See also:

• MUNICIPIUM (Lat. munus, a duty or privilege, capere, to take)

MUNICIPIUM (See also:

• LAT

Lat. munus, a See also:

• DUTY (from " due," that which is owing, O. Fr. deu, dil, past participle of devoir; Lat. debere, debitum; cf. " debt ")

duty or See also:

• PRIVILEGE

privilege, capere, to take)  , in See also:

• ANCIENT
• ANCIENT (also spelt ANTIENT; derived, through the Fr. ancien, old, from the late Lat. antianum, from ante, before)

ancient See also:

• ROME
• ROME (Roma)

Rome, the See also:

• TERM

term applied primarily to a status, a certain relation between individuals or communities and the See also:

• ROMAN

Roman See also:

• STATE
• STATE, GREAT OFFICERS OF

state; subsequently and in See also:

• ORDINARY (med. Lat. ordinarius, Fr. ordinaire)

ordinary usage to a community, See also:

• STANDING

standing in such a relation to Rome . Whether the name signifies the taking up of burdens or the See also:

• ACCEPTANCE (Lat. acceptare, frequentative form of accipere, to receive)

acceptance of privileges is a disputed point . But as ancient authorities are unanimous in giving munus in this connexion the sense of " See also:

• DUTY (from " due," that which is owing, O. Fr. deu, dil, past participle of devoir; Lat. debere, debitum; cf. " debt ")

duty " or " service," it is probable that the See also:

• CHIEF (from Fr. chef, head, Lat. caput)

chief feature of See also:

• MUNICIPALITY

municipality was the performance of certain services to Rome.' This view is confirmed by all that we know about the towns to which the name was applied in republican times . The status had its origin in the conferment of citizenship upon See also:

• TUSCULUM

Tusculum in 381 B.C . (See also:

• LIVY [Thus L1v1us] (59 B.C.—A.D: 17)

Livy vi . 26; cf . Cie. See also:

• PRO

pro See also:

• PLANE

Plane . 8, 19), and was widely extended in the See also:

• SETTLEMENT
• SETTLEMENT, ACT OF

settlement made by Rome at the See also:

• CLOSE
• CLOSE (from Lat. clausum, shut)
• CLOSE, MAXWELL HENRY (1822-1903)

close of the Latin See also:

• WAR
• WAR (O. Eng. werre, Fr. guerre, of Teutonic origin; cf. O.H.G. werran, to confound)

War in 338 B.C . (see ROME, See also:

• HISTORY

History) . See also:

• ITALIAN

Italian towns were then divided into three classes: (T) Coloniae civium Romanorum, whose members had all the rights of See also:

• CITIZEN (a form corrupted in Eng., apparently by analogy with " denizen," from O. Fr. citeain, mod. Fr. citoyen)

citizen-See also:

• SHIP

ship; (2) municipia, which received partial citizenship; (3) feeder-See also:

• ALOE

aloe civitates (including the so. called Latin colonies), which remained entirely See also:

• SEPARATE

separate from Rome, and stood in relations with her which were separately arranged by her for each state by treaty (feedus) . The municipia stood in very different degrees of dependence on Rome . Some, such as Fundi (Livy viii .

14; cf. ibid . 19), enjoyed a See also:

• LOCAL

local self-See also:

• GOVERNMENT
• GOVERNMENT (0. Fr. governement, mod. gouvernement, O. Fr. governer, mod. gouverner, from Lat. gubernare, to steer a ship, guide, rule; cf. Gr. xv(3epvav)

government only limited in the See also:

• MATTER

matter of See also:

• JURISDICTION
• JURISDICTION, CRIMINAL LAW, DIVORCE

jurisdiction; others, such as See also:

• ANAGNIA [mod. Anagni; pop. (1901) 10,059]

Anagnia (Livy ix . 43 See also:

• FESTUS (? RuFUS or RUFIUS)
• FESTUS, SEXTUS POMPEIUS

Festus, de verb. sign/ ficatione, s.v . " See also:

• MUNICIPIUM (Lat. munus, a duty or privilege, capere, to take)

municipium," p . 127, ed . See also:

• MULLER, FERDINAND VON, BARON (1825–1896)
• MULLER, FRIEDRICH (1749-1825)
• MULLER, GEORGE (1805-1898)
• MULLER, JOHANNES PETER (18o1-1858)
• MULLER, JOHANNES VON (1752-1809)
• MULLER, JULIUS (18oi-1878)
• MULLER, KARL OTFRIED (1797-1840)
• MULLER, LUCIAN (1836-1898)
• MULLER, WILHELM (1794-1827)
• MULLER, WILLIAM JAMES (1812-1845)

Muller), were governed directly from Rome . But they all had certain features in See also:

• COMMON

common . Their citizens were called upon to pay the same dues and perform the same service in the legions as full Roman citizens, but were deprived of the chief privileges of citizenship, those of voting in the See also:

• COMITIA

Comitia (See also:

• JUS

jus suffragii), and of holding Roman magistracies (jus honorum) . It would also appear from Festus (op. cit. s.v. praefectura, p . 233) that jurisdiction was entrusted in every municipium to praefecti juri dicundo sent out from Rome to represent the See also:

• PRAETOR (Lat. prae-itor, " he who goes before," "a leader")

Praetor Urbanus ? The conferment of municipality can therefore hardly have been regarded as other than an imposing of burdens, even in the See also:

• CASE
• CASE, JOHN (d. 1600)

case of those cities which retained See also:

• CONTROL (Fr. contrdle, older form contre rolle, from Med. Lat. contra-rotulus, a counter roll or copy of a document used to check the original; there is no instance in English of the use of " control " in this, its literal, meaning)

control of their own affairs . But after the close of the second Punic War, when Rome had become the chief See also:

• POWER [WILLIAM GRATTAN] TYRONE (1797-1841)

power, not only in See also:

• ITALY
• ITALY (Italia)

Italy, but in all the neighbouring lands See also:

• ROUND (O. Fr. rond, Lat. rotundus, the Fr. is the source also of Du. rond; Ger., Swed., Dan. and Nor. rond)

round the Mediterranean, we can trace a growing tendency among the Italian cities to regard citizenship of this See also:

• GREAT

great state as a See also:

• PRIVILEGE

privilege, and to claim See also:

• COMPLETE

complete citizenship as a See also:

• REWARD

reward of their services in helping to build up the Roman power .

During the 2nd See also:

• CENTURY (from Lat. centuria, a division of a hundred men)

century B.C. the jus suffragii and jus honorum were conferred upon numerous municipia (Livy xxxviii . 36, 37), whose citizens were then enrolled in the Roman tribes . They can have exercised their public rights but seldom, owing to their distance from Rome; but the consulships of C . See also:

• MARIUS, GAIUS (r55–86 B.c.)

Marius, ' For a contrary view, however, see See also:

• MARQUARDT, JOACHIM (1812–1882)

Marquardt, Rom . Staatsverw . I. p . 26, n . 2 (2nd ed., See also:

• LEIPZIG

Leipzig, 1881), and authorities there cited . ' For a different view see See also:

• WILLEMS, FLORENT JOSEPH MARIE (1823–1905)
• WILLEMS, JEAN FRANCOIS (1793-'t846)

Willems, See also:

• DROIT (Fr. for " right," from Lat. directus, straight)

Droit public remain, p . 381 (See also:

• LOUVAIN (Flem. Leuven)

Louvain, 1874)•MUNICIPIUM 7 a municeps of Arpinum (between 107 and Too B.C.), and the strength of the support given to Tiberius See also:

• GRACCHUS

Gracchus in the See also:

• ASSEMBLY, UNLAWFUL

assembly by the voters from Italian towns (133 B.C.) show what an important See also:

• INFLUENCE (Late Lat. influentia, from influere, to flow in)

influence the members of these municipia could occasionally exercise over Roman politics . The cities thus privileged, however, though receiving complete Rcman citizen ship, were not, as the See also:

• LOGIC (Xoy1K7, sc. rixvrt, the art of reasoning)

logic of public See also:

• LAW
• LAW (0. Eng. lagu, M. Eng. lawe; from an old Teutonic root lag, " lie," what lies fixed or evenly; cf. Lat. lex, Fr. loi)
• LAW, JOHN (1671—1729)
• LAW, WILLIAM (1686-1761)

law might seem to demand, incorporated in Rome, but continued to exist as See also:

• INDEPENDENT

independent See also:

• URBAN
• URBAN (Urbanus)

urban See also:

• UNITS, DIMENSIONS OF
• UNITS, PHYSICAL

units; and this See also:

• ANOMALY (from Gr. lwvw)

anomaly survived in the municipal See also:

• SYSTEM

system which was See also:

• DEVELOPED

developed, on the basis of these grants of citizen-ship, after the Social War . That system recognized the municeps. as at once a citizen of a self-governing See also:

• CITY (through Fr. cite, from Lat. civitas)

city community, and a member of the city of Rome, his dual capacity being illustrated by his right of voting both in the See also:

• ELECTION
• ELECTION (from Lat. eligere, to pick out)

election of Roman magistrates and in the election of magistrates for his cwn See also:

• TOWN

town .

The result of the Social War which See also:

• BROKE, or BROOKE, ARTHUR (d. 1563)
• BROKE, SIR PHILIP BOWES VERE, BART

broke out in 91 B.C . (see ROME: History) was the See also:

• ESTABLISHMENT (0. Fr. establissement, Fr. etablissement, late Norm. Fr. establishement, from O. Fr. establir, Fr. etablir, Lat. stabilire, to make stable)

establishment of a new See also:

• UNIFORM

uniform municipality throughout Italy, and the obliteration of any important distinction between the three classes established after the Latin War . By the Lex Julia of 90 B.C. and the Lex Plautia Papiria of 89 B.C. every town in Italy which made application in due See also:

• FORM (Lat. forma)

form received the complete citizenship . The term municipium was no longer confined to a particular class of Italian towns but was adopted as a convenient name for all urban communities of Roman citizens in Italy . The organization of a municipal system, which should regulate the governments of all these towns on a uniform basis, and define their relation to the Roman government, was probably the See also:

• WORK

work of See also:

• SULLA, LUCIUS CORNELIUS (138–78 B.C.)

Sulla, who certainly gave great impetus to the See also:

• FOUNDATION (Lat. fundatio, from fundare, to found)

foundation in the provinces of citizen colonies, which were the earliest municipia outside Italy, and enjoyed the same status as the Italian towns . See also:

• JULIUS

Julius See also:

• CAESAR, GAIUS JULIUS (102—44 B.c.)
• CAESAR, SIR JULIUS (1557-1558-1636)

Caesar extended the See also:

• SPHERE (Gr. vclsa?pa, a ball or globe)

sphere of the Roman municipal system by his enfranchisement of Cisalpine See also:

• GAUL
• GAUL, GILBERT WILLIAM (1855— )

Gaul, and the consequent inclusion of all the towns of that region in the See also:

• CATEGORY (Gr. Karrlyopia, " accusation ")

category of municipia . He seems also to have given a more definite organization to the municipia as a whole . But, excepting those in Cisalpine Gaul, the municipal system still embraced no towns outside Italy other than the citizen colonies . See also:

• AUGUSTUS (a name 1 derived from Lat. augeo, increase, i.e. venerable, majestic, Gr. Ee0avr6s)

Augustus and his successors adopted the practice of granting to existing towns in the provinces either the full citizenship, or a partial civitas known as the jus Latii . This partial civitas does not seem to have been entirely replaced, as in Italy, by the See also:

• GRANT (from A.-Fr. graunter, O. Fr. greanter for creanter, popular Lat. creantare, for credentare, to entrust, Lat. credere, to believe, trust)
• GRANT, ANNE (1755-1838)
• GRANT, CHARLES (1746-1823)
• GRANT, GEORGE MONRO (1835–1902)
• GRANT, JAMES (1822–1887)
• GRANT, JAMES AUGUSTUS (1827–1892)
• GRANT, ROBERT (1814-1892)
• GRANT, SIR ALEXANDER
• GRANT, SIR FRANCIS (1803-1878)
• GRANT, SIR JAMES HOPE (1808–1895)
• GRANT, SIR PATRICK (1804-1895)
• GRANT, U
• GRANT, ULYSSES SIMPSON (1822-1885)

grant of full privileges to the communities possessing it, and the distinction survived for some See also:

• TIME (0. Eng. Lima, cf. Icel. timi, Swed. timme, hour, Dan. time; from the root also seen in " tide," properly the time of between the flow and ebb of the sea, cf. O. Eng. getidan, to happen, " even-tide," &c.; it is not directly related to Lat. tempus)
• TIME, MEASUREMENT OF
• TIME, STANDARD

time in the provinces between coloniae, municipia See also:

• JURIS

juris Romani, and municipia juris Latin . But the uniform system of See also:

• ADMINISTRATION (Lat. administrare, to serve)

administration gradually adopted in all three classes rendered the distinction entirely unimportant, and the See also:

• GENERAL
• GENERAL (Lat. generalis, of or relating to a genus, kind or class)

general term municipium is used of all alike . The See also:

• INCORPORATION (from Lat. incorporare, to form into a body)

incorporation of existing towns, hitherto non-Roman, in the uniform municipal system of the principate took See also:

• PLACE (through Fr. from Lat. platea, street; Gr. IrAar6s, wide)

place mainly in the eastern See also:

• PART

part of the See also:

• EMPIRE

Empire, where See also:

• GREEK
• GREEK, ETRUSCAN AND

Greek See also:

• CIVILIZATION

civilization had See also:

• LONG, GEORGE (1800-1879)
• LONG, JOHN DAVIS (1838– )

long fostered urban See also:

• LIFE

life .

In the See also:

• WEST
• WEST, BENJAMIN (1738-1820)
• WEST, NICHOLAS (1461-1533)

west city communities rapidly sprang up under See also:

• DIRECT

direct Roman influence . The development of towns of the municipal type on the sites where legions occupied permanent quarters can be traced in several of the western provinces; and it cannot be doubted that this development became the See also:

• RULE

rule wherever a See also:

• BODY

body of Roman subjects settled down together for any purpose and permanently occupied a region . At any See also:

• RATE

rate by the end of the 1st century of the principate municipia are numerous in the western as well as the eastern See also:

• HALF

half of the Empire, and the towns are every-where centres of Roman influence . Of the See also:

• INTERNAL

internal life of the municipia very little is known before the Empire . For the See also:

• PERIOD
• PERIOD (Gr. irepioSos, a going or way round, circuit, aepi, round, and &Sis, way, road)

period after Julius Caesar, however, we have two important See also:

• SOURCES

sources of See also:

• INFORMATION (from Lat. informare, to give shape or form to, to represent, describe)

information . A See also:

• SERIES (a Latin word from serere, to join)

series of municipal See also:

• LAWS

laws gives us a detailed knowledge of the constitution imposed, with slight See also:

• VARIATIONS
• VARIATIONS, CALCULUS
• VARIATIONS, CALCULUS OF

variations, on all the municipia; and a See also:

• HOST

host of private See also:

• INSCRIPTIONS (from Lat. inscribere, to write upon)

inscriptions gives particulars of their social life . The municipal constitution of the 1st century of the principate is based upon the type of government common to See also:

• GREECE

Greece and Rome from earliest times . The government of each town consists of magistrates, See also:

• SENATE (Lat. senatus, from root sen-, as in senex, old; the root is the Sanskrit sana, cf. Gr. 'vos; the same element appears in senor, seigneur, seneschal)

senate and assembly, and is entirely independent of the Roman government except in certain cases of higher See also:

• CIVIL

civil jurisdiction, which come under the direct cognisance of the praetor urbanus at Rome . On the other See also:

• HAND
• HAND (a word common to Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Hand, Goth. handus)
• HAND, FERDINAND GOTTHELF (1786-185r)

hand, each community is See also:

• BOUND, or BOUNDARY (from O. Fr. bonde, Med. Lat. bodena or butina, a frontier line)

bound to perform certain services to the Imperial government, such as the contribution of men and horses for military service, the See also:

• MAINTENANCE (Fr. maintenance, from maintenir, to maintain, support, Lat. manu tenere, to hold in the hand)

maintenance of the imperial See also:

• POST

post through its neighbourhood, and the occasional entertainment of Roman officials or See also:

• BILLETING

billeting of soldiers . The citizens were of two classes: (r) cives, whether by See also:

• BIRTH (a word common in various forms to Teutonic languages from the root of the verb " to bear ")

birth, See also:

• NATURALIZATION

naturalization or emancipation, (2) incolae, who enjoyed a partial citizenship based on See also:

• DOMICILE (Lat. domicilium, from domus, home)

domicile for a certain period . Both classes were liable to civic burdens, but the incolae had none of the privileges of citizenship except a limited right of voting . The citizens were grouped in either tribes or curiae, and accordingly the assembly sometimes See also:

• BORE

bore the name of Comitia Tributa, sometimes that of Comitia Curiata .

The theoretical See also:

• POWERS, HIRAM (1805-1873)

powers of these comitia were extensive both in the election of magistrates and in legislation . But the growing influence of the senate over elections on the one hand, and on the other hand the increasing reluctance of leading citizens to become candidates for See also:

• OFFICE (from Lat. officium, " duty," " service," a shortened form of opifacium, from facere, " to do," and either the stem of opes, " wealth," " aid," or opus, " work ")

office (see below), gradually made popular election a See also:

• MERE
• MERE, ADALBERT (1838-1909)

mere form . The senatorial recommendation of the necessary number of candidates seems to have been merely ratified in the comitia; and a See also:

• SPANISH

Spanish municipal law of the 1st century makes See also:

• SPECIAL

special See also:

• PROVISION (Lat. provisio)

provision for occasions on which an insufficient number of candidates are forthcoming . In Italy, however, the reality of popular elections seems to have survived to a later date . The inscriptions at See also:

• POMPEII

Pompeii, for instance, give See also:

• EVIDENCE (Lat. evidentia, evideri, to appear clearly)

evidence of keenly contested elections in the 2nd century . The local senate, or See also:

• CURIA

curia, always exercised an important influence on municipal politics . Its members formed the local See also:

• NOBILITY

nobility, and at an See also:

• EARLY
• EARLY, JUBAL ANDERSON (1816-1894)

early date special privileges were granted by Rome to provincials who were senators in their native towns . For the See also:

• COMPOSITION
• COMPOSITION (Lat. compositio, from componere, to put together)

composition, powers, and history of the provincial senate see See also:

• DECURIO

DECURio . The magistrates were elected annually, and were six in number, forming three pairs of colleagues . The highest magistrates were the Ilviri (See also:

• DUOVIRI

Duoviri) juri dicundo, who had See also:

• CHARGE
• CHARGE (through the Fr. from the Late Lat. carricare, to load in a carrus or wagon; cf. " cargo ")

charge, as their name implies, of all local jurisdiction, and presided over the assembly . Candidates for this office were required to be over 25 years of See also:

• AGE (Fr. age, through late Lat. aetaticum, from aetas)

age, to have held one of the See also:

• MINOR
• MINOR (Lat. for smaller, lesser)
• MINOR, ROBERT CRANNELL (1839-1904)

minor magistracies, and to possess all the qualifications required of members of the local senate (see DEcuRio): Next in dignity were the IIviri aediles, who had charge of the roads and public buildings, the See also:

• GAMES, CLASSICAL

games and the See also:

• CORN (a common Teutonic word; cf. Lat. granum, seed, grain)
• CORN (fromm Lat. corms, horn)

corn-See also:

• SUPPLY (through Fr. from Lat. supplere, to fill up)

supply, and exercised See also:

• POLICE (Fr. police, government, civil administration, a police force, Gr. sroXumeia, constitution, condition of a state, roars, city, state)

police control through-out the town . They appear to have been regarded as sub-See also:

• ORDINATE

ordinate colleagues (collegae minores) of the Ilviri juri dicundo; and in some towns at least to have had the right to convene and preside over the comitia in the See also:

• ABSENCE (Lat. absentia)

absence of the latter .

Indeed many inscriptions speak of IVviri (Quattuorviri) consisting of two IVviri juri dicundo and two IVviri aediles; but in the See also:

• MAJORITY (Fr. majorite; Med. Lat. majoritas; Lat. major, greater)

majority of cases the former are regarded as distinct and See also:

• SUPERIOR

superior magistrates . The two quaestores, who appear to have controlled See also:

• FINANCE

finance in a large number of municipia, cannot be traced in others; and it is probable that in the municipia, as at Rome, the quaestorship was locally instituted, as need arose, to relieve the supreme magistrates of excessive business . Other municipal magistrates frequently referred to in the inscriptions are the quinquennales and praefecti . The quinquennales superseded the Ilviri or IVviri juri dicundo every five years, and differed from them only in possessing, in addition to their other powers, those exercised in Rome before the time of Sulla by the censors . Two classes of praefecti are found in the municipalities under the Empire, both of which are to be distinguished from the officials who bore that name in the municipia before the Social War . The first class consists of those praefecti who were nominated as temporary delegates by the IIviri, when through illness or compulsory absence they were unable to See also:

• DISCHARGE (adapted from the O. Fr. discharge, modern decharge, from a med. Lat. discargare, to unload, dis- and earn care, to load, cf. " charge ")

discharge the duties of their office . The second class, referred to in inscriptions by the name of praefecti ab decuribnibus creati lege Petronia, seem to have been appointed by the local senate in case of a complete absence of higher magistrates, such as would have led in Rome to the See also:

• APPOINTMENT, POWER OF

appointment of an interrex . From a social point of view the municipia of the Roman Empire may be treated under three heads: (I) as centres of local self-government, (2) as religious centres, (3) as See also:

• INDUSTRIAL

industrial centres . (I) The chief feature of the local government of the towns is the wide-spread activity of the municipal authorities in improving the general conditions of life in the town . In the municipalities, as in Rome, provision was made out of the public funds for feeding the poorest part of the See also:

• POPULATION (Lat. populus, people; populare, to populate)

population, and providing a supply of corn which could be bought by ordinary citizens at a moderate See also:

• PRICE
• PRICE, BARTHOLOMEW (1818–1898)
• PRICE, BONAMY (1807-1888)
• PRICE, RICHARD (1723-1791)

price . In See also:

• PLINY, THE ELDER
• PLINY, THE YOUNGER

Pliny's time there existed in many towns public See also:

• SCHOOLS

schools controlled by the municipal authorities, concerning which Pliny remarks that they were a source of considerable disturbance in the town at the times when it was necessary to appoint teachers . He himself encouraged the establishment of another See also:

• KIND (O. E. ge-cynde, from the same root as is seen in " kin," supra)

kind of municipal school at See also:

• COMO (anc. Comum)
• COMO, LAKE OF (the Lacus Larius of the Romans, and so sometimes called LARIO to the present day, though in the 4th century it is already termed Lacus Comacinus)

Como, where the leading townspeople subscribed for the maintenance of the school, and the control, including the appointment of teachers, remained in the hands of the subscribers .

Physicians seem to have been maintained in many towns at the public expense . The See also:

• WATER

water-supply was also provided out of the municipal See also:

• BUDGET (originally from a Gallic word meaning sack, latinized as bulga, leather wallet or bag, thence in O. Fr. bougette, from which the Eng. form is derived)

budget, and controlled by magistrates appointed for the purpose . To enable it to See also:

• BEAR
• BEAR, BLACK
• BEAR, BROWN
• BEAR, GRIZZLY
• BEAR, ISABELLINE
• BEAR, WHITE

bear the expense involved in all these undertakings, the local See also:

• TREASURY

treasury was generally assisted by large benefactions, either in See also:

• MONEY

money or in See also:

• WORKS

works, from individual citizens; but direct See also:

• TAXATION
• TAXATION (from " tax," derived, through the French, from Lat. taxare, to appraise, which again is connected with the same root as tangere, to touch)

taxation for municipal purposes was hardly ever resorted to . The treasury was filled out of the proceeds of the landed possessions of the community, especially such fruitful sources of See also:

• REVENUE
• REVENUE (0. Fr. revenu, from revenir, to return)

revenue as mines and quarries, and out of import and export duties . It was occasionally subsidized by the See also:

• EMPEROR (Fr. empereur, from the Lat. imperator)

emperor on occasions of sudden and exceptional calamity . 2 . The chief feature in the religious life of the towns was the important position they occupied as centres for the cult of the emperor . Caesar-See also:

• WORSHIP (i.e. " worth-ship," O. Eng. weor8scipe)

worship as an organized cult developed sponta+ neously in many provincial towns during the reign of Augustus, and was fostered by him and his successors as a means of promoting in these centres of vigour and prosperity a strong See also:

• LOYALTY

loyalty to Rome and the emperor, which was one of the firmest supports of the latter's power . The See also:

• ORDER
• ORDER (through Fr. ordre, for earlier ordene, from Lat. ordo, ordinis, rank, service, arrangement; the ultimate source is generally taken to be the root seen in Lat. oriri, rise, arise, begin; cf. " origin ")
• ORDER, HOLY

order of Augustales, officials appointed to regulate the worship of the emperor in the towns, occupied a position of dignity and importance in provincial society . It was composed of the leading and the wealthiest men among the See also:

• LOWER

lower classes of the population . By the organization of the order on these lines Augustus secured the See also:

• DOUBLE
• DOUBLE (from the Mid. Eng. duble, the form which gives the present pronunciation, through the Old Er. duble, from Lat. duplus, twice as much)

double See also:

• OBJECT

object of maintaining Caesar-worship in all the most vigorous centres of provincial life, and attracting to himself and his successors the special devotion of the industrial class which had its origin in the municipia of the Roman Empire, and has become the greatest See also:

• POLITICAL

political force in See also:

• MODERN

modern See also:

• EUROPE

Europe . 3 .

The development of this See also:

• FREE

free industrial class is the chief feature of the municipia considered as centres of See also:

• INDUSTRY (Lat. industria, from indu-, a form of the pre, position in, and either stare, to stand, or struere, to pile up)

industry and handicraft . The rise to power of the equestrian order in Rome during the last century of the See also:

• REPUBLIC (Lat. respublica, a commonweal or common-wealth)

Republic had to some extent modified the old Roman principle that See also:

• TRADE (O. Eng. trod, footstep, from tredan, to tread; in M. Eng. the forms teed, trod and trade appear, the last in the sense of a beaten track)
• TRADE, BOARD OF

trade and See also:

• COMMERCE
• COMMERCE (Lat. commercium, from, cum, together, and rnerx, merchandise)

commerce were beneath the dignity of the governing class; but long after the fall of the Republic the aristocratic notion survived in Rome that industry and handicrafts were only See also:

• FIT

fit for slaves . In the provincial towns, however, this See also:

• IDEA (Gr. Ibia, connected with i&eiv, to see; cf. Lat. species from specere, to look at)

idea was rapidly disappearing in the early years of the Empire, and even in the See also:

• COUNTRY (from the Mid. Eng. contre or contrie, and O. Fr. cuntree; Late Lat. contrata, showing the derivation from contra, opposite, over against, thus the tract of land which fronts the sight, cf. Ger. Gegend, neighbourhood)

country towns of Italy the inscriptions give evidence not much later of the existence of a large and flourishing free industrial class, proud of its occupation, and bound together by a strong esprit de See also:

• CORPS (pronounced as in French, from which it is taken, being a late spelling of tors, from Lat. corpus, a body; cf. " corpse ")

corps . Already the members of this class show a strong tendency to bind themselves together in See also:

• GILDS, or GUILDS

gilds (collegia, sodalitates), and the existence of countless associations of the kind is revealed by the inscriptions . The formation of See also:

• SOCIETIES, LEARNED

societies for religious and other purposes was frequent at Rome from the earliest times in all classes of the free population . After the time of Sulla these societies were regarded by the government with suspicion, mainly on See also:

• ACCOUNT
• ACCOUNT (through O. Fr. acont, Late Lat. comptum, cornputare, to calculate)

account of the political uses to which they were turned, and various See also:

• MEASURES

measures were passed for their suppression in Rome and Italy . This policy was continued by the early emperors and extended to the whole Empire, but in spite of opposition the gilds in the provincial towns See also:

• GREW, NEHEMIAH (1641-1712)

grew and flourished . The ostensible See also:

• OBJECTS

objects of nearly all such collegia of which we have any knowledge were twofold, the maintenance of the worship of some See also:

• GOD

god, and provision for the performance of proper funerary rights for its members . But under See also:

• COVER (from the Fr. convert, from couvrir, to cover, Lat. cooperire)

cover of these two See also:

• MAIN (from the Aryan root which appears in " may " and " might," and Lat. magnus, great)
• MAIN (Lat. Moenus)

main objects, the only two purposes for which such combinations were allowed under the Empire, associations of all kinds grew up . The organization of the gilds was based on that of the municipality . Each elected its See also:

• OFFICERS

officers and treasurers at an See also:

• ANNUAL

annual See also:

• MEETING (from " to meet," to come together, assemble, 0. Eng. metals ; cf. Du. moeten, Swed. mota, Goth. gamotjan, &c., derivatives of the Teut. word for a meeting, seen in O. Eng. Wit, moot, an assembly of the people; cf. witanagemot)

meeting, and every five years a revision of the See also:

• LIST (O.E. lisle, a Teutonic word, cf. Dut. lust, Ger. Leiste, adapted in Ital. lista and Fr. lisle)
• LIST, FRIEDRICH (1789-1846)

list of members was held, corresponding to that of the senators held quinquennially by the city magistrates . It is doubtful how far these societies served to organize and improve particular See also:

• INDUSTRIES

industries .

There is no evidence to show that any societies during the first three centuries consisted solely of workers at a single See also:

• CRAFT (a word common to Teutonic languages for strength, or power; cf. Ger. Kraft)

craft . But there can be little doubt that the later craft gilds were a development, through the industrial gilds of the provincial towns, of one of the most ancient features of Roman life . Remarkable See also:

• CONCORD
• CONCORD, BOOK OF (Liber Concordiae)

concord seems generally to have existed in the municipia between the various classes of the population . This is accounted for partly by the strong civic feeling which formed a, See also:

• BOND
• BOND, SIR EDWARD AUGUSTUS (1815-1898)

bond of unity stronger than most sources of See also:

• FRICTION (from Lat. fricare, to rub)

friction, and partly to the general prosperity of the towns, which removed any acute discontent . The wealthy citizen seems always to have had to bear heavy See also:

• FINANCIAL

financial burdens, and to have enjoyed in return a dignity and an actual political preponderance which made the general See also:

• CHARACTER (Gr. xapareri7p, from xap&crew, to scratch)

character of, municipal constitutions distinctly timocratic . The policy adopted by the early emperors of encouraging, within the limits of a uniform system, the See also:

• INDEPENDENCE
• INDEPENDENCE, DECLARATION OF
• INDEPENDENCE, WAR OF

independence and civic patriotism of the towns, was superseded in the 3rd and 4th centuries by a deliberate effort to use the towns as See also:

• INSTRUMENTS

instruments of the imperial government, under the direct control of the emperor or , his representatives in the provinces . This policy was accompanied by a See also:

• GRADUAL (Med. Lat. gradualis, of or belonging to steps or degrees; gradus, step)

gradual decay of civic feeling and municipal enterprise, which showed itself mainly in the unwillingness of the townsmen to become candidates for local magistracies, or to take up the burdens entailed in membership of the municipal senate . Popular control of the local government of the towns was ceasing to be a reality as early as the end of the 1st century of the Empire . Two centuries later local government was a mere form . And the self-governing communities of the See also:

• MIDDLE

middle ages were a restoration, rather than a development, of the flourishing and independent municipalities of the age of Augustus and his immediate successors .