See also:

• MOSAIC (corresponding to Lat. opus musivum, from Gr. µovoeiov, an artificial grotto often decorated with mosaics; the word is only found in the sense of mosaic in late Greek, which generally uses k oXI yrlµa)

MOSAIC (corresponding to See also:

• LAT

Lat. See also:

• OPUS ('O7rois)

opus musivum, from Gr. µovoeiov, an artificial grotto often decorated with mosaics; the word is only found in the sense of mosaic in See also:

• LATE

late See also:

• GREEK
• GREEK, ETRUSCAN AND

Greek, which generally uses k oXI yrlµa)  , the fitting together of many, generally small, pieces of See also:

• MARBLE (from Lat. marmor, Gr. pApµapos, shining stone)

marble, opaque See also:

• GLASS
• GLASS (O.E. glees, cf. Ger. Glas, perhaps derived from an old Teutonic root gla-, a variant of glo-, having the general sense of shining, cf. " glare," " glow ")
• GLASS, STAINED

glass, coloured See also:

• CLAYS, PAUL JEAN (1819-1900)

clays, or other substances, so as to See also:

• FORM (Lat. forma)

form a See also:

• PATTERN

pattern . See also:

• ANCIENT
• ANCIENT (also spelt ANTIENT; derived, through the Fr. ancien, old, from the late Lat. antianum, from ante, before)

Ancient See also:

• MOSAIC (corresponding to Lat. opus musivum, from Gr. µovoeiov, an artificial grotto often decorated with mosaics; the word is only found in the sense of mosaic in late Greek, which generally uses k oXI yrlµa)

Mosaic.—The earliest existing specimens of mosaic belong to one of the less important branches of the See also:

• ART

art—namely, the ornamentation on a small See also:

• SCALE
• SCALE (1) A

scale of jewellery, See also:

• IVORY (Fr. ivoire, Lat. ebur)
• IVORY, SIR JAMES (1765-1842)

ivory thrones, and other See also:

• FURNITURE (from " furnish," Fr. fournir)

furniture, or more rarely of some elaborate architectural See also:

• ORNAMENT (Lat. ornare, to adorn)

ornament . Most of this sort of mosaic resembles in See also:

• EXECUTION (from Lat. ex-sequor, exsecutus, follow or carry out)

execution what are called cloisonne enamels . In the Louvre and in the See also:

• BRITISH

British Museum are preserved some very beautiful ivory carvings in See also:

• LOW, SETH (1850- )
• LOW, WILL HICOK (1853- )

low See also:

• RELIEF

relief, some from See also:

• NINEVEH (Heb. m}'?, in classical authors Nivos, Ninus; LXX. Ntsetni, Nnveun: Assyrian Nind or Ninua)

Nineveh and others from See also:

• EGYPT

Egypt, in which figures of deities, ornaments formed of the See also:

• LOTUS

lotus and See also:

• PAPYRUS

papyrus See also:

• PLANTS

plants and royal cartouches are enriched by small pieces of glass, or lapis-lazuli and other See also:

• GEM (Lat. gemma, a bud,—from the root gen, meaning " to produce,"—or precious stone; in the latter sense the Greek term is > d>os)
• GEM, ARTIFICIAL

gem-like stones, which are let into holes made in the ivory . Each See also:

• MINUTE
• MINUTE (Lat. minutes, small; minuere, to make less)

minute piece is separated from the next by a thin See also:

• WALL (O. Eng. weal, weall, Mid. Eng. wal, wane, adapted from Lat. vallum, rampart; the original O. Eng. word for a wall was wag or tenth)
• WALL, RICHARD (1694-1778)

wall or cloison of ivory, about as thick as cardboard, which thus forms a See also:

• WHITE
• WHITE, ANDREW DICKSON (1832– )
• WHITE, GILBERT (1720–1793)
• WHITE, HENRY KIRKE (1785-1806)
• WHITE, HUGH LAWSON (1773-1840)
• WHITE, JOSEPH BLANCO (1775-1841)
• WHITE, RICHARD GRANT (1822-1885)
• WHITE, ROBERT (1645-1704)
• WHITE, SIR GEORGE STUART (1835– )
• WHITE, SIR THOMAS (1492-1567)
• WHITE, SIR WILLIAM ARTHUR (1824--1891)
• WHITE, SIR WILLIAM HENRY (1845– )
• WHITE, THOMAS (1628-1698)
• WHITE, THOMAS (c. 1550-1624)

white outline and sets off the brilliance of the coloured stones . Excavations at Tel-el-Yehudia in See also:

• LOWER

Lower Egypt have brought to See also:

• LIGHT

light some mosaics on a larger scale, but treated in the same way . These are caps of columns, wall tiles, and other See also:

• OBJECTS

objects, either of white See also:

• LIMESTONE

limestone or earthenware, in which designs, chiefly some forms of the papyrus, are formed by bits of glass or enamelled earthenware, let into a sinking in the the or See also:

• COLUMN (Lat. columna)

column . This form of mosaic was employed by the Greeks: the See also:

• ERECHTHEUM

Erechtheum at See also:

• ATHENS
• ATHENS ['AN vat, Athenae, modem colloquial Greek `Ath va]

Athens, built in the See also:

• MIDDLE

middle of the 5th See also:

• CENTURY (from Lat. centuria, a division of a hundred men)

century B.C., had the bases of some of its white marble columns ornamented with a See also:

• PLAIT (through O. Fr. pleit, from Lat. plicitum, folded, plicare, to fold)

plait-like See also:

• DESIGN (Fr. desiin, drawing; Lat. designare, to mark out)

design, in which pieces of coloured glass were inserted to emphasize the See also:

• MAIN (from the Aryan root which appears in " may " and " might," and Lat. magnus, great)
• MAIN (Lat. Moenus)

main lines of the pattern . Another, quite different, sort of mosaic was known to the Egyptians of the Ptolemaic and See also:

• ROMAN

Roman periods . This is made entirely of glass and is extremely minute . The finest known specimen is in the British Museum: it is a small tablet about s in. square, apparently the See also:

• BEZEL (from an O. Fr. word, cf. Mod. Fr. biseau, basile, possibly connected with Lat. bis, twice)

bezel of a See also:

• RING (O.E. hring; a word common to Teutonic languages; and probably cognate with the Lat. circus, Gr. KtpKOS or KpLKOS, Skt'. chakra, wheel, circle, cf. also " harangue "); in art, a band of circular shape of varying sizes, made of any material and used f

ring, on which is represented the sacred See also:

• HAWK (O. Eng. hafoc or heafoc, a common Teutonic word, cf. Dutch havik, Ger. Habicht; the root is hab-, haf-, to hold, cf. Lat. accipiter, from capere)

hawk—every See also:

• FEATHER (0. Eng. (ether, Ger. Feder, from an Indo-European root seen also in Gr. lrrepov, and aEreo-Oat, to fly)

feather on the See also:

• BIRD

bird's wing being produced with a See also:

• GREAT

great number of See also:

• COLOURS, MILITARY

colours and tints, each quite distinct, and so minute that a strong magnifying glass is required to distinguish its details, The way in which this mosaic was produced is extremely ingenious . See also:

• NUMBERS, BOOK OF
• NUMBERS, PARTITION OF

Numbers of See also:

• LONG, GEORGE (1800-1879)
• LONG, JOHN DAVIS (1838– )

long sticks of various-coloured glass were arranged in such a way that their ends produced the figure of the hawk; other sticks of See also:

• BLUE (common in different forms to most European languages)

blue glass were placed all See also:

• ROUND (O. Fr. rond, Lat. rotundus, the Fr. is the source also of Du. rond; Ger., Swed., Dan. and Nor. rond)

round so as to form the ground .

The whole bundle of sticks of glass when looked at endwise now presented the figure of the hawk with a blue background, immensely larger than it after-wards became . The bundle was then heated till the sticks melted together, and the whole thick See also:

• ROD (O.E. rodd, probably related to Norw. rudda, stick, rodda, stake)
• ROD, EDOUARD (1857-1910)

rod, softened by See also:

• FIRE (in O. Eng. f j'r; the word is common to West German languages, cf. Dutch vuur, Ger. Feuer; the pre-Teutonic form is seen in Sanskrit pu, pavaka, and Gr. irup; the ultimate origin is usually taken to be a root meaning to purify, cf. Lat. purus)

fire, was See also:

• DRAWN

drawn out to a greatly diminished thickness . A slice of the rod was then cut off and its faces polished—the design, much reduced in See also:

• SIZE

size, of course being equally visible at both sides of the slice; and thus the microscopic minuteness of the mosaic was produced with astonishing delicacy and refinement; many slices, each showing the same mosaic. could be cut from the same rod . Far more important was the use of mosaic on a large scale, either for pavements or for walls and vaulted ceilings . We are told by See also:

• PLINY, THE ELDER
• PLINY, THE YOUNGER

Pliny (H . N. See also:

• XXXVI

xxxvi . 184) that the practice of decorating pavements " after the See also:

• FASHION (adapted from Fr. facon, agon, Lat. factio, making, facere, to do or make)

fashion of See also:

• PAINTING

painting was due to the Greeks, and there is no See also:

• REASON (Lat. ratio, through French raison)

reason to doubt the truth of this statement, although no mosaic See also:

• PAVEMENT (Lat. pavimentu;n, a floor beaten or rammed hard, from pavire, to beat)

pavement discovered in See also:

• GREECE

Greece can be dated with certainty to a See also:

• PERIOD
• PERIOD (Gr. irepioSos, a going or way round, circuit, aepi, round, and &Sis, way, road)

period preceding the Roman occupation . This is true even of the pavement in the See also:

• TEMPLE
• TEMPLE, FREDERICK (1821-1902)
• TEMPLE, RICHARD
• TEMPLE, SIR RICHARD, BART
• TEMPLE, SIR WILLIAM, BART

temple of See also:

• ZEUS

Zeus at See also:

• OLYMPIA

Olympia (fig . 1; Olympia, Baudenkmdler, vol. ii. pl. cv.) . The simplest See also:

• CLASSIFICATION (Lat. classis, a class, probably from the root cal-, cla-, as in Gr. icaMce, clamor)

classification of mosaics is that of Gauckler (Daremberg and Saglio, Dictionnaire See also:

• DES

des anliquites, s.v . " Musivum See also:

• OPUS ('O7rois)

Opus "), who distinguishes the following: a . Opus . tessellatum, consisting of cubes of marble or See also:

• STONE
• STONE (0. Eng. shin; the word is common to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Stein, Du. steen, Dan. and Swed. sten; the root is also seen in Gr. aria, pebble)
• STONE, CHARLES POMEROY (1824-1887)
• STONE, EDWARD JAMES (1831-1897)
• STONE, FRANK (1800-1859)
• STONE, GEORGE (1708—1764)
• STONE, LUCY [BLACKWELL] (1818-1893)
• STONE, MARCUS (184o— )
• STONE, NICHOLAS (1586-1647)

stone, regularly disposed in See also:

• SIMPLE

simple patterns .

This was largely used for pavements, especially in Roman times . b . Opus vermiculatum, consisting of cubes (not always regularly shaped) generally of coloured See also:

• MARBLES

marbles or more See also:

• PRECIOUS (O. Fr. precios, mod. precieux, Lat. pretiosus, of high value or price, pretium)

precious materials, when these were obtainable, disposed so as to obtain a pictorial effect . The art of mosaic is mainly concerned with this See also:

• BRANCH (from the Fr. branche, late Lat. branca, an animal's paw)

branch of See also:

• WORK

work . c . Opus musivum, properly applied to the mosaic decoration of walls and vaulted ceilings (camerae), in which cubes of glass or See also:

• ENAMEL (formerly " amel," derived through the Fr. amail, emmll, esmail, from a Latin word smaltum, first found in a 9th-century life of Leo IV.)

enamel were used . The glass was rendered opaque by the addition of See also:

• OXIDE

oxide of See also:

• TIN (Lat.- stannum, whence the chemical symbol " Sn "; atomic weight =117.6, 0=16)

tin, and coloured with other metallic oxides; when melted it was See also:

• CAST (from the verb meaning " to throw "; the word is Scand. in origin, cf. Dan. kaste, and Swed. kasta; " cast " in Middle Eng. took the place of the A.S. weor pan, cf. Ger. werf en)

cast into See also:

• FLAT (a modification of O. Eng. flet, an obsolete word of Teutonic origin, meaning the ground beneath the feet)

flat slabs, generally about 2 in. thick, and then broken into small cubes . d . Opus sectile, a See also:

• SPECIES

species of marqueterie in marble or other coloured materials used to produce pictures and patterns . Under the later See also:

• EMPIRE

empire a particular variety of this, called opus alexandrinum2 mainly composed of See also:

• PORPHYRY (IlopcPisptos) (A.D. 233-c. 304)

porphyry, red and See also:

• GREEN, A
• GREEN, ALEXANDER HENRY (1832—1896)
• GREEN, DUFF (1791—1875)
• GREEN, JOHN RICHARD (1837—1883)
• GREEN, MATTHEW (1696-1737)
• GREEN, THOMAS HILL (1836-1882)
• GREEN, VALENTINE (1739–1813)
• GREEN, WILLIAM HENRY (.1825–1900)

green,' was much in use . Judging from the description given by See also:

• VITRUVIUS (MARCUS VITRUVIUS POLLIO)

Vitruvius (vii . I), and an examination of numerous specimens of Roman See also:

• TESSELLATED (Lat. tessellatus,)

tessellated mosaics, the See also:

• PROCESS

process of manufacture was the following .

The See also:

• EARTH
• EARTH (a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Erde, Dutch aarde, Swed. and Dan. jord; outside Teutonic it appears only in the Gr. 'pq'e, on the ground; it has been connected by some etymologists with the Aryan root ar-, to plough, which is seen in
• EARTH, FIGURE OF
• EARTH, FIGURE OF THE

earth was first carefully rammed down to a See also:

• FIRM

firm and even See also:

• SURFACE

surface; on this was laid a thick See also:

• BED
• BED (a common Teutonic word, cf. German Bett, probably connected with the Indo-European root bhodh, seen in the Lat. fodere, to dig; so " a dug-out place " for safe resting, or in the same sense as a garden " bed ")

bed of stones, dry rubbish, and See also:

• LIME
• LIME (O. Eng. lim, Lat. limes, mud, from linere, to smear)

lime, called " rudus," from 6 to 9 in. deep, and above this another layer, 4 to 6 in. thick, called " See also:

• NUCLEUS (Lat. for the kernal of a nut, nux, the stone of fruit)

nucleus," of one See also:

• PART

part of lime to three of pounded See also:

• BRICK (derived according to some etymologists from the Teutonic bricke, a disk or plate; but more authoritatively, through the French brique, originally a " broken piece," applied especially to bread, and so to clay, from the Teutonic brikan, to break)

brick, mixed with See also:

• WATER

water; on this, while still soft, the pattern could be sketched out with a wooden or See also:

• METAL
• METAL (through Fr. from Lat. metallum, mine, quarry, adapted from Gr. µATaXAov, in the same sense, probably connected with ,ueraAAdv, to search after, explore, µeTa, after, aAAos, other)

metal point, and the tesserae or small bits of marble See also:

• STUCK, FRANZ (1863— )

stuck into it, with their smoothest See also:

• SIDE
• SIDE (mod. Eski Adalia)

side uppermost . Lime, pounded white marble, and water were then mixed to the consistency of cream, forming a very hard-setting See also:

• CEMENT (from Lat. caementum, rough pieces of stone, a shortened form of caedimentum, from caedere, to cut)

cement, called marmoratum . This cement, while fluid, was poured over the marble surface, and well brushed into all the interstices between the tesserae . When the See also:

• CONCRETE
• CONCRETE (Lat. concretes, participle of concrescere, to grow together)

concrete and cement were both set, the surface of the pavement was rubbed down and polished . The usual Roman pavement was made of pieces of marble, averaging from See also:

• HALF

half to a See also:

• QUARTER (through Fr. from Lat. quartarius, fourth part)

quarter of an See also:

• INCH (O. Eng. ynce from Lat. uncia, a twelfthpart; cf. " ounce," and see As)

inch square, but rather ' In the less prosperous provinces of the empire, such as See also:

• BRITAIN (Gr. Hperavuml vi7vot, Bperravia; Lat. Britannia, rarely Britannia)

Britain, these costly materials could not be obtained, and native See also:

• SANDSTONE

sandstone, &c., was used . 2 The biographer of See also:

• SEVERUS
• SEVERUS, SULPICIUS (c. 363–c. 425)

Severus See also:

• ALEXANDER
• ALEXANDER (1461-1506)
• ALEXANDER (ALEXANDER OF BATTENBERG) (1857-1893)
• ALEXANDER (ALEXANDER OsxENOVici) (1876-1903)
• ALEXANDER, ARCHIBALD (1772—1851)
• ALEXANDER, FRANCIS (1800—1881)
• ALEXANDER, GEORGE (1858— )
• ALEXANDER, JOHN WHITE (1856- )
• ALEXANDER, JOSEPH ADDISON (18o9—186o)
• ALEXANDER, SIR JAMES EDWARD (1803—1885)
• ALEXANDER, WILLIAM (1824— )
• ALEXANDER, WILLIAM LINDSAY (1808—1884)

Alexander (Hist . Aug., c . 25, 7) attributes the invention of opus alexandrinum to that See also:

• EMPEROR (Fr. empereur, from the Lat. imperator)

emperor; but this is clearly a false derivation . This technique was doubtless invented at See also:

• ALEXANDRIA
• ALEXANDRIA (Arab. Iskenderia)

Alexandria . 3 This latter is often, but wrongly, called See also:

• SERPENTINE

serpentine.irregular in shape . A few other, but quite exceptional, kinds of mosaic pavements have been found, such as that at the Isola See also:

• FARNESE
• FARNESE, ALEXANDER (1545-1592)
• FARNESE, ELIZABETH (1692-1766)

Farnese, 9 m. from See also:

• ROME
• ROME (Roma)

Rome, made of See also:

• TILE (0. Eng. tigel, Fr. tuile, connected with Lat. tegula)

tile-like slabs of green glass, and a See also:

• FINE

fine "sectile " pavement on the See also:

• PALATINE (from Lat. palatium, a palace,)

Palatine See also:

• HILL
• HILL (0. Eng. hyll; cf. Low Ger. hull, Mid. Dutch hul, allied to Lat. celsus, high, collis, hill, &c.)
• HILL, A
• HILL, AARON (1685-175o)
• HILL, AMBROSE POWELL
• HILL, DANIEL HARVEY (1821-1889)
• HILL, DAVID BENNETT (1843–1910)
• HILL, GEORGE BIRKBECK NORMAN (1835-1903)
• HILL, JAMES J
• HILL, JOHN (c. 1716-1775)
• HILL, MATTHEW DAVENPORT (1792-1872)
• HILL, OCTAVIA (1838– )
• HILL, ROWLAND (1744–1833)
• HILL, SIR ROWLAND (1795-1879)

Hill, made of various-shaped pieces of glass, in See also:

• BLACK
• BLACK, ADAM (1784-1874)
• BLACK, JEREMIAH SULLIVAN (1810–1883)
• BLACK, WILLIAM (1841-1898)

black, white, and deep yellow . In some cases—e.g. in the " See also:

• HOUSE
• HOUSE (O. Eng. hiss, a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Dut. huis, Ger. Haus; in Gothic it is only found in gudhiss, a temple; it may be ultimately connected with the root of " hide," conceal)

House of the Faun " at See also:

• POMPEII

Pompeii—glass tesserae in small quantities have been mixed with the marble ones, for the See also:

• SAKE

sake of greater brilliance of See also:

• COLOUR (Lat. color, connected with celare, to hide, the root meaning, therefore, being that of a covering)

colour .

Few countries are richer than See also:

• ENGLAND
• ENGLAND, THE CHURCH OF

England in remains of Roman mosaics; the great pavements of See also:

• YORK
• YORK (HOUSE OF)
• YORK, EDMUND OF LANGLEY, DUKE OF (1341-1402)
• YORK, EDWARD
• YORK, FREDERICK AUGUSTUS, DUKE OF (1763-1827)
• YORK, RICHARD, DUKE

York, Woodchester, See also:

• CIRENCESTER (traditionally pronounced Ciceter)

Cirencester, and many other places are as elaborate in design and as skilfully executed as any that now exist even in Rome itself . In what-ever See also:

• COUNTRY (from the Mid. Eng. contre or contrie, and O. Fr. cuntree; Late Lat. contrata, showing the derivation from contra, opposite, over against, thus the tract of land which fronts the sight, cf. Ger. Gegend, neighbourhood)

country these mosaics are found, their See also:

• STYLE
• STYLE (from Gr. a-6'1ms, a column; a different word from that used in literature, see below)

style and method of treatment are always much the same; the materials only of which the tesserae are made vary according to the stone or marble supplied by each country . In England, for instance, limestone or See also:

• CHALK

chalk often takes the See also:

• PLACE (through Fr. from Lat. platea, street; Gr. IrAar6s, wide)

place of the white marble so See also:

• COMMON

common in See also:

• ITALIAN

Italian and See also:

• NORTH
• NORTH, BARONS
• NORTH, MARIANNE (1830—1890)
• NORTH, ROGER (1653-1734)
• NORTH, SIR THOMAS (1535?-16o1?)

North See also:

• AFRICAN

African mosaics; while, instead of red marble, a fine sort of burnt See also:

• CLAY (from O. Eng. claeg, a word common in various forms to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Klei)
• CLAY, CASSIUS MARCELLUS (1810-1903)
• CLAY, CHARLES (1801–1893)
• CLAY, FREDERIC (1838–1889)
• CLAY, HENRY (1777–1852)

clay or red sandstone is generally used; other makeshifts had to be resorted to, and many of the Romano-British mosaics are made entirely without marble . It is perhaps partly owing to the great See also:

• WEALTH

wealth of See also:

• NORTHERN

Northern See also:

• AFRICA
• AFRICA, ROMAN

Africa in marbles of many colours and of varying shades that the finest of all Roman mosaics have been found in See also:

• ALGERIA
• ALGERIA (Algerie)

Algeria and See also:

• TUNIS

Tunis, especially those from See also:

• CARTHAGE
• CARTHAGE (Phoenician Kart-hadshat, " New City "; Gr. Kapxn5c; v, Lat. Carthago or Carchedon)
• CARTHAGE, SYNODS OF

Carthage, some of which have been brought to the British Museum . See Archaeologic, xxxviii . 202 . The range of colour in the marble tesserae is very great, and is made use of with wonderful See also:

• TASTE (from Lat. taxare, to touch sharply; tangere, to touch)

taste and skill: there are three or four different shades of red, and an equal number of yellows and greens, the last colour in all its tints being almost See also:

• PECULIAR

peculiar to this part of Africa, and one of the most pleasant and harmonious in almost any See also:

• COMBINATION (Lat. combinare, to combine)

combination . Deep black, browns and bluish-greys are also abundant . The mosaics from Carthage are no less excellent in design than in the richness and beauty of their materials . Large spaces are filled by See also:

• GRAND

grand sweeping curves of See also:

• ACANTHUS (the Greek and Latin name for the plant, connected with &sib a sharp point)

acanthus and other leaves, drawn with wonderful boldness and freedom of See also:

• HAND
• HAND (a word common to Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Hand, Goth. handus)
• HAND, FERDINAND GOTTHELF (1786-185r)

hand, and varied with great wealth of invention . Without the use of very small tesserae, much richness of effect is given by gradations of tints, suggesting light and \rr,rirt,f'rrrrrrrr rnrrnrrn nrrrrrrrrrr rrrrnr,rrY II shade, without a painful See also:

• ATTEMPT (Lat. adtemptare, attentare, to try)

attempt to represent actual relief . The colours of the marbles used here and elsewhere by the See also:

• ROMANS
• ROMANS, EPISTLE TO THE

Romans are so quiet and harmonious that it would have been almost impossible to produce with them a harsh or glaring design, and when used with the skill and strong See also:

• ARTISTIC

artistic feeling of the mosaic workers at Carthage the result is a real masterpiece of decorative design .

The finest of the later examples in Rome is that which decorates the vault of the See also:

• AMBULATORY (Med. Lat. ainbulatorium, a place for walking, from ambulare, to walk)

ambulatory of the circular See also:

• CHURCH
• CHURCH (according to most authorities derived from the Gr. Kvpcaxov [&wµa], " the Lord's [house]," and common to many Teutonic, Slavonic and other languages under various forms—Scottish kirk, Ger. Kirche, Swed. kirka, Dan. kirke, Russ. tserkov, Buig. cerk
• CHURCH, FREDERICK EDWIN (1826-1900)
• CHURCH, GEORGE EARL (1835–1910)
• CHURCH, RICHARD WILLIAM (1815–189o)
• CHURCH, SIR RICHARD (1784–1873)

church of S . Costanza, built by See also:

• CONSTANTINE

Constantine the Great, outside the walls of Rome . This very interesting mosaic might from its style and materials have been executed in the 1st century, and is equal in beauty to any work of the See also:

• KIND (O. E. ge-cynde, from the same root as is seen in " kin," supra)

kind in See also:

• ITALY
• ITALY (Italia)

Italy . It shows no trace whatever of the See also:

• BYZANTINE

Byzantine See also:

• INFLUENCE (Late Lat. influentia, from influere, to flow in)

influence which, in the next century, introduced into Italy a novel style of mosaic, in materials of the most glittering splendour . Survivals of this classical style of mosaic are found in North Africa and the See also:

• EAST
• EAST, ALFRED (1849- )

East . At Kabr-Hiram, near See also:

• TYRE (Phoen. and Hebr. =" rock," Assyr. S'urru, Egypt. Dara, Early Lat. Sarra)

Tyre, See also:

• RENAN, ERNEST (1823-1892)

Renan discovered among the ruins of a small three-apsed See also:

• CHRISTIAN
• CHRISTIAN, WILLIAM (1608-1663)

Christian church of the 4th century A.D. a fine mosaic pavement, covering the See also:

• NAVE

nave and aisles, thoroughly classical in style . A very similar mosaic, of about the same date, was discovered at Nebi Yunas, near See also:

• SIDON (Phoen. ins, Hebrew 1-rs, Assyr. Sidunnu, Egypt. Diduna)

Sidon . See also:

• MEDIEVAL

Medieval Mosaics.—These may be divided into four See also:

• PRINCIPAL

principal classes: (1) those used to decorate walls and vaults, made of glass cubes; (2) those for pavements, made of marble, partly in large shaped pieces, and partly in small tesserae; (3) glass in small pieces, either rectangular or triangular, used to enrich marble pulpits, columns, and other architectural features; (4) See also:

• WOOD, ANTHONY A2 (1632-1695)
• WOOD, JOHN GEORGE (1827—1889)
• WOOD, MRS HENRY [ELLEN] (1814—1887)
• WOOD, SEARLES VALENTINE (1798—188o)

wood mosaics . 1 . In the Byzantine period the glass See also:

• CUBE (Gr. K46os, a cube)

cube mosaic was exclusively employed in mural decoration . At first natural colouring was used, and backgrounds, if not in See also:

• LOCAL

local colour, were generally blue; but the use of See also:

• GOLD
• GOLD [symbol Au, atomic weight 195.7(H = 1),197.2(0 =16)]

gold, both for backgrounds and for the high See also:

• LIGHTS, CEREMONIAL USE OF

lights on drapery, &c., gradually prevailed . Owing to the intense conservatism of Byzantine art, no See also:

• REGULAR

regular stages of progression can be traced in this class of mosaic .

Some of the 5th-century mosaics at See also:

• RAVENNA
• RAVENNA, EXARCHATE OF

Ravenna are, in every way, as fine as those of the 12th, and it was not till the end of the 13th century that any important See also:

• CHANGE (derived through the Fr. from the Late Lat. cambium, cambiare, to barter; the ultimate derivation is probably from the root which appears in the Gr. «a urmu', to bend)

change in style took place . The mosaics of the 9th century are inferior in See also:

• DRAWING

drawing and See also:

• GENERAL
• GENERAL (Lat. generalis, of or relating to a genus, kind or class)

general treatment to those both of the earlier and later See also:

• TIME (0. Eng. Lima, cf. Icel. timi, Swed. timme, hour, Dan. time; from the root also seen in " tide," properly the time of between the flow and ebb of the sea, cf. O. Eng. getidan, to happen, " even-tide," &c.; it is not directly related to Lat. tempus)
• TIME, MEASUREMENT OF
• TIME, STANDARD

time, while in Italy at least this art was almost entirely See also:

• EXTINCT

extinct during the loth and rrth centuries . Extreme splendour of colour and See also:

• JEWEL, JOHN (1522-1571)

jewel-like brilliance combined with the most stately grandeur of form are the main characteristics of this sort of decoration . A " See also:

• MAJESTY (Fr. majeste; Lat. majestas, grandeur, greatness, from the base mag-, as in magnus, great, major, greater, &c.)

majesty," or See also:

• COLOSSAL

colossal central figure of See also:

• CHRIST (Gr. X pLQTOS, Anointed)
• CHRIST, WILHELM VON (1831-1906)

Christ with See also:

• SAINTS, BATTLE OF THE

saints See also:

• STANDING

standing on each side, is the most frequent See also:

• MOTIVE (from Lat. movere, to move)

motive . In many cases, especially in the 5th and 6th centuries, Christ was represented as a See also:

• LAMB (a word common to Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Lamm)
• LAMB, CHARLES (1775–1834)

lamb, to whom the twelve apostles, in the form of See also:

• SHEEP
• SHEEP (from the Anglo-Saxon sceap, a word common in various forms to Teutonic languages; e.g. the German Schaf)

sheep, are paying See also:

• ADORATION (Lat. ad, to, and os, mouth; i.e. " carrying to one's mouth ")

adoration . Christ, the See also:

• GOOD, JOHN MASON (1764-1827)

Good Shepherd, is sometimes depicted as a beardless youth, seated among a circle of sheep—the treatment of the motive being obviously taken from See also:

• PAGAN
• PAGAN (Lat. paganus, of or belonging to a pagus, a canton, county district, village, commune)

Pagan representations of See also:

• ORPHEUS

Orpheus playing to the beasts . The See also:

• TOMB (Gr. Tuµ/3a, Tuµ(3os, probably allied to Lat. tumulus, literally a swelling, tumere, to swell)

tomb of Galla Placidia has a good example of this subject, with much of the old Roman See also:

• GRACE (Fr. grace, Lat. gratia, from grates, beloved, pleasing; formed from the root cra-, Gr. xav-, cf. xaipw, x6p,ua, Xapts)
• GRACE, WILLIAM GILBERT (1848– )

grace in the drawing and See also:

• COMPOSITION
• COMPOSITION (Lat. compositio, from componere, to put together)

composition . Frequently the Virgin See also:

• MARY
• MARY (1457-1482)
• MARY (1496-1533)
• MARY, QUEEN OF SCOTS

Mary, or the See also:

• PATRON

patron See also:

• SAINT (lat. sanctus, " holy ")

saint of the church, occupies the central space in the See also:

• APSE
• APSE (Gr. alkir, a fastening, especially the felloe of a wheel; Lat. absis)

apse, with ranges of other saints on each side . The " See also:

• DOOM (Old Eng. dOm, a word common to Tent. languages for that which is set up or ordered, from " do," in its original meaning of " place "; cf, Gr. &Ass, from stem of ri'rust)

Doom," or Last See also:

• JUDGMENT

Judgment, is a favourite subject for domes and See also:

• SANCTUARY (from the late Lat. sanctuarium, a sacred place)

sanctuary See also:

• ARCHES, COURT OF

arches; the See also:

• FLORENCE
• FLORENCE (Ital. Firenze, Lat. Florentia)

Florence.See also:

• BAPTISTERY (Baptislerium, in the Greek Church 4wrurrilpiov)

baptistery has one of the grandest mosaic pictures of this subject, executed in the 13th century . The earlier baptisteries usually subject, the See also:

• SCENE (Fr. scene, Lat. scaena, Gr. oflvil, a tent or booth, a stage or scene)

scene of Christ's See also:

• BAPTISM

baptism—the See also:

• RIVER

river See also:

• JORDAN (the down-comer; Arab. esh-Sheri'a, the watering-place)
• JORDAN, CAMILLE (1771—1821)
• JORDAN, DOROTHEA (1762—1816)
• JORDAN, THOMAS (1612 ?–1685)
• JORDAN, WILHELM (1819–1904)

Jordan being sometimes personified in a very classical manner, as an old See also:

• MAN
• MAN, ISLE OF (anc. Mona)

man with flowing See also:

• BEARD (A.S. beard, O. H. and Mod. Ger. Bart, Dan. beard, Icel. bar, rim, edge, beak of a ship, &c., O. Slay. barda, Russ. barodd. Cf. Welsh barf, Lat.. barba, though, according to the New English Dictionary, the connexion is for phonetic reasons doubtful)
• BEARD, WILLIAM HOLBROOK (1825-1900)

beard, holding an See also:

• URN (Lat. urna, either from root of urere, to burn, being made of burnt clay, or connected with urceus, Gr. I5pxa, jar)

urn from which a stream pours forth . S . Vitale at Ravenna has in the sanctuary a very interesting See also:

• REPRESENTATION

representation of Justinian and his empress See also:

• THEODORA
• THEODORA (d. 1057)

Theodora (see fig .

3), attended by a numerous See also:

• SUITE (Suite de pieces; Ordre; Partita)

suite of courtiers and ladies ; these mosaics are certainly of the 6th century, and may be contemporary with Justinian, though the fact that he and Theodora are each represented with a circular nimbus appears to indicate that they were not then alive . In mosaics of the best periods the treatment of the forms and draperies is broad and simple, a just amount of relief being expressed by delicate gradations of tints . In mosaics of the 9th century the drawing is very awkward, and the folds of the See also:

• ROBES (Fr. robe, Late Lat. roba, raupa, meaning (1)

robes are rudely expressed in outline, with no See also:

• SUGGESTION

suggestion of light and shade . A further application of this work was to the decoration of broad bands over the columns of the nave, as at S . Maria See also:

• MAGGIORE, LAGO (Lacus Verbanus of the Romans; Fr. Lac Majeur; Ger. Langensee)

Maggiore in Rome, 4th century, and in the two churches of S . Apollinare at Ravenna, 6th century . In some cases almost the whole 885 interior of the church was encrusted in this magnificent way, as at See also:

• MONREALE (contraction of monte-reale, so called from a palace built here by Roger I.)

Monreale See also:

• CATHEDRAL

Cathedral, the See also:

• CAPELLA, MARTIANUS MINNEUS FELIX

Capella Palatina of See also:

• PALERMO (Greek, Havopuos; Latin, Panhormus, Panormus)

Palermo, and S . See also:

• MARK
• MARK, CARL (1858– )
• MARK, GOSPEL OF ST
• MARK, ST

Mark's at See also:

• VENICE
• VENICE (continued)
• VENICE (Venezia)

Venice . In these churches the mosaics See also:

• COVER (from the Fr. convert, from couvrir, to cover, Lat. cooperire)

cover soffits and angles entirely, and give the effect of a See also:

• MASS (O.E. maesse; Fr. messe; Ger. Messe; Ital. messa; from eccl. Lat. missa)
• MASS, IN

mass of solid gold and colour producing the utmost conceivable splendour of decoration) . In many cases vaulted ceilings were covered with these mosaics, as the tomb of Galla Placidia, A.D . 450, and the two baptisteries at Ravenna, 5th and 6th centuries . For exteriors, the large use of mosaic was usually confined to the See also:

• WEST
• WEST, BENJAMIN (1738-1820)
• WEST, NICHOLAS (1461-1533)

west See also:

• FACADE

facade, as at S .

Miniato, Florence; S . Maria Maggiore, Rome; and S . Mark's, Venice . In almost all cases the figures are represented on a gold ground, and gold is freely used in the dresses and ornaments —See also:

• RICH, BARNABE (c. 1540-1617)
• RICH, CLAUDIUS JAMES (1787-1821)
• RICH, JOHN (1692-1761)
• RICH, PENELOPE, LADY (c. 1562–1607)
• RICH, RICHARD, 1ST BARON RICH (1490?-1567)

rich jewels and See also:

• EMBROIDERY (M.E. embrouderie, from O. Fr. embroder, Mod. Fr. broder)

embroidery being represented in gold, See also:

• SILVER

silver, sparkling reds, blues and other colours, so as to give the utmost splendour of effect to the figures and their drapery . The revival of the art of painting in Italy and the introduction of See also:

• FRESCO (Ital. for cool, " fresh ")

fresco work in the 14th century gave the deathblow to the 1 Unfortunately the See also:

• WORLD

world-wide fame of S . Mark's and the other great churches of Italy has subjected these extraordinary See also:

• WORKS

works to the fatal process of " restoration," and wherever any sign of decay in the cement backing (the tesserae themselves are quite indestructible) has given the least excuse the " restorers " have destroyed whole masses of ancient work, and supplied its place with worthless See also:

• MODERN

modern copies . The mosaics of the S . Mark's baptistery, and of the apses at S . Miniato, at See also:

• PISA
• PISA, COUNCIL OF (1409)

Pisa, and many other places have in this way been wantonly renewed in See also:

• RECENT

recent times . true art of wall-mosaics . Though at first the simple and archaic style of See also:

• CIMABUE, GIOVANNI (1240 to about 1302)

Cimabue and his pupils Jacopo da Turrita, See also:

• GIOTTO

Giotto, and Taddeo See also:

• GADDI

Gaddi was equally applicable to painting or mosaic, yet soon the development of art into greater See also:

• REALISM (from Low Lat. realis, appertaining to res, things, as opposed to ideas and imaginations)

realism and complexity required a method of expression unfettered by the necessities and canons of mosaic work . Pietro See also:

• CAVALLINI, PIETRO (c. 1259-1344)

Cavallini, a Roman artist, was one of the last who worked according to the old traditions .

His mosaic of the See also:

• BIRTH (a word common in various forms to Teutonic languages from the root of the verb " to bear ")

birth of the Virgin in S . Maria in Cosmedin, Rome, executed about the middle of the 14th century, is not without merit, though his See also:

• SUPERIOR

superior knowledge of form has only caused his composition to be somewhat feeble and insipid compared with the works of the earlier artists . Even in the r 5th century a few good mosaics were produced at Venice and else-where . The mosaics from See also:

• TITIAN
• TITIAN (c. 1477-1576)

Titian's pictures on the west end of S . Mark's at Venice, See also:

• RAPHAEL (Hebrew smm, " God heals ")

Raphael's in the Chigi See also:

• CHAPEL

Chapel in S . Maria del Popolo, and many large pictures in S . See also:

• PETER
• PETER (Lat. Petrus from Gr. irfpos, a rock, Ital. Pietro, Piero, Pier, Fr. Pierre, Span. Pedro, Ger. Peter, Russ. Petr)
• PETER (PEDRO)
• PETER, EPISTLES OF
• PETER, ST

Peter's in Rome are the most striking examples of these . The following See also:

• LIST (O.E. lisle, a Teutonic word, cf. Dut. lust, Ger. Leiste, adapted in Ital. lista and Fr. lisle)
• LIST, FRIEDRICH (1789-1846)

list, in See also:

• CHRONOLOGICAL

chronological See also:

• ORDER
• ORDER (through Fr. ordre, for earlier ordene, from Lat. ordo, ordinis, rank, service, arrangement; the ultimate source is generally taken to be the root seen in Lat. oriri, rise, arise, begin; cf. " origin ")
• ORDER, HOLY

order, comprises a selection from among the most important glass wall-mosaics during the period when mosaic-working was a real art.' . 4th Century . Rome . S . Costanza .

S . Maria Maggiore—square panels over the columns of the nave . S . Pudenziana . S . Giovanni in Laterano—chapel of SS . Rufina e Seconda . See also:

• NAPLES
• NAPLES (Ital. Napoli, and Lat. Neapolis)
• NAPLES, KINGDOM OF

Naples . S . Restituta—baptistery . sth Century . Ravenna .

Orthodox Baptistery—vault . Tomb of Galla Placidia—vault, 450 . See also:

• ARCHBISHOP (Lat. archiepiscopus, from Gr. apxceatorcoros)

Archbishop's Chapel—vault . Rome . S . See also:

• PAOLO (GIROLAMO GASPARE)5 (1532-1600)

Paolo fuori le mura—triumphal See also:

• ARCH
• ARCH, JOSEPH (1826– )

arch . S . Maria Maggiore—square pictures over nave columns, and triumphal arch (?), S . Sabina—figures on west wall: See also:

• MILAN
• MILAN (Ital. Milano, Ger. Mailand, anc. Mediolanum, q.v.)

Milan . S . Ambrogio, Chapel of S . Satiro=vault .

Fundi . Cathedral—apse . See also:

• NOLA

Nola . Cathedral—apse . 6th Century . Ravenna . Arian Baptistery—vault . S . Apollinare Nuovo—apse and nave, with 9th-century additions . S . Vitale—apse and whole sanctuary, c . 547 .

S . Apollinare in Classe—apse and nave, 549 . Rome . SS . See also:

• COSMAS

Cosmas and Damian—apse . Milan . S . Lorenzo, Chapel of S . Aquilinus—vault . See also:

• CONSTANTINOPLE
• CONSTANTINOPLE, COUNCILS OF

Constantinople . S . See also:

• SOPHIA (1630-1714)

Sophia—walls and vault, c .

550 . Thessalonica . Church of St See also:

• GEORGE
• GEORGE, 8TH MARQUESS OF TWEEDDALE (1787-1876)
• GEORGE, HENRY (1839—1897)
• GEORGE, LAKE
• GEORGE, SAINT (d. 303)

George—apse, &c . ; and S . Sophia See also:

• DOME (Lat domus, house; Ital. duomo, cathedral)

dome and apse . See also:

• TREBIZOND (Gr. Trapezus)

Trebizond . S . Sophia—apse . 7th Century . Rome . S . Agnese fuori le mura—apse, 626 .

S . Teodoro . S . Stefano Rotondo . S . Venanzio, baptistery of Lateran . See also:

• JERUSALEM (Heb. ^S0-r, Yerushalaim, pronounced as a dual)
• JERUSALEM, SYNOD OF (1672)

Jerusalem . " Dome of the See also:

• ROCK
• ROCK (O.Fr. rake, Sp. rota, Ital. rocca; possibly from a Lat. form rupica, from rupes, rock)
• ROCK, DANIEL (1799–187t)

Rock "—arches of ambulatory, 688 . 8th Century . Rome . Baptistery of S . Giovanni in Laterano .

SS . See also:

• NEREUS

Nereus and See also:

• ACHILLES
• ACHILLES (Gr. 'AxtXXeus)

Achilles . Jerusalem . See also:

• MOSQUE (through Fr. mosquie; Span. mezquila, from Arab. masjid, sajada, to adore)

Mosque of Al-Aksa—on dome . See also:

• MOUNT, WILLIAM SIDNEY (1807-1868)

Mount See also:

• SINAI

Sinai . Chapel of the Transfiguration . 9th Century . Rome . S . See also:

• CECILIA, SAINT

Cecilia in Trastevere—apse . S . Marco—apse .

S . Maria della Navicella—apse, and " Chapel of the Column." S . Prassede—triumphal arch . Milan . S . Ambrogio—apse, 832. zoth Century . See also:

• CORDOVA (Span. C6rdoba)
• CORDOVA (Span. Cordoba; Lat. Corduba)

Cordova . See also:

• MIHRAB

Mihrab (sanctuary) of Mosque . zzth Century . Jerusalem . " Dome of the Rock "—See also:

• BASE

base of See also:

• CUPOLA (Ital., from Lat. cupula, small cask or vault, cupa, tub)

cupola, 1027 . Constantinople .

Church of S . Saviour—walls and domes . 12th Century . Venice . S . Mark's—See also:

• NARTHEX (Gr. vapOr7E, the name of the plant giant=fennel, in Lat. ferula)

narthex, apse and walls of nave and aisles . 3 It must be remembered that the earlier mosaics have in most cases suffered much from restoration . See also:

• CAPUA (anc. Casilinum;, a town and archiepiscopal see of Campania, Italy, in the province of Caserta, 7 M. W. by rail from the town oI Caserta. Pop. (1901) 14
• CAPUA (mod. S. Maria di Capua Vetere)

Capua . Cathedral—apse . See also:

• TORCELLO

Torcello . Cathedral—apse . See also:

• MURANO (anc. Ammariuno)

Murano .

Cathedral—apse . See also:

• SALERNO (anc. Salernum)

Salerno: Cathedral—apse . Palermo . Capella Palatina, begun I132—the whole walls . Church of La Martorana—vault . Monreale . Cathedral—the whole walls, 1170-1190 . See also:

• BETHLEHEM
• BETHLEHEM (Heb. " House of Bread," or, according to a more questionable etymology, " of [the god] Lakhmu ")

Bethlehem . Church of the Nativity, 1169 . See also:

• CEFALU (anc. Cephaloedium)

Cefalu . Cathedral—apse, 1148 . Rome .

S . Clemente—apse . S . Francesca See also:

• ROMANA

Romana—apse . S . Maria in Trastevere—apse . 13th Century . Florence . Baptistery vault, begun c . 1225 by Fra Jacopo . S . Miniato—apse and west front .

Rome . S . Paolo fuori le mura—apse . S . Clemente—triumphal arch, 1297 . S . Giovanni in Laterano—apse by Jacopo da Turrita, I290 . S . Maria Maggiore—apse and west end by Jacopo da Turrita and Taddeo Gaddi . S . Maria in Trastevere—apse by Pietro Cavallini, I291 . 14th Century .

Florence . Baptistery, finished by See also:

• ANDREA, GIOVANNI (1275-1348)

Andrea Tafi . Pisa . Cathedral—east apse by Cimabue, 1302, north and See also:

• SOUTH
• SOUTH, ROBERT (1634–1716)

south apses by his pupils . Rome . S . Peter's—navicella, in See also:

• ATRIUM (either from ater, black, referring to the blackening of the walls from the smoke of the hearth, or from the Greek aiOpeov, open to the sky, or from an Etruscan town, Atria, where the style of building is supposed to have originated)

atrium by Giotto . S . Maria in Cosmedin—on walls by Pietro Cavallini, c . 1340 . Venice . SS .

Giovanni e Paolo—in arch over effigy of See also:

• DOGE

Doge See also:

• MOROSINI

Morosini . The Byzantine origin of these great wall-mosaics, wherever they are found, is amply proved both by See also:

• INTERNAL

internal and documentary See also:

• EVIDENCE (Lat. evidentia, evideri, to appear clearly)

evidence . The gorgeous mosaics of S . Sophia and S . Saviour's in Constantinople, 6th century, and the later ones in the monasteries of Mount See also:

• ATHOS (Gr. "Aytov "Opos; Turk. Aineros; Ital. Monte Santo)

Athos, at See also:

• SALONICA, SALONIKA

Salonica and at See also:

• DAPHNE

Daphne near Athens, are identical in style with those of Italy of the same date . Moreover, the even more beautiful mosaic work in the " Dome of the Rock " at Jerusalem, 7th and 11th centuries, and that in the sanctuary of the great mosque of Cordova, of the loth century, are known to be the work of Byzantine artists, in spite of their thoroughly See also:

• ORIENTAL

Oriental design . The same is the See also:

• CASE
• CASE, JOHN (d. 1600)

case with the rarer mosaics of See also:

• GERMANY
• GERMANY (Ger. Deutschland)

Germany, such as those in S . Gereon at See also:

• COLOGNE (Ger. Koln, or officially, since 1900, Coln)

Cologne and at See also:

• PARENZO

Parenzo . A very remarkable, almost unique, specimen of Byzantine mosaic is now preserved in the " See also:

• OPERA (Italian for " work ")

Opera del Duomo," Florence . This is a See also:

• DIPTYCH (Gr. &sravxos, two-folding), (I) A

diptych of the 11th century, of extremely minute, almost microscopic work, in tesserae of glass and metal, perhaps the only example of tesserae made of solid metal . It has figures of saints and See also:

• INSCRIPTIONS (from Lat. inscribere, to write upon)

inscriptions, each tessera being scarcely larger than a See also:

• PIN (a doublet with " pen " from Lat. pinna, feather, pinnacle, which is said to contain the same root as irirvs, pine tree, and properly to mean a sharp point or end)

pin's See also:

• HEAD (in 0. Eng. heafad; the word is common to Teutonic languages; cf. Dutch hoofd, Ger. Haupt, generally taken to be in origin connected with Lat. caput, Gr. KerbOvi7)
• HEAD, SIR EDMUND WALKER, BART
• HEAD, SIR FRANCIS BOND, BART

head . This beautiful diptych originally belonged to the imperial chapel in Constantinople, and was brought to Florence in the 14th century .

2 . The second medieval class, mosaic pavements, though of great beauty, are of less artistic importance . This so-called opus alexandrinum is very common throughout Italy and in the East, and came to greatest perfection in the 13th century . It is made partly of small marble tesserae forming the main lines of the pattern, and partly of large pieces used as a ground or See also:

• MATRIX

matrix . It is generally designed in large flowing bands which interlace and enclose circles, often of one stone sliced from a column . The finest example is that at S . Mark's, Venice, of the 12th century . The materials are mainly white marble, with green and red porphyry, and sometimes glass . Besides the countless churches in Italy possessing these beautiful pavements, such as S . Lorenzo, S . Marco, S . Maria Maggiore, and S .

Maria in Trastevere, in Rome, there are in England, in the Chapel of the See also:

• CONFESSOR

Confessor, and in front of the high See also:

• ALTAR (Lat. altare, from alias, high; some ancient etymological guesses are recorded by St Isidore of Seville in Etymologiae xv. 4)

altar at See also:

• WESTMINSTER
• WESTMINSTER, MARQUESSES AND DUKES OF
• WESTMINSTER, STATUTES OF
• WESTMINSTER, SYNODS OF

Westminster, very fine specimens of this work, executed about 1268 by a Roman artist called Odericus, who was brought to England by See also:

• ABBOT (from the Hebrew ab, a father, through the Syriac abba, Lat. abbas, gen. abbatis, O.E. abbad, fr. late Lat. form abbad-em changed in 13th century under influence of the Lat. form to abbat, used alternatively till the end of the 17th century; Ger. Ab
• ABBOT, EZRA (1819-1884)
• ABBOT, GEORGE (1603-1648)
• ABBOT, ROBERT (1588?–1662?)
• ABBOT, WILLIAM (1798-1843)

Abbot See also:

• WARE

Ware, on the occasion of a visit made by the latter to Rome . Another See also:

• ENGLISH

English example is the mosaic pavement in front of the See also:

• SHRINE (Lat. scrinium, a case or chest for books, hence a casket; from scribere, to write, Fr. ecrin, Ital. scrigno)

shrine of See also:

• BECKET, THOMAS (c. 1118—1170)

Becket at See also:

• CANTERBURY
• CANTERBURY, CHARLES

Canterbury; this is probably the work of an Englishman, though the materials are See also:

• FOREIGN

foreign, as it is partly inlaid with See also:

• BRONZE

bronze, a peculiarity never found in Italy . Palermo and Monreale are especially rich in examples of sectile mosaic, used both for pavements and walls —in the latter case generally for the lower part of the walls the upper part being covered with the glass mosaics . Fig . 4 gives a specimen of this mosaic from Monreale cathedral . Its