See also:

• MUMMY (from the Persian mumiai, pitch or asphalt)

MUMMY (from the See also:

• PERSIAN
• PERSIAN, SYRIAN, EGYPTIAN AND TURKISH

Persian mumiai, See also:

• PITCH
• PITCH, MUSICAL

pitch or See also:

• ASPHALT, or ASPHALTUM

asphalt)  , a dead See also:

• BODY

body, as preserved by the See also:

• ANCIENT
• ANCIENT (also spelt ANTIENT; derived, through the Fr. ancien, old, from the late Lat. antianum, from ante, before)

ancient See also:

• EGYPTIAN

Egyptian method of See also:

• EMBALMING (Gr. 06Xaaµov, balsam; Ger. Einbalsamiren; Fr. embaumement)

embalming . The preservative See also:

• CLIMATE

climate of Upper See also:

• EGYPT

Egypt and the belief of the Egyptians in See also:

• LIFE

life after See also:

• DEATH

death must be the causes which led them to take unusual care for preserving the bodies of their dead . In prehistoric times in Egypt the dead were laid in the See also:

• GRAVES, ALFRED PERCEVAL (1846— )

graves on mats in the crouching position See also:

• COMMON

common in the burials of See also:

• PRIMITIVE

primitive peoples, and were supplied with jars of See also:

• FOOD
• FOOD (like the verb " to feed," from a Teutonic root, whence O. Eng. foda; cf. " fodder "; connected with Gr. lrareicOae, to feed)

food, See also:

• FLINT
• FLINT, AUSTIN (1812-1886)
• FLINT, or FLTNTSHTRE (sir Gallestr)
• FLINT, ROBERT (1838- )
• FLINT, TIMOTHY (1780-1840)

flint See also:

• INSTRUMENTS

instruments, &c . Perhaps the See also:

• ATTEMPT (Lat. adtemptare, attentare, to try)

attempt was already made to preserve the bodies by drying or otherwise . In a few instances, such bodies, probably more than five thousand years old, have been found with skin and See also:

• HAIR (a word common to Teutonic languages)

hair well preserved though dried and shrunken; usually everything but the bones has decayed . With the See also:

• ADVENT (Lat. Adventus, sc. Redemptoris, " the coming of the Saviour ")

advent of the Dynasties the bodies of some of the See also:

• PRINCIPAL

principal See also:

• PEOPLE

people are found lying extended at full length . By the See also:

• TIME (0. Eng. Lima, cf. Icel. timi, Swed. timme, hour, Dan. time; from the root also seen in " tide," properly the time of between the flow and ebb of the sea, cf. O. Eng. getidan, to happen, " even-tide," &c.; it is not directly related to Lat. tempus)
• TIME, MEASUREMENT OF
• TIME, STANDARD

time of the Vlth See also:

• DYNASTY (Gr. &vvaareta, sovereignty, the position of a hevnori7r, lord, ruler, from SuvaaBay to be able, Suvaµas, power)

Dynasty it was usual to See also:

• LAY

lay the See also:

• CORPSE (Lat. corpus, the body)

corpse on its See also:

• LEFT

left See also:

• SIDE
• SIDE (mod. Eski Adalia)

side in the attitude of See also:

• SLEEP (0. Eng. slcepan; Ger. schlafen; cf. Lat. labi, to glide, and " slip ")

sleep, and a wooden See also:

• COFFIN (from Lat. cophinus, Gr. K64wos, a coffer, chest or basket, but never meaning " coffin " in its present sense)

coffin was often provided upon which were inscribed magic formulae that had already been employed for ages in See also:

• RITUAL (from Lat. ritus, a custom, especially a religious rite or custom)

ritual . In the See also:

• MIDDLE

Middle See also:

• KINGDOM

Kingdom See also:

• NECROPOLIS

necropolis of Beni See also:

• HASAN

Hasan, Garstang found many intact interments in coffins, and in one See also:

• CASE
• CASE, JOHN (d. 1600)

case the body was well preserved . Several were accompanied by boxes divided into four compartments and inscribed with the names of the four deities who represented the See also:

• INTERNAL

internal See also:

• ORGANS

organs of the body . This indicates that the See also:

• CUSTOM (from O. Fr. costume, costume or coustume; Low Lat. costuma, a shortened form of consuetudo)

custom of taking out these organs and wrapping them separately was already in See also:

• VOGUE, EUGENE MELCHIOR, COMTE DE (1848- )

vogue in the most lavish See also:

• FORM (Lat. forma)

form of See also:

• BURIAL

burial . But the parcels, examined by an See also:

• EXPERT (Lat. expertus, from experiri, to try)

expert, contained no trace of organic remains, proving how much the Egyptians depended on magic imitations and make-believe . It was not until the New Kingdom that the processes of embalming reached a high degree of elaboration .

Later still, in the last See also:

• MILLENNIUM (a pseudo-Latin word formed on the analogy of biennium, triennium, from Lat. milk, a thousand, and armies, year)

millennium B.c., it seems that even the bodies of the poor were pickled . The embalmers were accustomed to keep the corpse in all for seventy days before burial (cf . Gen . 1 . 3; See also:

• HEROD
• HEROD (surnamed THE GREAT)

Herod. ii . 86), to be soaked, wrapped in See also:

• LINEN

linen bandages, and put in the coffin . This is confirmed by the monuments as far back as the See also:

• AGE (Fr. age, through late Lat. aetaticum, from aetas)

age of See also:

• RAMESES, or RAMESSES (Gen. xlvii. r1; Exod. xii. 37; Num. xxxiii. 3)

Rameses II . (c.1300 1 .e.) and may be conjectured to have been established still earlier . The Egyptians did not stop at the mummification of the human body; sacred animals,_ birds, See also:

• REPTILES (Lat. Reptilia, creeping things, from reptilis; ref ere, to creep; Gr. Ep7rety, whence the term " herpetology," for the science dealing with them)

reptiles, fishes, and even See also:

• INSECTS

insects were treated in a similar way, and the See also:

• MEAT

meat offerings deposited with the wealthy See also:

• DEAL

deal were likewise "preserved." Vast cemeteries of animals which belonged to the revered See also:

• SPECIES

species have been discovered; more especially may be mentioned that of the See also:

• CATS, JACOB (1577-1660)

cats at See also:

• BUBASTIS

Bubastis, the remains of which, charred by some967 See also:

• GREAT

great See also:

• FIRE (in O. Eng. f j'r; the word is common to West German languages, cf. Dutch vuur, Ger. Feuer; the pre-Teutonic form is seen in Sanskrit pu, pavaka, and Gr. irup; the ultimate origin is usually taken to be a root meaning to purify, cf. Lat. purus)

fire, until recently filled numberless See also:

• CHAMBERS (the Fr. chambre, from Lat. camera, a room)
• CHAMBERS, EPHRAIM (d. 1740)
• CHAMBERS, GEORGE (1803-1840)
• CHAMBERS, ROBERT (18oz-1871)
• CHAMBERS, SIR WILLIAM (1726-1796)

chambers of crude See also:

• BRICK (derived according to some etymologists from the Teutonic bricke, a disk or plate; but more authoritatively, through the French brique, originally a " broken piece," applied especially to bread, and so to clay, from the Teutonic brikan, to break)

brick in the ruins at See also:

• ZAGAZIG (Zalzazik)

Zagazig . In the See also:

• HAWK (O. Eng. hafoc or heafoc, a common Teutonic word, cf. Dutch havik, Ger. Habicht; the root is hab-, haf-, to hold, cf. Lat. accipiter, from capere)

hawk cemeteries birds were pickled and buried in See also:

• LONG, GEORGE (1800-1879)
• LONG, JOHN DAVIS (1838– )

long bundles, forming sometimes an assortment that is not without incongruities from the naturalist's point of view . From a few of these bundles may be extracted not only See also:

• NUMBERS, BOOK OF
• NUMBERS, PARTITION OF

numbers of raptorial birds, large and small, including owls, but also the hawk-like See also:

• CUCKOO

cuckoo, the See also:

• SHRIKE

shrike, and even the See also:

• SWALLOW (A. S. swalewe, Icel. svala, Du. zwaluw, Ger. Schwalbe)

swallow . The larger animals were represented in mummies by the See also:

• HEAD (in 0. Eng. heafad; the word is common to Teutonic languages; cf. Dutch hoofd, Ger. Haupt, generally taken to be in origin connected with Lat. caput, Gr. KerbOvi7)
• HEAD, SIR EDMUND WALKER, BART
• HEAD, SIR FRANCIS BOND, BART

head and a selection of the bones .

Bones of bulls and male calves, especially crania, were collected and formed into huge ox-like mummies . What the Egyptians really thought of mummification can only be partially guessed . Custom, changing in some degree from See also:

• CENTURY (from Lat. centuria, a division of a hundred men)

century to century, governed their practice, and no doubt was regulated by the priests . At first the luxury of mummification was reserved for the See also:

• KING
• KING (O. Eng. cyning, abbreviated into cyng, cing; cf. O. H. G. chun- kuning, chun- kunig, M.H.G. kiinic, kiinec, kiinc, Mod. Ger. Konig, O. Norse konungr, kongr, Swed. konung, kung)
• KING [OF OCKHAM], PETER KING, 1ST BARON (1669-1734)
• KING, CHARLES WILLIAM (1818-1888)
• KING, CLARENCE (1842–1901)
• KING, EDWARD (1612–1637)
• KING, EDWARD (1829–1910)
• KING, HENRY (1591-1669)
• KING, RUFUS (1755–1827)
• KING, THOMAS (1730–1805)
• KING, WILLIAM (1650-1729)
• KING, WILLIAM (1663–1712)

king, who was identified with See also:

• OSIRIS

Osiris and was buried with an abundance of ritual and magic words . But the king required his courtiers, and his courtiers in turn needed their servants in permanent attendance . Partly in consequence of this, the deification of the king, with all its concomitants, was gradually extended through the ranks of the See also:

• NOBLE, SIR ANDREW (1832- )

noble and wealthy until it came within the reach of the humblest, and even animals shared the See also:

• HONOUR (Lat. honos or lwnor, honoris; in English the word was spelled with or without the u indifferently until the 17th century, but during the 18th century it became fashion-able to spell the word " honor "; Johnson's and Webster's Dictionaries stereoty

honour of deification after death . Finally, in a See also:

• PAPYRUS

papyrus of the See also:

• ROMAN

Roman age, the word "See also:

• GOD

god" is practically defined as "buried," i.e. with due See also:

• RITES

rites . Beliefs regarding the gods and life after death were self-contradictory and variable, but none interfered with the custom of preserving the body . It was always the See also:

• PRAYER (from Lat. precari, entreat; Ital. pregaria, Fr. priere)
• PRAYER, BOOK OF COMMON

prayer that the soul (bai) should be able to revisit the corpse (See also:

• MAT (O. Eng. meatt, from late Lat. mattes, whence Ital. mallet, Ger. and Dan. matte, Du. mat, &c.)

Mat), and some See also:

• INSCRIPTIONS (from Lat. inscribere, to write upon)

inscriptions show an expectation of the body itself being revivified, " the mouth speaking," "the legs walking," and everything conforming with its previous terrestrial life . At the same time the ko (" life," " activity," and almost "See also:

• GHOST (a word common to the W. Teutonic languages; O.E. vest, Dutch, 'geest, Ger. Geist)

ghost,") which clung to the neighbourhood of the See also:

• TOMB (Gr. Tuµ/3a, Tuµ(3os, probably allied to Lat. tumulus, literally a swelling, tumere, to swell)

tomb and enjoyed the ghosts of offerings in ghostly See also:

• FASHION (adapted from Fr. facon, agon, Lat. factio, making, facere, to do or make)

fashion, had some of the See also:

• INDEPENDENT

independent enterprise which the bai possessed in abundance . The mummified corpse as a divine thing—not the See also:

• MERE
• MERE, ADALBERT (1838-1909)

mere khat—was called the sahu (an old word meaning "noble") or ikh, which in the latter See also:

• PERIOD
• PERIOD (Gr. irepioSos, a going or way round, circuit, aepi, round, and &Sis, way, road)

period meant a spirit or demon . As the corpse was found generally to disappear and decay in spite of preservative magic, especially in the See also:

• EARLY
• EARLY, JUBAL ANDERSON (1816-1894)

early ages, various substitutes were resorted to; statues and statuettes were thought efficacious, but, apart from their costliness, even these were subject to decay or destruction by violence, and in the See also:

• ABSENCE (Lat. absentia)

absence of anything more substantial the Egyptians doubtless reflected that magic words alone in the last resort made everything right .

Under the Old Kingdom the attendance on and services for a dead See also:

• MAGNATE (Late Lat. magnas, a great man)

magnate—the sacrifices and libations at his tomb—were left, together with endowments, to a See also:

• STAFF (O. Eng. staef, cf. Du. staf, Ger. Stab, &c.; Icel. stafr meant also a written letter, and O. Eng. stafas, the letters of the alphabet; " stave," one of the thin pieces of wood of which a cask is made, is a doublet)

staff of priests, called "servants of the ko(ka)," whose offices were hereditary . This See also:

• SYSTEM

system led to disputes and neglect, and was so unworkable that we find in the texts of the Middle Kingdom the whole responsibility put upon one well-endowed "ko-servant," who passed on his See also:

• OFFICE (from Lat. officium, " duty," " service," a shortened form of opifacium, from facere, " to do," and either the stem of opes, " wealth," " aid," or opus, " work ")

office to a single See also:

• HEIR (Lat. heres, from a root meaning to grasp, seen in heres or erus, master of a house, Gr. xeip, hand, Sans. hat ana, hand)

heir . How these things were managed during the New Kingdom we do not know . In the last thousand years B.C. the life of the Egyptians consisted largely in every See also:

• KIND (O. E. ge-cynde, from the same root as is seen in " kin," supra)

kind of religious and superstitious observances . Papyri of the Ptolemaic age or somewhat earlier afford much See also:

• INFORMATION (from Lat. informare, to give shape or form to, to represent, describe)

information about the people of the necropolis . In this age the choachytae, as the Greeks called them ("See also:

• LIBATION (Lat. libatio, from libare, to take a portion of something, to taste, hence to pour out as an offering to a deity, &c.; cf. Gr. Aeid3ew)

libation priests," or "See also:

• SHRINE (Lat. scrinium, a case or chest for books, hence a casket; from scribere, to write, Fr. ecrin, Ital. scrigno)

shrine-openers" in Egyptian), belonged to an inferior grade of the priesthood, See also:

• EQUIVALENT

equivalent to the pastophori of the deities, and were organized in See also:

• GILDS, or GUILDS

gilds for the different cemeteries . A single choachyte would have an See also:

• INTEREST

interest, not always the See also:

• SOLE (Solea)

sole interest, in a large number of mummies, and these interests could be disposed of by.will or See also:

• CONTRACT
• CONTRACT (Lat. contract us, from contrahere, to draw together, to bind)

contract, bought and sold . The taricheutae, or embalmers, had no permanent interest in the mummies they prepared . Thanks to the great care expended on the preservation of the royal dead, although the mummies of all the other See also:

• KINGS, FIRST AND SECOND BOOKS OF

kings have disappeared, a wonderful See also:

• SERIES (a Latin word from serere, to join)

series of the Theban kings and queens of the New Kingdom from the XVIlth Dynasty to the XXIst 968 Dynasty has come down to us . It comprises some of the most notable figures in Egyptian See also:

• HISTORY

history—Ahmosi (See also:

• AMASIS

Amasis) I., who freed Egypt from the See also:

• HYKSOS

Hyksos, Tethmosis I. and III., the conquerors of See also:

• SYRIA

Syria and makers of the See also:

• EMPIRE

empire, Amenophis III., the great builder, whose likeness is preserved in the colossi of See also:

• MEMNON

Memnon, probably also his son, Amenophis IV . (Akhenaton), the heretic king, and Seti (Sethos) I. and his son Rameses II . The See also:

• MUMMY (from the Persian mumiai, pitch or asphalt)

mummy of Seti I. is in the finest possible preservation, but others, after being brutally plundered, were rewrapped by the piety of later generations .

In See also:

• LOWER

Lower Egypt practically all the mummies have perished; but in Upper Egypt, as they were put out of reach of the inundation, the cemeteries, in spite of rifling and burning, yield immense numbers of preserved bodies and skeletons; See also:

• ATTENTION (from Lat. ad-tendo, await, expect; the condition of being " stretched " or " tense ")

attention has from time to time been directed to the scientific examination of these in See also:

• ORDER
• ORDER (through Fr. ordre, for earlier ordene, from Lat. ordo, ordinis, rank, service, arrangement; the ultimate source is generally taken to be the root seen in Lat. oriri, rise, arise, begin; cf. " origin ")
• ORDER, HOLY

order to ascertain See also:

• RACE

race, cause of death, traces of See also:

• ACCIDENT
• ACCIDENT (from Lat. accidere, to happen)

accident or disease, and the surgical or medical processes which they had undergone during life, &c . This See also:

• DEPARTMENT (Fr. departement, from departir, to separate into parts)

department of See also:

• RESEARCH (O. Fr. recerche, from recercher, re- and cercer, mod. chercher, to search; Late Lat. circare, to go round in a circle, to explore)

research has been greatly See also:

• DEVELOPED

developed by Dr See also:

• ELLIOTT, EBENEZER (1781–1849)

Elliott See also:

• SMITH
• SMITH, ADAM (1723–1790)
• SMITH, ALEXANDER (183o-1867)
• SMITH, ANDREW JACKSON (1815-1897)
• SMITH, CHARLES EMORY (1842–1908)
• SMITH, CHARLES FERGUSON (1807–1862)
• SMITH, CHARLOTTE (1749-1806)
• SMITH, COLVIN (1795—1875)
• SMITH, EDMUND KIRBY (1824-1893)
• SMITH, G
• SMITH, GEORGE (1789-1846)
• SMITH, GEORGE (184o-1876)
• SMITH, GEORGE ADAM (1856- )
• SMITH, GERRIT (1797–1874)
• SMITH, GOLDWIN (1823-191o)
• SMITH, HENRY BOYNTON (1815-1877)
• SMITH, HENRY JOHN STEPHEN (1826-1883)
• SMITH, HENRY PRESERVED (1847– )
• SMITH, JAMES (1775–1839)
• SMITH, JOHN (1579-1631)
• SMITH, JOHN RAPHAEL (1752–1812)
• SMITH, JOSEPH, JR
• SMITH, MORGAN LEWIS (1822–1874)
• SMITH, RICHARD BAIRD (1818-1861)
• SMITH, ROBERT (1689-1768)
• SMITH, SIR HENRY GEORGE WAKELYN
• SMITH, SIR THOMAS (1513-1577)
• SMITH, SIR WILLIAM (1813-1893)
• SMITH, SIR WILLIAM SIDNEY (1764-1840)
• SMITH, SYDNEY (1771-1845)
• SMITH, THOMAS SOUTHWOOD (1788-1861)
• SMITH, WILLIAM (1769-1839)
• SMITH, WILLIAM (c. 1730-1819)
• SMITH, WILLIAM (fl. 1596)
• SMITH, WILLIAM FARRAR (1824—1903)
• SMITH, WILLIAM HENRY (1808—1872)
• SMITH, WILLIAM HENRY (1825—1891)
• SMITH, WILLIAM ROBERTSON (1846-'894)

Smith in See also:

• CAIRO
• CAIRO (Arabic Misr-al-Kahira, or simply Misr)

Cairo . He has examined not only the more recently found of the royal mummies, but also multitudes of skeletons, &c., which have been brought from the See also:

• OFFICIAL (Late Lat. QJicialis, for class. Lat. apparitor, from officium, office, duty)

official excavations of the See also:

• GOVERNMENT
• GOVERNMENT (0. Fr. governement, mod. gouvernement, O. Fr. governer, mod. gouverner, from Lat. gubernare, to steer a ship, guide, rule; cf. Gr. xv(3epvav)

government and from other See also:

• WORK

work . His researches, in particular instances, prove their high importance for the history of disease, for characterization of the races inhabiting Egypt, and in other ways . The cemeteries just See also:

• SOUTH
• SOUTH, ROBERT (1634–1716)

south of the First See also:

• CATARACT (from the Lat. form cataracta of the Gr. Karapplucrgss, a floodgate, or waterfall, properly something which rushes down)

Cataract on a first examination reveal a prehistoric race of Egyptian type, a See also:

• GROUP

group of male See also:

• NEGRO (from Lat. eager, black)

negro mercenaries, a group of male prisoners executed by See also:

• HANGING

hanging during the New Kingdom, while from a necropolis of See also:

• CHRISTIAN
• CHRISTIAN, WILLIAM (1608-1663)

Christian foreigners of about the 6th century comes the first instance of See also:

• GOUT

gout in an ancient body from Egypt . Among the prehistoric people are many See also:

• FEMALE

female skeletons with a fractured right ulna sustained in warding off blows, and some of these See also:

• WOMEN

women had died while still wearing splints . See also:

• CIRCUMCISION (Lat. circum, round, and caedere, to cut)

Circumcision is traceable on all the male bodies which are in a See also:

• STATE
• STATE, GREAT OFFICERS OF

state to show its effects . The royal mummies furnish See also:

• EVIDENCE (Lat. evidentia, evideri, to appear clearly)

evidence of age at death as well as of See also:

• HEALTH

health and See also:

• PHYSICAL

physical See also:

• CHARACTER (Gr. xapareri7p, from xap&crew, to scratch)

character . A series of See also:

• FORTY

forty-four mummies of priests and priestesses of the XXIst Dynasty furnished the material for an important monograph . Earlier, the processes of mummification produced a See also:

• SKELETON

skeleton merely clothed in a dry and shrunken skin . At this time, however, the flesh was replaced by a stuffing of sawdust, See also:

• SAND
• SAND, GEORGE (1804-1876)

sand, or other lasting material, introduced with great skill through a few incisions and apertures, so that the natural forms were completely restored . The See also:

• HEART
• HEART, LUNG

heart was left in See also:

• PLACE (through Fr. from Lat. platea, street; Gr. IrAar6s, wide)

place, but the See also:

• LIVER (O. Eng. lifer; cf. cognate forms, Dutch lever, Ger. Leber, Swed. lefver, &c.; the O. H. Ger. forms are libara, lipora, &c.; the Teut. word has been connected with Gr. i'prap and Lat. jecur)

liver, lungs, See also:

• STOMACH (Gr. vrbsaxos from arbga, a mouth)

stomach and intestines were pickled and wrapped separately and then restored to the body cavity .

Later, the form was reproduced by elaborate See also:

• EXTERNAL

external wrappings of the different parts of the body before the final swathing; later still, in the Ptolemaic age, by coarse See also:

• PADDING

padding with plenty of linen and See also:

• PITCH
• PITCH, MUSICAL

pitch . The XXIst Dynasty marks the highest level of the See also:

• ART

art . The Christians of the early centuries, looking for corporeal resurrection, avoided the incisions, extraction of organs, &c., practised by their See also:

• PAGAN
• PAGAN (Lat. paganus, of or belonging to a pagus, a canton, county district, village, commune)

pagan forefathers, and buried the body entire after pickling it in See also:

• SALT (a common Teutonic word, cf. Dutch zout, Ger. Salz, Scand. salt; cognate with Gr. &Xs, Lat. sal)
• SALT, SIR TITUS, BART

salt . Their stricter leaders, however, objected to a custom which so easily led to the See also:

• WORSHIP (i.e. " worth-ship," O. Eng. weor8scipe)

worship of See also:

• RELICS (Lat, reliquiae, the equivalent of the English " remains " in the sense of a dead body)

relics and the continuance of pagan observances; and with the advent of See also:

• ISLAM

Islam embalming See also:

• FELL
• FELL, JOHN (1625-1686)

fell into disuse . Outside Egypt mummification was practised amongst the ancient Peruvians, who took See also:

• ADVANTAGE

advantage of the desiccatingatmosphere and salt See also:

• SOIL

soil of their caves for preserving the dead in See also:

• GOOD, JOHN MASON (1764-1827)

good See also:

• CONDITION (Lat. condicio, from condicere, to agree upon, arrange; not connected with conditio, from condere, conditum, to put together)

condition without any embalming See also:

• PROCESS

process . Among the See also:

• GUANCHES, GUANCHIS

Guanches of the See also:

• CANARY
• CANARY (Serinus canarius)

Canary Islands, however, the Egyptian methods of emptying the body and padding he skin were closely paralleled . A word may be added about the use of mummy in See also:

• MEDICINE

medicine . The name, as has been pointed out above, is derived from the See also:

• PERSIAN
• PERSIAN, SYRIAN, EGYPTIAN AND TURKISH

Persian mumiai, meaning pitch or See also:

• ASPHALT, or ASPHALTUM

asphalt, which substance occurs frequently in the prescriptions of the See also:

• GREEK
• GREEK, ETRUSCAN AND

Greek and Roman medical writers . See also:

• MEDIEVAL

Medieval physicians in the See also:

• EAST
• EAST, ALFRED (1849- )

East conceived the happy See also:

• IDEA (Gr. Ibia, connected with i&eiv, to see; cf. Lat. species from specere, to look at)

idea that the highest virtue would exist in that which had been already employed by the Egyptian priests in preserving the human body . Thus the bituminous and fatty matters found about the mummies and their wrappings were employed as a See also:

• SOVEREIGN

sovereign remedy, particularly for wounds and contusions, and a brisk See also:

• TRADE (O. Eng. trod, footstep, from tredan, to tread; in M. Eng. the forms teed, trod and trade appear, the last in the sense of a beaten track)
• TRADE, BOARD OF

trade began in these " exudations " of mummies . This led further to the medicinal use of fragments of the mummies themselves; and, finally, the starting-point was lost sight of, so that the dried or prepared flesh of criminals became one of the See also:

• STANDARD
• STANDARD, BATTLE OF THE

standard forms of mummy in the See also:

• PHARMACOPOEIA (lit. the art of the OapµaK07robbs, or drug-compounder)

pharmacopoeia . It was not till the 18th century that the importance of mummy in all its forms waned, and in some of the least progressive quarters of central See also:

• EUROPE

Europe it survived even to the middle of the r9th .

See T . J . Pettigrew, A History of Egyptian Mummies (See also:

• LONDON

London, 1834) ; G . Elliott Smith, A Contribution to the Study of Mummification in Egypt (Cairo, 1906) ; The Archaeological Survey of See also:

• NUBIA

Nubia Bulletins (Cairo, 1908 seq.); Dr Lortet and M . C . See also:

• GAILLARD, GABRIEL HENRI (1726-1806)

Gaillard, La Faune momifiee de l'ancienne Egypte (See also:

• LYONS
• LYONS (Fr. Lyon)
• LYONS, COUNCILS OF
• LYONS, EDMUND LYONS, BARON (1790-1858)
• LYONS, RICHARD BICKERTON PEMELL LYONS, 1ST EARL (1817–1887)

Lyons, 1905); A . See also:

• WIEDEMANN, GUSTAV HEINRICH (1826-1899)

Wiedemann, " Mumie als Heilmittel," in Zeitschrift See also:

• DES

des Vereins See also:

• FUR (connected with O. Fr. forre, a sheath or case; so " an outer covering ")

fur rheinische and westfdlische Volkskunde (1906) . (F . LL .