon it he draws his design with a brush in strong red pigment, having previously squared up the whole surface to scale .

This done, he causes the dome, semi-dome or spandrel to be covered over with thick See also:

• BROWN
• BROWN, CHARLES BROCKDEN (1771-181o)
• BROWN, FORD MADOX (1821-1893)
• BROWN, FRANCIS (1849- )
• BROWN, GEORGE (1818-188o)
• BROWN, HENRY KIRKE (1814-1886)
• BROWN, JACOB (1775–1828)
• BROWN, JOHN (1715–1766)
• BROWN, JOHN (1722-1787)
• BROWN, JOHN (1735–1788)
• BROWN, JOHN (1784–1858)
• BROWN, JOHN (1800-1859)
• BROWN, JOHN (1810—1882)
• BROWN, JOHN GEORGE (1831— )
• BROWN, ROBERT (1773-1858)
• BROWN, SAMUEL MORISON (1817—1856)
• BROWN, SIR GEORGE (1790-1865)
• BROWN, SIR JOHN (1816-1896)
• BROWN, SIR WILLIAM, BART
• BROWN, THOMAS (1663-1704)
• BROWN, THOMAS (1778-1820)
• BROWN, THOMAS EDWARD (1830-1897)
• BROWN, WILLIAM LAURENCE (1755–1830)

brown paper . This being attached to the wall with white lead sufficient only to give temporary See also:

• ADHESION (from Lat. adhaerere, to adhere)

adhesion, the brown paper is squared up to the scale of the small See also:

• SKETCH (directly adapted from Dutch schets, which was taken from Ital. schizzo, a rough draft, Lat. schedium, something hastily made, Gr. oxE&os, sudden, off-hand, axeb6v, near by; Ger. Skizze and Fr. esquisse are from the same source)

sketch; each square being relatively numbered . The master then sets his pupils to work to draw mechanically and copy accurately from the small design on to the full-sized dome, semi-dome or spandrel . This done, the master follows on, correcting with See also:

• CHARCOAL

charcoal or brush until the whole design is See also:

• DEVELOPED

developed in strong outline . Having made a slightly coloured sketch, the master with the aid of his pupils proceeds to mix all the tints in water-colour, adding colla di pesce or See also:

• FISH (O. Eng. fist, a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Dutch visch, Ger. Fisch, Goth. fisks, cognate with the Lat. piscis)
• FISH, HAMILTON (1808-1893)

fish See also:

• GLUE (from the O. Fr. glu, bird-lime, from the Late Lat. gluten, glus, glue)

glue, and a little See also:

• HONEY (Chin. me ; Sansk. madhu, mead, honey; cf. A.S. medo, medu, mead; Gr. p Xt, in which 0 or b is changed into X; Lat. mel ; Fr. miel ; A.S. hung ; Ger. Honig)

honey to prevent cracking . He then applies every tint separately, keeping each distinct, and above all minding that the local colours of all half-tints are different from the colour of all shadows . This done, he dips his brush in black and draws all the outlines, the thickness of which depends upon the distance which will intervene between his work and the spectator; in order that the black may not appear See also:

• COLD (in O. Eng. cald and ceald, a word coming ultimately from a root cognate with the Lat. gelu, gelidus, and common in the Teutonic languages, which usually have two distinct forms for the substantive and the adjective, cf. Ger. Kolte, kalt, Dutch koude

cold from a distance, he will add to one side of the See also:

• LINE

line, a red line, thicker or thinner than the black, according to the effect he wishes to produce . It is sometimes effective to add upon the other side of the black line a green line, so that the purple effect of the black and red shall be modified . Colour.—We now come to the great question of colour and how to obtain it simply, and so that from a distance a blurred and woolly effect is not obtained . There should be a marked and sharp See also:

• DEFINITION (Lat. definitio, from de-finire, to set limits to, describe)

definition between all tints; they should not be fused; they should look sharply defined, as the squares upon a See also:

• CHESS

chess-See also:

• BOARD (O. Eng. bord)

board, and appear crude and bratal . The work which looks least refined near at hand looks more finished at a distance . Red and blue lines alternately laid, either more red or more blue as the purple is intended to tend towards red or blue, make the best purple .

Green is best made with yellow and blue lines, the masses being separated by red lines, and the shadows of green should be red or blue: if red, they should be outlined with blue; if blue, with red . Red should be treated flatly, shaded with a deeper red, which should be of a warmer tone than the lights . Blue should be shaded with blue or red; and it is well to mix green tesserae with the blue in the lights, and again green tesserae with the blue or red shades to modify crudity . Pure white should be very sparingly used: it expands greatly at a distance . The best white is that which is of the tone of Naples yellow . Whenever it is necessary to use pure white, either a yellow or See also:

• PINK

pink line should be set on one side of it . It is impossible to keep the flesh too simple . The local colour, i.e. a red See also:

• ORANGE
• ORANGE (Citrus Aurantium)
• ORANGE, HOUSE OF

orange, is the See also:

• STAPLE

staple colour . Features should be drawn in strong red or burnt sienna, or a rich brown . The outlines of limbs or the contours of faces should be made first with a green line, a little darker than the local tints, then a red line darker still, then a black or brown line . White draperies are capable of being treated with endless variety . Their shadows may be green, red, blue, grey or yellow .

If the white drapery is to take a neutral tone when seen from a distance, all these tints should be employed, because when mixed those See also:

• POSITIVE (or PORTABLE) ORGAN

positive colours appear neutral when seen from afar . Gold drapery has a fine effect . Bright gold expands to four times the width of the line, so that the lines of gold should be thin . It may be that the gold drapery is to appear greenish; when that is desirable the folds should be drawn in green out-lined with red . All deep shades should be treated with red and hot browns . As gold expands so considerably, a larger See also:

• INTERVAL

interval should be left between the tesserae than between any other colour, even white . Each tessera should have a thin space of the ground colour round it . The tesserae should never be jammed: it is that which causes so many modern mosaics to look like oil-See also:

• CLOTH

cloth or chromo-lithographs . The Finished Cartoon.—The finished cartoon, having been coloured in lines, should look exactly like the finished mosaic as regards effect; and the master, in making his cartoon, should always bear in mind that he is designing for mosaic, and not making a finished picture . The cartoon, when complete, is taken off the wall and cut up in pieces . Each piece is then carefully traced . The space upon the wall corresponding to each See also:

• SECTION
• SECTION (Lat. sectio, cutting, secare, to cut)

section is then covered with cement, but only upon that portion of the space which can be worked in mosaic in a See also:

• DAY (O. Eng. dreg, Ger. Tag; according to the New English Dictionary, " in no way related to the Lat. dies")
• DAY, JOHN (1574-1640?)
• DAY, THOMAS (1748-1789)

day .

The mosaic worker then applies the portion of the tracing upon the wet cement, and with a sharp point he pricks through the paper upon the lines thereon drawn; on removing the tracing he will find indents within the surface of the cement, which give him his cue to all the forms . Setting up the coloured design by his side, he takes the tesserae, which exactly correspond in colour and tone with those on the drawing, and begins his work, commencing from the outline and working inwards towards the centre, the lightest portion being left to the last . Here comes in the real test whether the craftsman is capable or the See also:

• REVERSE

reverse . This is soon judged by the master, who will put the work in and out until he is satisfied with the result . Unless the master has himself gone through the drudgery of laying the cubes he can be no teacher . He must be a craftsman as well as a designer, and must know by experience and practice in a very difficult craft what the material can do with ease and what it is not called upon to do by reason of its inherent limitations . If he has not so trained himself he is certain to pictorialize what he should conventionalize; and, moreover, he will set technical difficulties in the way which are impossible to overcome . He must aim at the greatest simplicity without dullness, at producing the greatest effect by the simplest means, and to do that he must know his material or fail . (W . B . R1.) MOSBY, See also:

• JOHN
• JOHN (1167–1216)
• JOHN (1290-c. 1320)
• JOHN (1296-1346)
• JOHN (1371–1419)
• JOHN (1468-1532)
• JOHN (1801-1873)
• JOHN (Heb. llni')
• JOHN (ZAPOLYA) (1487-1540)
• JOHN, 4TH MARQUESS OF TWEEDDALE (c. 1695-1762)
• JOHN, DON (1545-1578)
• JOHN, DON (1629–1679)
• JOHN, GOSPEL OF ST
• JOHN, or HAYS (1513–1571)
• JOHN, THE APOSTLE
• JOHN, THE EPISTLES OF

JOHN SINGLETON (1833– ), American soldier, was See also:

• BORN, IGNAZ, EDLER VON (1742–1791)

born in Edgemont, Powhatan See also:

• COUNTY (through Norm. Fr. comae, cf. O. Fr. cunte, conk', Mod. Fr. comae, from Lat. comitatus, cf. Ital. comitato, Prov. comtat; see COUNT)

county, See also:

• VIRGINIA
• VIRGINIA, or VERGINIA
• VIRGINIA, UNIVERSITY OF

Virginia, on the 6th of See also:

• DECEMBER (Lat. decent, ten)

December 1833 . He graduated at the university of Virginia in 1852, was admitted to the See also:

• BAR
• BAR (0. Fr. barre, Late Lat. barra, origin unknown)
• BAR, CONFEDERATION OF
• BAR, FRANCOIS DE (1538-1606)
• BAR, THE

bar in 1855, and practised See also:

• LAW
• LAW (0. Eng. lagu, M. Eng. lawe; from an old Teutonic root lag, " lie," what lies fixed or evenly; cf. Lat. lex, Fr. loi)
• LAW, JOHN (1671—1729)
• LAW, WILLIAM (1686-1761)

law in See also:

• BRISTOL
• BRISTOL, EARLS AND MARQUESSES OF
• BRISTOL, GEORGE DIGBY, 2ND EARL OF1 (1612-1677)
• BRISTOL, JOHN DIGBY, 1ST EARL OF 6 (1580-1653)

Bristol, See also:

• WASHINGTON
• WASHINGTON (or WASHINGTON COURT HOUSE)
• WASHINGTON, BOOKER TALIAFERRO (c. 1859– )
• WASHINGTON, BUSHROD (1762-1829)
• WASHINGTON, GEORGE (1732-1799)

Washington county, Virginia, until the beginning of the See also:

• CIVIL

Civil See also:

• WAR
• WAR (O. Eng. werre, Fr. guerre, of Teutonic origin; cf. O.H.G. werran, to confound)

War, when he joined the cause of the South .

He enlisted as a private in the Washington Mounted Rifles, which became a part of General J . E . B . See also:

• STUART, ARABELLA (1575-1615)
• STUART, GILBERT (1755-x828)
• STUART, JAMES EWELL BROWN (1833-1864)
• STUART, JOHN
• STUART, MOSES (1780-1852)
• STUART, SIR JOHN, COUNT

Stuart's 1st Virginia See also:

• CAVALRY (Fr. cavalerie, Ger. Kavallerie or Reiterei, derived ultimately from late Lat. caballus, horse)

Cavalry, and of which he was See also:

• ADJUTANT (from Lat. adjutare, to aid)

adjutant for a time . In See also:

• JUNE

June 1862, after having gone over the ground alone on scouting See also:

• DUTY (from " due," that which is owing, O. Fr. deu, dil, past participle of devoir; Lat. debere, debitum; cf. " debt ")

duty, he accompanied Stuart in his ride round McClellan's entire See also:

• ARMY
• ARMY (from Fr. armee, Lat. armata)

army . Early in 1863 he secured Stuart's permission to undertake a quasi-See also:

• INDEPENDENT

independent command . In See also:

• FAIRFAX, EDWARD (c. 1580-1635)

Fairfax county and then in Fauquier and See also:

• LOUDOUN, JOHN

Loudoun counties (known as Mosby's Confederacy), within the Federal lines, he raised, mounted, armed and equipped a force of irregulars . On the See also:

• NIGHT

night of the 8th of See also:

• MARCH
• MARCH (1) (from Fr. marcher, to walk; the earliest sense in French appears to be " to trample," and the origin has usually been found in the Lat. marcus, hammer; Low Lat. marcare, to hammer; hence to beat the road with the regular tread of a soldier: cf.
• MARCH, AUZIAS (c. "1395-1458)
• MARCH, EARLS OF
• MARCH, FRANCIS ANDREW (1825– )

March 1863, with about 3o men, he penetrated the Federal lines at Fairfax See also:

• COURT
• COURT (from the O. Fr. court, Late Lat. cortis, curtis, a popular form of class. Lat. cohors, gen. cohortis; the mod. Fr. form tour is due to the influence of the Lat. curia, the word used in medieval documents to translate " court " in the feudal sense)
• COURT, ANTOINE (1696-176o)

Court-House and took 33 prisoners, including Brigadier-General See also:

• EDWIN, AEDUINI
• EDWIN, JOHN (1749–1790)

Edwin H . See also:

• STOUGHTON, JOHN (1807-1897)

Stoughton, commanding the 2nd See also:

• VERMONT

Vermont See also:

• BRIGADE (Fr. and Ger. brigade, Ital. brigata, Span. brigada; the English use of the word dates from the early 17th century)

brigade; and he became famous for other such exploits . In the Northhe was regarded as a guerilla who disregarded the rules of war, and in the autumn of 1864, See also:

• SHERIDAN
• SHERIDAN, PHILIP HENRY (1831-1888)

Sheridan, acting under orders from See also:

• GRANT (from A.-Fr. graunter, O. Fr. greanter for creanter, popular Lat. creantare, for credentare, to entrust, Lat. credere, to believe, trust)
• GRANT, ANNE (1755-1838)
• GRANT, CHARLES (1746-1823)
• GRANT, GEORGE MONRO (1835–1902)
• GRANT, JAMES (1822–1887)
• GRANT, JAMES AUGUSTUS (1827–1892)
• GRANT, ROBERT (1814-1892)
• GRANT, SIR ALEXANDER
• GRANT, SIR FRANCIS (1803-1878)
• GRANT, SIR JAMES HOPE (1808–1895)
• GRANT, SIR PATRICK (1804-1895)
• GRANT, U
• GRANT, ULYSSES SIMPSON (1822-1885)

Grant, shot and hanged seven of Mosby's men without trial; in See also:

• NOVEMBER (Lat. novem, nine)

November Mosby retaliated by See also:

• HANGING

hanging seven of See also:

• CUSTER, GEORGE ARMSTRONG (1839-1876)

Custer's cavalry-men . Eventually, on the 21st of See also:

• APRIL

April 1865, twelve days after the surrender of General See also:

• LEE
• LEE (or LEGIT) ROWLAND (d. 1543)
• LEE, ANN (1736–1784)
• LEE, ARTHUR (1740–1792)
• LEE, FITZHUGH (1835–1905)
• LEE, GEORGE ALEXANDER (1802-1851)
• LEE, HENRY (1756-1818)
• LEE, JAMES PRINCE (1804-1869)
• LEE, NATHANIEL (c. 1653-16g2)
• LEE, RICHARD HENRY (1732-1794)
• LEE, ROBERT EDWARD (1807–1870)
• LEE, SIDNEY (1859– )
• LEE, SOPHIA (1950-1824)
• LEE, STEPHEN DILL (1833-1908)

Lee, he disbanded his men and surrendered; and through the influence of General Grant, who later became his See also:

• PERSONAL

personal friend, he was paroled . He returned to his legal practice, joined the Republican party, canvassed Virginia in 1872 for General Grant, in 1878–1885 was See also:

• UNITED

United States See also:

• CONSUL
• CONSUL (in Gr. generally ihraros,ashortened form of errpavgybs 8hraeos, i.e. praetor maximus)

consul at Hong-See also:

• KONG

Kong, and after practising law in See also:

• SAN

San Francisco, was assistant See also:

• ATTORNEY (from O. Fr. atorne, a person appointed to act for another, from atourner, legal Lat. attornare, attorn, literally to turn over to another or commit business to another)

attorney in the Federal See also:

• DEPARTMENT (Fr. departement, from departir, to separate into parts)

Department of Justice from 1904 to 1910 .

He wrote Mosby's Reminiscences and Stuart's Cavalry See also:

• CAMPAIGNS

Campaigns‘ (See also:

• BOSTON
• BOSTON, THOMAS (1676-1732)

Boston, 1887), and—a See also:

• DEFENCE
• DEFENCE (Lat. defendere, to defend)

defence of Stuart and of Lee—Stuart's Cavalry in the See also:

• GETTYSBURG

Gettysburg See also:

• CAMPAIGN

Campaign (New York, 1908) . See J . See also:

• MARSHALL
• MARSHALL, ALFRED (1842– )
• MARSHALL, JOHN (1755–1835)
• MARSHALL, JOHN (1818-1891)
• MARSHALL, STEPHEN (c. 1594-1655)

Marshall See also:

• CRAWFORD, EARLS OF
• CRAWFORD, FRANCIS MARION (1854–1909)
• CRAWFORD, THOMAS (1814–1857)
• CRAWFORD, WILLIAM HARRIS (1772–1834)

Crawford, Mosby and his Men (New York, 1867) ; A . Monteiro, War Reminiscences by the Surgeon of Mosby's Command (See also:

• RICHMOND
• RICHMOND, EARLS AND DUKES OF
• RICHMOND, LEGH (1772-1827)
• RICHMOND, SIR WILLIAM BLAKE (1842– )

Richmond, Virginia, 1890) ; James J . See also:

• WILLIAMSON, ALEXANDER WILLIAM (1824–1904)
• WILLIAMSON, SIR JOSEPH (1633–1701)
• WILLIAMSON, WILLIAM CRAWFORD (18r6–1895)

Williamson, Mosby's Rangers New York, 1909); John W . Munson, Reminiscences of a Mosby See also:

• GUERRILLA (erroneously written " guerilla," being the diminutive of the Span. guerra, war)

Guerrilla (New York, 1906); John H . Alexander, Mosby's Men (New York, 1907); and See also:

• PARTISAN, or PARTIZAN

Partisan See also:

• LIFE

Life with Mosby (New York, 1867), by John See also:

• SCOTT, ALEXANDER (fl. 1550)
• SCOTT, DAVID (18o6-1849)
• SCOTT, MICHAEL (1789-1835)
• SCOTT, ROBERT (1811-1887)
• SCOTT, SIR GEORGE GILBERT (1811-1878)
• SCOTT, SIR WALTER, BART
• SCOTT, WILLIAM BELL (1811-1890)
• SCOTT, WINFIELD (1786-1866)

Scott, who drafted the Partisan See also:

• RANGER, HENRY WARD (1858– )

Ranger Law, under which Mosby's command operated .