MUSIC  .—The See also:

• GREEK
• GREEK, ETRUSCAN AND

Greek Wovo'LKiI (S6 . TEXvi)), from which this word is derived, was used very widely to embrace all those arts over which the Nine See also:

• MUSES, THE (Gr. Mo6o-at, the thinkers)

Muses (Mo aai) were held to preside . Contrasted with ryvµvaaTLKid (gymnastic) it included those branches of See also:

• EDUCATION

education concerned with the development of the mind as opposed to the See also:

• BODY

body . Thus such widely different arts and sciences as See also:

• MATHEMATICS (Gr. /saBnµar1Kil, Sc. vOcvn or E7rlQTt'µn; from p iN.La, "learning" or "science ")

mathematics, See also:

• ASTRONOMY (from Gr. &arpov, a star, and v ,usiv, to classify or arrange)

astronomy, See also:

• POETRY

poetry and literaturegenerally, and even See also:

• READING

reading and See also:

• WRITING
• WRITING (the verbal noun of " to write," O. Eng. writan, to inscribe)

writing would all fall under µovvLKi7, besides the singing and setting of lyric poetry . On the educational value of music in the formation of See also:

• CHARACTER (Gr. xapareri7p, from xap&crew, to scratch)

character the philosophers laid See also:

• CHIEF (from Fr. chef, head, Lat. caput)

chief stress, and this biased their aesthetic See also:

• ANALYSIS (Gr. avci and Meta, to break up into parts)

analysis . `Apµovia (See also:

• HARMONY (Gr. dpµovia, a concord of musical sounds, dpA'ew to join; &plan midi (sc. TeXvil)

harmony), or appovud (sc . TEXvil), rather than µovvLKi?, was the name given by the Greeks to the See also:

• ART

art of arranging sounds for the purpose of creating a definite aesthetic impression, with which this See also:

• ARTICLE (from Lat. articulus, a joint)

article deals . I.—See also:

• GENERAL
• GENERAL (Lat. generalis, of or relating to a genus, kind or class)

GENERAL See also:

• SKETCH (directly adapted from Dutch schets, which was taken from Ital. schizzo, a rough draft, Lat. schedium, something hastily made, Gr. oxE&os, sudden, off-hand, axeb6v, near by; Ger. Skizze and Fr. esquisse are from the same source)

SKETCH i . Introduction.—As a mature and See also:

• INDEPENDENT

independent art music is unknown except in the See also:

• MODERN

modern forms realized by Western See also:

• CIVILIZATION

civilization; See also:

• ANCIENT
• ANCIENT (also spelt ANTIENT; derived, through the Fr. ancien, old, from the late Lat. antianum, from ante, before)

ancient music, and the non-See also:

• EUROPEAN

European music of the See also:

• PRESENT

present See also:

• DAY (O. Eng. dreg, Ger. Tag; according to the New English Dictionary, " in no way related to the Lat. dies")
• DAY, JOHN (1574-1640?)
• DAY, THOMAS (1748-1789)

day, being (with insignificant exceptions of a character which confirms the generalization) invariably an See also:

• ADJUNCT (from Lat. ad, to, and jungere, to join)

adjunct of poetry or See also:

• DANCE
• DANCE (Fr. danse; of obscure origin, connected with Old High Ger. danson, to stretch)

dance, in so far as it is recognizable as an art at all . The modern art of music is in a unique position; for, while its See also:

• LANGUAGE (adapted from the Fr. langage, from langue, tongue, Lat. lingua)

language has been wholly created by art, this language is yet so perfectly organized as to be in itself natural; so that though the music of one See also:

• AGE (Fr. age, through late Lat. aetaticum, from aetas)

age or See also:

• STYLE
• STYLE (from Gr. a-6'1ms, a column; a different word from that used in literature, see below)

style may be at first unintelligible to a listener who is accustomed to another style, and though the listener may help himself by acquiring See also:

• INFORMATION (from Lat. informare, to give shape or form to, to represent, describe)

information as to the characteristics and meaning of the new style, he will best learn to understand it by merely divesting his mind of prejudices and allowing the music to make itself intelligible by its own self-consistency . The understanding of music thus finally depends neither upon technical knowledge nor upon See also:

• CONVENTION (Lat. conventio, an assembly or agreement, from convenire, to come together)
• CONVENTION, THE NATIONAL

convention, but upon the listener's immediate and See also:

• FAMILIAR (through the Fr. familier, from Lat. familiaris, of or belonging to the familia, family)

familiar experience of. it; an experience which technical knowledge and See also:

• CUSTOM (from O. Fr. costume, costume or coustume; Low Lat. costuma, a shortened form of consuetudo)

custom can of course aid him to acquire more rapidly, as they strengthen his memory and enable him to See also:

• FIX, THEODORE (180o-1846)

fix impressions by naming them . Beyond certain elementary facts of See also:

• ACOUSTICS (from the Gr. &eobav to hear)

acoustics (see See also:

• SOUND
• SOUND, THE (Danish Oresund)

SOUND), modern music shows no See also:

• DIRECT

direct connexion with nature independently of art; indeed, it is already art that determines the selection of these elementary acoustic facts, just as in See also:

• PAINTING

painting art determines the selection of those facts that come under the See also:

• COGNIZANCE (Lat. cognoscere, to know)

cognizance of See also:

• OPTICS

optics.' In music, however, the purely acoustic principles are incomparably fewer and simpler than the See also:

• OPTICAL

optical principles of painting, and their See also:

• ARTISTIC

artistic interaction transforms them into something no less remote from the laboratory experiments of acoustic See also:

• SCIENCE (Lat. scientia, from scire; to learn, know)

science than from the unorganized sounds of nature .

The result is that while the See also:

• ORDINARY (med. Lat. ordinarius, Fr. ordinaire)

ordinary non-artistic experiences of sight afford so much material for plastic art that the vulgar conception of See also:

• GOOD, JOHN MASON (1764-1827)

good painting is that it is deceptively like nature, the ordinary non-artistic experience of sound has so little in See also:

• COMMON

common with music that musical See also:

• REALISM (from Low Lat. realis, appertaining to res, things, as opposed to ideas and imaginations)

realism is, with rare though popular exceptions, generally regarded as an eccentricity . This contrast between music and plastic art may be partly explained by the See also:

• MENTAL

mental See also:

• WORK

work undergone, during the earliest See also:

• INFANCY

infancy both of the See also:

• RACE

race and of the individual, in interpreting sensations of space . When a baby learns the shape of See also:

• OBJECTS

objects by taking them in his hands, and gradually advances to the See also:

• DISCOVERY

discovery that his toes belong to him, he goes through an amount of work that is quite forgotten by the adult, and its complexity and difficulty has perhaps only been fully realized through the experience of persons who have been See also:

• BORN, IGNAZ, EDLER VON (1742–1791)

born See also:

• BLIND, MATHILDE (1841—1896)

blind but have acquired sight at a mature age by an operation . Such work gives the facts of normal adult See also:

• VISION (from Lat. videre, to see), or SIGHT

vision an amount of organic principle that makes them admirable raw material, for art . The See also:

• POWER [WILLIAM GRATTAN] TYRONE (1797-1841)

power of distinguishing sensations of sound is associated with no such mental skill, and is no more complex than the power of distinguishing See also:

• COLOURS, MILITARY

colours . On the other See also:

• HAND
• HAND (a word common to Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Hand, Goth. handus)
• HAND, FERDINAND GOTTHELF (1786-185r)

hand, sound is the See also:

• PRINCIPAL

principal See also:

• MEDIUM

medium by which most of the higher animals_ both See also:

• EXPRESS (through the French from the past participle of the Lat. exprimere, to press out, by transference used of representing objects in painting or sculpture, or of thoughts, &c. in words)

express and excite emotion; and hence, though until 1 Thus See also:

• CHINESE, JAPANESE AND

Chinese and See also:

• JAPANESE

Japanese art has attained high organization without the aid of a veracious See also:

• PERSPECTIVE (Lat. peespicere, to see through)

perspective; while, on the other hand, its carefully formulated decorative principles, though not realistic, certainly See also:

• REST (O. Eng. rest, reste, bed, cognate with other Teutonic forms, e.g. Ger. Rast, Riiste, rest, and probably Gothic Rasta, league, i.e. resting or stopping place)

rest on an optical and physiological basis . Again, many modern impressionists justify their methods by an See also:

• APPEAL

appeal to phenomena of complementary See also:

• COLOUR (Lat. color, connected with celare, to hide, the root meaning, therefore, being that of a covering)

colour which earlier artists possibly did not perceive and certainly did not select as artistic materials . codified into human speech it does not give any raw material for art, yet so powerful are its See also:

• PRIMITIVE

primitive effects that music (in the See also:

• BIRD

bird-See also:

• SONG

song sense of sound indulged in for its own attractiveness) is as See also:

• LONG, GEORGE (1800-1879)
• LONG, JOHN DAVIS (1838– )

long See also:

• PRIOR (from Lat. prior—former, and hence superior, through O. Fr. priour)
• PRIOR, MATTHEW (1664-1721)

prior to language as the brilliant colours of animals and See also:

• FLOWERS, ARTIFICIAL

flowers are prior to painting (see SONG) . Again, sound as a warning or a menace is eminently important in the See also:

• HISTORY

history of the See also:

• INSTINCT

instinct of self-preservation; and, above all, its See also:

• PRODUCTION (Lat. productionem, from producere, to pro-duce)

production is instantaneous and instinctive . All these facts, while they tend to make musical expression an See also:

• EARLY
• EARLY, JUBAL ANDERSON (1816-1894)

early phenomenon in the history of See also:

• LIFE

life, are extremely unfavourable to the early development of musical art . They invested the first musical attempts with a mysterious power over listener and musician, by re-awakening instincts more powerful, because more ancient and necessary, than any that could ever have been appealed to by so deliberate a See also:

• PROCESS

process as that of See also:

• DRAWING

drawing on a See also:

• FLAT (a modification of O. Eng. flet, an obsolete word of Teutonic origin, meaning the ground beneath the feet)

flat See also:

• SURFACE

surface a See also:

• SERIES (a Latin word from serere, to join)

series of lines calculated to remind the See also:

• EYE
• EYE (O. Eng. edge, Ger. Auge; derived from an Indo-European root also seen in Lat. oc-ulus, the organ of vision (q.v.)

eye of the See also:

• APPEARANCE (from Lat. apparere, to appear)

appearance of solid objects in space . It is hardly surprising that music long remained as imperfect as its legendary See also:

• POWERS, HIRAM (1805-1873)

powers were portentous, even in the hands of so supremely artistic a race as that of classical See also:

• GREECE

Greece; and what-ever wonder this backwardness might still arouse in us vanishes when we realize the extreme difficulty of the process by which the principles of the modern art were established .

2 . Non-See also:

• HARMONIC

harmonic and Greek Music.—Archaic music is of two kinds—the unwritten, or spontaneous, and the recorded, or scientific . The earliest musical art-problems were far too difficult for conscious analysis, but by no means always beyond the reach of a lucky See also:

• HIT

hit from an inspired See also:

• SINGER, SIMEON (1846-1906)

singer; and thus folk-music often shows real beauty where the more systematic music of the See also:

• TIME (0. Eng. Lima, cf. Icel. timi, Swed. timme, hour, Dan. time; from the root also seen in " tide," properly the time of between the flow and ebb of the sea, cf. O. Eng. getidan, to happen, " even-tide," &c.; it is not directly related to Lat. tempus)
• TIME, MEASUREMENT OF
• TIME, STANDARD

time is merely arbitrary . Moreover, folk-music and the present music of barbarous and civilized non-European races furnish the study of musical origins with material analogous to that liven by the present See also:

• MANNERS, CHARLES (1857– )

manners and customs of different races in the study of social See also:

• EVOLUTION

evolution and ancient history . We may mention as examples the accurate comparison of the musical scales of non-European races undertaken by A . J . See also:

• ELLIS (originally SHARPE), ALEXANDER JOHN (1814-189o)
• ELLIS, GEORGE (1753-1815)
• ELLIS, ROBINSON (1834- )
• ELLIS, SIR HENRY (1777-1869)
• ELLIS, WILLIAM (1794 – 1872)

Ellis (On the Musical Scales of Various Nations, 1885); the parallel researches and acute and cautious reasoning of his friend and collaborator, A . J . Hipkins (Dorian and Phrygian reconsidered from a Non-harmonic Point of View, 1902); and, perhaps most of all, the study of Japanese music, with its remarkable if uncertain signs of the beginning of a harmonic tendency, its logical coherence, and its See also:

• AFFINITY (Lat. affinitas, relationship by marriage, from offinis, bordering on, related to; finis, border, boundary)
• AFFINITY, CHEMICAL

affinity to Western scales, points in which it seems to show a See also:

• GREAT

great advance upon the Chinese music from which most of it is derived (Music and Musical See also:

• INSTRUMENTS

Instruments of See also:

• JAPAN

Japan, by J . F . Piggott, 1893) . The reader will find detailed accounts of ancient Greek music in the article on that subject in See also:

• GROVE (O.E. graf, cf. O.E. gr(efa, brushwood, later" greave "; the word does not appear in any other Teutonic language, and the New English Dictionary finds no Indo-European root to which it can be referred; Skeat considers it connected with " grave," to
• GROVE, SIR GEORGE (182o-1900)
• GROVE, SIR WILLIAM ROBERT (1811-1896)

Grove's See also:

• DICTIONARY

Dictionary of Music and Musicians (new ed., ii .

223) and in See also:

• MONRO, DAVID BINNING (1836-1905)

Monro's Modes of Ancient Greek Music (See also:

• CLARENDON, CONSTITUTIONS OF
• CLARENDON, EDWARD HYDE, 1ST EARL OF (1609-1674)
• CLARENDON, GEORGE WILLIAM FREDERICK VILLIERS, 4TH EARL OF (in the Villiers line) (1800-r87o)
• CLARENDON, HENRY HYDE

Clarendon See also:

• PRESS (through Fr. presse from Lat. pressare, frequentative of premere, to crush, squeeze, press)

Press, 1894), while both the Greek music itself, and the steps by which it passed through Graeco-See also:

• ROMAN

Roman and early See also:

• CHRISTIAN
• CHRISTIAN, WILLIAM (1608-1663)

Christian phases to become the See also:

• FOUNDATION (Lat. fundatio, from fundare, to found)

foundation of the modern art, are traced as clearly as is consistent with accuracy in The See also:

• OXFORD
• OXFORD, EARLS OF
• OXFORD, EDWARD DE VERE, 17TH EARL
• OXFORD, JOHN DE VERE, 13TH EARL OF (1443-1513)
• OXFORD, PROVISIONS OF
• OXFORD, ROBERT DE VERE, 9TH EARL OF (1362-1392)
• OXFORD, ROBERT HARLEY, 1ST

Oxford History of Music, vol. i., by See also:

• PROFESSOR (the Latin noun formed from the verb profiteri, to declare publicly, to acknowledge, profess)

Professor Wooldridge . See also:

• SIR

Sir See also:

• HUBERT (HUCBERTUS, HUGBERTUS), ST (d. 727)

Hubert See also:

• PARRY (from Fr. parer, to ward off)
• PARRY, SIR CHARLES HUBERT HASTINGS, BART
• PARRY, SIR WILLIAM EDWARD (179o–1855)

Parry's Evolution of the Art of Music (" See also:

• INTERNATIONAL, THE

International Scientific Series," originally published under the See also:

• TITLE (0. Fr. title, mod. titre, from Lat. titulus)

title of The Art of Music) presents the See also:

• MAIN (from the Aryan root which appears in " may " and " might," and Lat. magnus, great)
• MAIN (Lat. Moenus)

main lines of the evolution of modern musical ideas in the clearest and most readable See also:

• FORM (Lat. forma)

form yet attained . Sir Hubert Parry illustrates in this work the artificiality of our modern musical conceptions by the word " See also:

• CADENCE (through the Fr. from the Lat. cadentia, from cadere, to fall)

cadence," which to a modern musician belies its See also:

• ETYMOLOGY (Gr. grvµos, true, and X6yos, "account)

etymology, since it normally means for him no " falling " See also:

• CLOSE
• CLOSE (from Lat. clausum, shut)
• CLOSE, MAXWELL HENRY (1822-1903)

close but a pair of final chords rising from dominant to tonic . Moreover, in consequence of our harmonic notions we think of scales as constructed from the bottom upwards; and even in the above-mentioned article in Grove's Dictionary all the Greek scales are, from sheer force of See also:

• HABIT (through the French from Lat. habitus, from habere, to have, hold, or, in a reflective sense, to be in a certain condition; in many of the English senses the French use habitude, not habit)

habit, written upwards . But the ancient and, almost universally, the primitive See also:

• IDEA (Gr. Ibia, connected with i&eiv, to see; cf. Lat. species from specere, to look at)

idea of music is like that of speech, in which most inflections are in fact cadences, while rising inflexions express less usual sentiments, such as surprise or interrogation . Again, our modern musical idea of " high "and " See also:

• LOW, SETH (1850- )
• LOW, WILL HICOK (1853- )

low " is probably derived from a sense of greater and less vocal effort; and it has been much stimulated by our harmonic sense, which has necessitated a range of sounds incomparably greater than those employed in any non-harmonic See also:

• SYSTEM

system . The Greeks derived their use of the terms from the position of notes on their instruments; and the Greek hypate was what we should See also:

• CALL (from Anglo-Saxon ceallian, a common Teutonic word, cf. Dutch kallen, to talk or chatter)

call the lowest See also:

• NOTE
• NOTE (Lat. nota, mark, sign, from noscere, to know)

note of the mode, while nete was the highest . Sir See also:

• GEORGE
• GEORGE, 8TH MARQUESS OF TWEEDDALE (1787-1876)
• GEORGE, HENRY (1839—1897)
• GEORGE, LAKE
• GEORGE, SAINT (d. 303)

George See also:

• MACFARREN, SIR GEORGE ALEXANDER (1813-1887)

Macfarren has pointed out (Ency . Brit., 9th ed., art . " Music ") that Boethius (c . A.D . 500) already' See also:

• FELL
• FELL, JOHN (1625-1686)

fell into the See also:

• TRAP (0. Eng. treppe or traepee, properly a step, as that or which an animal places its foot and is caught, cf. Ger. Treppe flight of stairs)

trap and turned the Greek modes upside down .

Another See also:

• RADICAL (Lat. radix, a root)

radical though less See also:

• GROTESQUE

grotesque misconception was also already well exploded by Macfarren; but it still frequently survives at the present day, since the study of non-harmonic scales is, with the best of intentions, See also:

• APT

apt rather to encourage than to dispel it . The more we realize the importance of See also:

• DIFFERENCES, CALCULUS OF (Theory of Finite Differences)

differences in position of intervals of various sizes, as producing differences of character in scales, the more irresistible is the temptation to regard the ancient Greek modes as differing from each other in this way . And the temptation becomes greater instead of less when we have succeeded in thinking away our modern harmonic notions . Modern harmonization enormously increases the differences of expression between modes of which the melodic intervals are different, but it does this in a See also:

• FASHION (adapted from Fr. facon, agon, Lat. factio, making, facere, to do or make)

fashion that draws the See also:

• ATTENTION (from Lat. ad-tendo, await, expect; the condition of being " stretched " or " tense ")

attention almost entirely away from these differences of See also:

• INTERVAL

interval; and without harmony See also:

• AVE, or FIRN

Ave find it extremely difficult to distinguish one mode from another, unless it be by this different arrangement of intervals . Nevertheless, all the See also:

• EVIDENCE (Lat. evidentia, evideri, to appear clearly)

evidence irresistibly tends to the conclusion that while the three Greek genera—diatonic, See also:

• CHROMATIC (Gr. xpcoµaruc6s, coloured, from xpwµa, colour)

chromatic, and enharmonic—were scales differing in intervals, the Greek modes were a series of scales identical in arrangement of interval, and differing, like our modern keys, only in See also:

• PITCH
• PITCH, MUSICAL

pitch . The three genera were applied to all these modes or keys, and we have no difficulty in understanding their modifying effects . But the only See also:

• CLUE

clue we have to the mental process by which in a preharmonic age different characteristics can be ascribed to scales identical in all but pitch, is to be found in the limited See also:

• COMPASS (Fr. corn pas, ultimately from Lat. cum, with, and passus, step)

compass of Greek musical sounds, corresponding as it does to the evident sensitiveness of the Greek See also:

• EAR (common Teut.; O.E. are, Ger. Ohr, Du. oor, akin to Lat. auris, Gr. ovs)

ear to differences in vocal effort . We have only to observe the compass of the Greek See also:

• SCALE
• SCALE (1) A

scale to see that in the most esteemed modes it is much more the compass of speaking than of singing voices . Modern singing is normally at a much higher pitch than that of the speaking See also:

• VOICE (Fr. voix, from Lat. vox)

voice, but there is no natural See also:

• REASON (Lat. ratio, through French raison)

reason, outside the See also:

• PECULIAR

peculiar nature of modern music, why this should be so . It is highly probable that all modern singing would strike a classical Greek ear as an outcry; and in any See also:

• CASE
• CASE, JOHN (d. 1600)

case such See also:

• VARIATIONS
• VARIATIONS, CALCULUS
• VARIATIONS, CALCULUS OF

variations of pitch as are inconsiderable in modern singing are extremely emphatic in the speaking voice, so that they might well make all the difference to an ear unaccustomed to organized sound beyond the speaking compass . Again, much that See also:

• ARISTOXENUS

Aristoxenus and other ancient authorities say of the character of the modes (or keys) tends to confirm the view that that character depends upon the position of the mese or keynote within the general compass . Thus See also:

• ARISTOTLE
• ARISTOTLE (384-322 B.C.)

Aristotle (Politics, v .

(viii.) 7, 1342 b . 20) states that certain low-pitched modes suit the voices of old men, and thus we may conjecture that even the position of tones and semitones might in the Dorian and Phrygian modes bring the bolder portion of the scale in all three genera into the best regions of the See also:

• AVERAGE

average See also:

• YOUNG
• YOUNG, A
• YOUNG, ARTHUR (1741-1820)
• YOUNG, BRIGHAM (1801-1877)
• YOUNG, CHARLES MAYNE (1777–1856)
• YOUNG, EDWARD (1683–1765)
• YOUNG, JAMES (1811-1883)
• YOUNG, THOMAS (1773-1829)

young voice, while the Ionian and Lydian might See also:

• LEAD
• LEAD (pronounced iced)

lead the voice to dwell more upon semitones and enharmonic intervals, and so See also:

• ACCOUNT
• ACCOUNT (through O. Fr. acont, Late Lat. comptum, cornputare, to calculate)

account for the heroic character of the former and the sensual character of the latter (See also:

• PLATO

Plato, See also:

• REPUBLIC (Lat. respublica, a commonweal or common-wealth)

Republic, 398 to 400) . Of the Greek genera, the chromatic and enharmonic (especially It is See also:

• WORTH
• WORTH, CHARLES FREDERICK (1825-1895)

worth adding that in the 16th See also:

• CENTURY (from Lat. centuria, a division of a hundred men)

century the great contrapuntal composer See also:

• COSTANZO, ANGELO DI (c 1507-1591)

Costanzo Porta had been led by doubts on the subject to the wonderful conclusion that ancient Greek music was poly-phonic, and so constructed as to be invertible; in See also:

• ILLUSTRATION

illustration of which theory he and Vincentino composed four-See also:

• PART

part motets in each of the Greek genera (diatonic, chromatic and enharmonic), Porta's being constructed like the 12th and 13th fugues in See also:

• BACH, JOHANN SEBASTIAN (1685–1750)
• BACH, KARL PHILIPP EMANUEL (1714-1788)

Bach's Kunst der Fuge so as to be equally euphonious when sung upside down ! (See See also:

• HAWKINS, CAESAR HENRY (1798-1884)
• HAWKINS, or HAWKYNS, SIR JOHN (1532-1595)
• HAWKINS, or HAWKYNS, SIR RICHARD (c. 1562-1622)
• HAWKINS, SIR JOHN (1719-1789)

Hawkins's History of Music, i . 1 t2 5 the latter) show very clearly the origin of so many primitive scales in the interval of the downward See also:

• FOURTH

fourth . That interval (e.g. from C to G) is believed to be the earliest melodic relation-See also:

• SHIP

ship which the ear learnt to fix; and most of the primitive scales were formed by the See also:

• ACCRETION (from Lat. ad, to, and crescere, to grow)

accretion of See also:

• AUXILIARY (from Lat. auxilium, help)

auxiliary notes at the bottom of this interval, and the addition of a similar interval, with similar accretions, below the former . In this way a pentatonic scale, like that of so many Scotch melodies, can easily be formed (thus, C, A, G; F, D, C); and though some primitive scales seem to have been on the See also:

• NUCLEUS (Lat. for the kernal of a nut, nux, the stone of fruit)

nucleus of the rising fifth, while the Siamese now use two scales of which not a single note within the See also:

• OCTAVE (from Lat. octavus, eighth, octo, eight)

octave can be accounted for by any known principle, still we may consider that for general historic purposes the above example is typical . The Greeks divided their downward fourth into four notes, called a tetrachord; and by an elaborate system of linking tetrachords together they gave their scale a compass of two octaves . The enharmonic tetrachord, being the most ancient, gathered the See also:

• LOWER

lower three notes very closely to the bottom, leaving the second note no less than a See also:

• MAJOR
• MAJOR (Lat. for " greater ")
• MAJOR (or MAIR), JOHN (1470-1550)

major third from the See also:

• TOP (cf. Dan. top, Ger. Topf, also meaning pot)

top, thus—C,Ab, G', G; (where G' stands for a note between Ab and G) . The chromatic tetrachord was C, See also:

• BBB

Bbb, Ab, G; and the diatonic tetrachord was C, Bb, Ab, G . It is this last that has become the foundation of modern music, and the Greeks themselves soon preferred it to the other genera and found a scientific basis for it . In the first See also:

• PLACE (through Fr. from Lat. platea, street; Gr. IrAar6s, wide)

place they noticed that its notes (and, less easily, the notes of the chromatic scale) could be connected by a series of those intervals which they recognized as concordant .

These were, the fourth; its converse, or See also:

• INVERSION (Lat. invertere, to turn about)

inversion, the fifth; and the octave . The notes of the enharmonic tetrachord could not be connected by any such series . In the articles on HARMONY and SOUND account is given of the historic and scientific See also:

• FOUNDATIONS

foundations of the modern conception of See also:

• CONCORD
• CONCORD, BOOK OF (Liber Concordiae)

concord; and although this harmonic conception applies to simultaneous notes, while the Greeks concerned themselves only with successive notes, it is nevertheless permissible to regard the Greek sense of concord in successive notes as containing the germ of our harmonic sense . The stability of the diatonic scale was assured as early as the 6th century B.C. when See also:

• PYTHAGORAS
• PYTHAGORAS (6th century B.C.)

Pythagoras discovered (if he did not learn from See also:

• EGYPT

Egypt or See also:

• INDIA
• INDIA, FRENCH

India) the extremely See also:

• SIMPLE

simple mathematical proportions of its intervals . And this discovery was of unique importance, as fixing the intervals by a criterion that could never be obscured by the changes of See also:

• TASTE (from Lat. taxare, to touch sharply; tangere, to touch)

taste and custom otherwise inevitable in music that has no conscious harmonic principles to See also:

• GUIDE (in Mid. Eng. gyde, from the Fr. guide; the earlier French form was guie, English " guy," the d was due to the Italian form guida; the ultimate origin is probably Teutonic, the word being connected with the base seen in O. Eng. witan, to know)

guide it . At the same time, the foundation of a music as yet immature and See also:

• ANCILLARY (from the Lat. ancilla, a handmaid)

ancillary to See also:

• DRAMA (literally "action," from Gr. Snail, act or do)

drama, on an acoustic science ancillary to a priori mathematics, was not without disadvantage to the art; and it is arguable that the great difficulty with which during the See also:

• MEDIEVAL

medieval beginnings of modern harmony the concords of the third and See also:

• SIXTH

sixth were rationalized may have been increased by the fact that the See also:

• PYTHAGOREAN

Pythagorean system See also:

• LEFT

left these intervals considerably out of tune . In preharmonic times mathematics could not direct even the most observant ear to the study of those phenomena of upper partials of which See also:

• HELMHOLTZ, HERMANN LUDWIG FERDINAND VON (1821-1894)

Helmholtz, in 1863, was the first to explain the significance; and thus though the Greeks knew the difference between a major and See also:

• MINOR
• MINOR (Lat. for smaller, lesser)
• MINOR, ROBERT CRANNELL (1839-1904)

minor See also:

• TONE, THEOBALD WOLFE (1763-1798)

tone, on which See also:

• HALF

half the question depended, they could not possibly arrive at the modern reasons for adding both kinds of tone in See also:

• ORDER
• ORDER (through Fr. ordre, for earlier ordene, from Lat. ordo, ordinis, rank, service, arrangement; the ultimate source is generally taken to be the root seen in Lat. oriri, rise, arise, begin; cf. " origin ")
• ORDER, HOLY

order to make the major third . (See SOUND.) Here we must digress in order to illustrate what is implied by our modern harmonic sense; for the difference that this makes to our whole musical consciousness is by no means universally realized . Music, as we now understand it, expresses itself in the interaction of three elements—See also:

• RHYTHM (Greek pvBµds, from bap, to flow)

rhythm, See also:

• MELODY (Gr. ,ueXw3ia, a choral song, from name, tune, and gi6i, song)

melody and harmony . The first two are obviously as ancient as human consciousness itself . Without the third a musical art of permanent value and intelligibility has not been known to attain independent existence . With harmony music assumes the existence of a See also:

• KIND (O. E. ge-cynde, from the same root as is seen in " kin," supra)

kind of space in three dimensions, none of which can subsist without at least implying the others .

When we hear an unaccompanied melody we cannot help interpreting it in the See also:

• LIGHT

light of its most probable harmonies . Hence, whenit does not imply consistent harmonies it seems to us See also:

• QUAINT (O. Fr. cointe, from Lat. cognitus, known, probably influenced by association with Lat. corn plus, neat)

quaint or See also:

• STRANGE, SIR ROBERT (1721-1792)

strange; because, unless it is very remote from our harmonic conceptions, it at least implies at any given moment some simple harmony which in the next moment it contradicts . Thus our inferences as to the expression intended by music that has not come under European See also:

• INFLUENCE (Late Lat. influentia, from influere, to flow in)

influence are unsafe, and the See also:

• PLEASURE (through Fr. plaisir from Lat. placere, to please; Gr. rlbovii)

pleasure we take in such music is capricious . The effort of thinking away our harmonic preconceptions is probably the most violent piece of mental gymnastics in all artistic experience, and furnishes much excuse for a sceptical attitude as to the artistic value of preharmonic music, which has at all events never become even partially independent of poetry and dance . Thus the rhythm of classical Greek music seems to have been entirely identical with that of See also:

• VERSE (from Lat. versus, literally a line or furrow drawn by turning the plough, from vertere, and afterwards signifying an arrangement of syllables into feet)

verse, and its beauty and expression appreciated in virtue of that identity . From the modern musical point of view the rhythm of words is limited to a merely monotonous uniformity of flow, with See also:

• MINUTE
• MINUTE (Lat. minutes, small; minuere, to make less)

minute undulations which are musically chaotic (see RHYTHM) . The example of Greek tragedy, with the reports of its all-pervading music (in many cases, as in that of See also:

• AESCHYLUS (525–456 B.c.)

Aeschylus, composed by the dramatist himself) could not fail to See also:

• FIRE (in O. Eng. f j'r; the word is common to West German languages, cf. Dutch vuur, Ger. Feuer; the pre-Teutonic form is seen in Sanskrit pu, pavaka, and Gr. irup; the ultimate origin is usually taken to be a root meaning to purify, cf. Lat. purus)

fire the imaginations of modern pioneers and reformers of See also:

• OPERA (Italian for " work ")

opera; and See also:

• MONTEVERDE, CLAUDIO (1567-1643)

Monteverde, See also:

• GLUCK

Gluck and See also:

• WAGNER, ADOLF (1835- )
• WAGNER, RUDOLPH (1805-1864)
• WAGNER, WILHELM RICHARD (1813-1883)

Wagner convinced themselves and their contemporaries that their work was, amongst other things, a revival of Greek tragedy . But all that is known of Greek music shows that it represents no such modern ideas, as far as their really musical aspect is concerned . It represents, rather, an organization of the rise and fall of the voice, no doubt as elaborate and artistic as the organization of verse, no doubt powerful in heightening the emotional and dramatic effect of words and See also:

• ACTION

action, but in no way essential to the understanding'or the organization of the See also:

• WORKS

works which it adorned . The classical Greek preference for the diatonic scale indicates a latent harmonic sense and also that See also:

• TEMPERANCE

temperance which is at the foundation of the general Greek sense of beauty; but, beyond this and similar generalities, all the See also:

• RESEARCH (O. Fr. recerche, from recercher, re- and cercer, mod. chercher, to search; Late Lat. circare, to go round in a circle, to explore)

research in the See also:

• WORLD

world will not enable us to understand the Greek musician's mind . Non-harmonic music is a world of two dimensions, and we must now inquire how men came to rise from this " flatland " to the solid world of sound in which See also:

• PALESTRINA, GIOVANNI PIERLUIGI DA (1526-1594)

Palestrina, Bach, See also:

• BEETHOVEN, LUDWIG VAN (1770-1827)

Beethoven and Wagner live . 3 .

Harmonic Origins.—Although the simultaneous blending of different sounds was never seriously contemplated by the Greeks, yet in classical times they were fond of singing with high and low voices in octaves . This was called magadizing; from the name of an See also:

• INSTRUMENT (Lat. instrumentum, from insincere, to build up, furnish, arrange, prepare)

instrument on which playing in octaves was rendered easy by means of a See also:

• BRIDGE

bridge that divided the strings at two-thirds of their length . While the practice was esteemed for the beauty of the blending of different voices, it was tolerated only because of the peculiar effect of identity furnished by the different notes of the octave, and no other interval was so used by the Greeks . In the article on HARMONY the degrees of identity-in-difference which characterize the simpler harmonic intervals are analysed, and the main steps are indicated by which the more complicated medieval magadizing uses of the fourth and fifth (the See also:

• SYMPHONIA (Gr. o-vµcfrmvla)

symphonia, diaphonia or organum of See also:

• HUCBALD (HUOBALDUS, HUBALDUS)

Hucbald) gave way (partly by their own interchange and partly through experiments in the introduction of ornaments and variety) to the modern conception of harmony as consisting of voices or parts that move independently to the exclusion of such parallel See also:

• MOTION (Lat. motio, from movere, to move)
• MOTION, LAWS OF

motion . In The Oxford History of.Music, vols. i. and ii., will be found abundant examples of every See also:

• STAGE (Fr. 6/age; from Lat. stare, to stand)

stage .of the process, which begins with the organum or diaphony that prevailed until the See also:

• DEATH

death of Guido of See also:

• AREZZO (anc. Arretium)

Arezzo (about 1050) and passes through the discant, or measured music, of the 13th century, in which rhythm is first organized on a sufficiently See also:

• FIRM

firm basis to enable voices to sing contrasted rhythms simultaneously, while the new harmonic criterion of the See also:

• INDEPENDENCE
• INDEPENDENCE, DECLARATION OF
• INDEPENDENCE, WAR OF

independence of parts more and more displaces and shows its opposition to the old criterion of See also:

• PARALLELISM, PSYCHOPHYSICAL

parallelism . The most extraordinary example of these conflicting principles is the famous See also:

• ROTA, COURT OF

rota " See also:

• SUMER

Sumer is icumen in," a 13th-century See also:

• ROUND (O. Fr. rond, Lat. rotundus, the Fr. is the source also of Du. rond; Ger., Swed., Dan. and Nor. rond)

round in four parts on a canonic ground-See also:

• BASS
• BASS (the same word as " base," and so pronounced, but influenced in spelling by the Ital. basso)

bass in two . See also:

• RECENT

Recent researches have brought to light a number of works in the forms of See also:

• MOTET

motet, conductus, See also:

• RONDEL

rondel (neither the later See also:

• RONDO

rondo nor the round, but a kind of triple See also:

• COUNTERPOINT (Lat. contrapunctus, " point counter point," " note against note ")

counterpoint), which show that " Sumer is icumen in " contains no unique technical feature; but no work within two centuries of its date attains a style so nearly intelligible to modern ears . Its richness and firmness of harmony are such that the frequent use of consecutive fifths and octaves, in strict accordance with 13th-century principles, has to our ears all the effect of a series of grammatical blunders, so sharply does it contrast with the smooth counterpoint of the rest . In what light this smooth counterpoint struck contemporaries, or how its author (who may or may not be the writer of the Reading MS., See also:

• JOHN
• JOHN (1167–1216)
• JOHN (1290-c. 1320)
• JOHN (1296-1346)
• JOHN (1371–1419)
• JOHN (1468-1532)
• JOHN (1801-1873)
• JOHN (Heb. llni')
• JOHN (ZAPOLYA) (1487-1540)
• JOHN, 4TH MARQUESS OF TWEEDDALE (c. 1695-1762)
• JOHN, DON (1545-1578)
• JOHN, DON (1629–1679)
• JOHN, GOSPEL OF ST
• JOHN, or HAYS (1513–1571)
• JOHN, THE APOSTLE
• JOHN, THE EPISTLES OF

John .of Fornsete) arrived at it, is not clear, though W . S . Rockstro's amusing article, " Sumer is icumen in," in Grove's Dictionary, is very plausible . All that we know is that music in See also:

• ENGLAND
• ENGLAND, THE CHURCH OF

England in the 13th century must have been at a comparatively high See also:

• STATE
• STATE, GREAT OFFICERS OF

state of development; and we may also conjecture that the tuneful character of this wonderful rota has something in common with the unwritten but famous songs of the aristocratic troubadours, or trouveres, of the 12th and 13th centuries, who, while disdaining to practise the art of See also:

• ACCOMPANIMENT (i.e. that which " accompanies ")

accompaniment or the art of scientific and written music, undoubtedly set the fashion in melody, and, being themselves poets as well as singers, formed the current notions as to the relations between musical and poetic rhythm .

The music of See also:

• ADAM
• ADAM (or ADAN) DE LE HALE (died c. 1288)
• ADAM, ALEXANDER (1741–1809)
• ADAM, JULIETTE (1836– )
• ADAM, LAMBERT SIGISBERT (1700-1759)
• ADAM, MELCHIOR (d. 1622)
• ADAM, PAUL (1862– )
• ADAM, ROBERT (1728—1792)
• ADAM, SIR FREDERICK (1781-1853)
• ADAM, WILLIAM (1751-1839)

Adam de la See also:

• HALE, EDWARD EVERETT (1822-1909)
• HALE, HORATIO (1817–1896)
• HALE, JOHN PARKER (1806–1873)
• HALE, NATHAN (1756-1776)
• HALE, SIR MATTHEW (1609-1676)
• HALE, WILLIAM GARDNER (1849- )

Hale, surnamed Le See also:

• BOSSU, RENE LE (1631-1680)

Bossu d'See also:

• ARRAS

Arras (c . 1230-1288), shows the transformation of the See also:

• TROUBADOUR

troubadour into the learned musician; and, nearly a century later, the more ambitious efforts of a greater See also:

• FRENCH
• FRENCH, DANIEL CHESTER (1850– )
• FRENCH, NICHOLAS (1604-1678)

French poet (like his contemporary Petrarca, one of See also:

• CHAUCER, GEOFFREY (? 1340-1400)

Chaucer's See also:

• MODELS

models in poetic technique), See also:

• GUILLAUME
• GUILLAUME, JEAN BAPTISTE CLAUDE EUGENE (1822-1905)

Guillaume de See also:

• MACHAULT

Machault (ft . 1350) , See also:

• MARK
• MARK, CARL (1858– )
• MARK, GOSPEL OF ST
• MARK, ST

mark a further technical advance, though they are not appreciably more intelligible to the modern ear . In the next century we find an Englishman, John See also:

• DUNSTABLE

Dunstable, who had as early as 1437 acquired a European reputation; while his works were so soon lost sight of that until recently he was almost a legendary character, sometimes revered as the " inventor " of counterpoint, and once or twice even identified with St See also:

• DUNSTAN, SAINT (924 or 925-g88)

Dunstan ! Recently a great See also:

• DEAL

deal of his work has come to light, and it shows us (especially when taken in connexion with the fact that the early Netherlandish See also:

• MASTER (Lat. magister, related to tnagis, more, as the corresponding minister is to minus, less; the English form is due partly to the O. Eng. maegister, and partly to O. Fr. maistre, mod. maitre; cf. Du. meester, Ger. Meister, Ital. maestro)

master, G . Dufay, did not See also:

• DIE
• DIE (Fr. de, from Lat. datum, given)

die until 1494, twenty-one years after Dunstable) that See also:

• ENGLISH

English counterpoint was fully capable of showing the composers of the See also:

• NETHERLANDS

Netherlands the path by which they were to reach the art of the " See also:

• GOLDEN

Golden age." In such examples of Dunstable's work as that appended to the article " Dunstable " in Grove's Dictionary (new ed., i . 744) we see music approaching a style more or less consistently intelligible to a modern ear; and in English Carols of the 15th Century (1891) several two-part compositions of the See also:

• PERIOD
• PERIOD (Gr. irepioSos, a going or way round, circuit, aepi, round, and &Sis, way, road)

period, in a style resembling Dunstable's, have been made accessible to modern readers and filled out into four-part music by the editor " in accordance with the rules of the time." And though it may be doubted whether Mr Rockstro's skill would not have been held in the 15th century to savour overmuch of the See also:

• BLACK
• BLACK, ADAM (1784-1874)
• BLACK, JEREMIAH SULLIVAN (1810–1883)
• BLACK, WILLIAM (1841-1898)

Black Art, still the success of his See also:

• ATTEMPT (Lat. adtemptare, attentare, to try)

attempt shows that the musical conceptions he is dealing with are no longer radically different from those of our modern musical consciousness . 4 . The Golden Age.—The struggle towards the realization of mature musical art seems incredibly slow when we do not realize its difficulty, and wonderfully rapid as soon as we attempt to imagine the effort of first forming those harmonic conceptions which are second nature to us . Even at the time of Dunstable and Dufay the development of the contrapuntal idea of independence of parts had not yet so transformed the harmonic consciousness that the ancient parallelisms or consecutive fourths and fifths that were the backbone of distant could be seen in their true light as contradictory to the contrapuntal method . By the beginning of the 16th century, however, the See also:

• LAWS

laws of counterpoint were substantially fixed; practice was for a while imperfect, and aims still uncertain, but skill was increasing and soon became marvellous; and in 16th-century music we leave the archaic world altogether . Henceforth musicmay show various phenomena of crudeness, decadence and transition, but its transition-periods will always derive light from the past, whatever the darkness of the future .

In the best music of the 16th century we have no need of research or mental gymnastics, beyond what is necessary in all art to secure intelligent presentation and attention . Its materials show us the " three dimensions " of music in their simplest state of perfect See also:

• BALANCE (derived through the Fr. from the Late Lat. bilantia, an apparatus for weighing, from bi, two, and lanx, a dish or scale)

balance . Rhythm, emancipated from the tyranny of verse, is See also:

• FREE

free to co-See also:

• ORDINATE

ordinate and contrast a multitude of melodies which by the very independence of their flow produce a See also:

• MASS (O.E. maesse; Fr. messe; Ger. Messe; Ital. messa; from eccl. Lat. missa)
• MASS, IN

mass of harmony that passes from concord to concord through ordered varieties of transitional discord . The criterion of discord is no longer that of See also:

• MERE
• MERE, ADALBERT (1838-1909)

mere harshness, but is modified by the conception of the simplicity or remoteness of the steps by which the See also:

• FLUX (Lat. fluxus, a flowing; this being also the meaning of the English term in medicine, &c.)

flux of independent simultaneous melodies passes from one concord, or point of repose, to another . When the music reaches a See also:

• CLIMAX, JOHN (c. 525–600 A.D.)

climax, or its final conclusion, the point of repose is, of course, greatly emphasized . It is accordingly the " cadences " or full closes of 16th-century music that show the greatest resemblance to the harmonic ideas of the present day; and it is also at these points that certain notes were most frequently raised so as to modify the ecclesiastical modes which are derived more or less directly from the melodic diatonic scale of the Greeks, and misnamed, according to inevitable medieval misconceptions, after the Greek modes .l In other passages our modern ears, when unaccustomed to the style, feel that the harmony is strange and lacking in definite direction; and we are apt to form the hasty conclusion that the mode is an archaic survival . A more familiar acquaintance with the art soon shows that its shifting and vague modulations are no mere survival of a scale inadequate for any but melodic purposes, but the natural result of a state of things in which only two See also:

• SPECIES

species of chord are available as points of repose at all . If no successions of such chords were given prominence, except those that define See also:

• KEY
• KEY (in O. Eng. tang; the ultimate origin of the word is unknown; it appears only in Old Frisian kei of other Teutonic languages; until the end of the 17th century the pronunciation was kay, as in other words in O. Eng. ending in aeg; cf. daeg, day; clang
• KEY (the phraseograms being indicated by hyphens)
• KEY, SIR ASTLEY COOPER (1821-1888)
• KEY, THOMAS HEWITT (1799-1875)

key according to modern notions based upon a much greater variety of harmony, the resulting monotony and triviality would be intolerable . Moreover, there is in this music just as much and no more of formal See also:

• ANTITHESIS (the Greek for " setting opposite ")

antithesis and sequence as its harmony will suffice to hold together . Lastly, we shall find, on comparing the masterpieces of the period with works of inferior See also:

• RANK (O.Fr. rant or rent, mod. rang, generally connected with the O.E. and O.H.G. bring, a ring)

rank, that in the masterpieces the most archaic modal features are expressive, varied and beautiful; while in the inferior works they are often avoided in favour of ordinary modern ideas, and, when they occur, are always accidental and monotonous, although in strict conformity with the rules of the time . The consistent limitations of harmony, form and rhythm have the further consequence that the only artistic music possible within them is purely vocal . The use of instruments is little more than a necessary evil for the support of voices in case of insufficient opportunity for practice; and although the origins of instrumental music are already of some artistic See also:

• INTEREST

interest in the 16th century, we must leave them out of our account if our See also:

• OBJECT

object is to present mature artistic ideas in proper proportions .

The principles of 16th-century art-forms are discussed in more detail in the article on CONTRAPUNTAL FORMS . Here we will treat the formal criteria on a general basis; especially as with art on such simple principles the distinction between one art-form and another is apt to be either too See also:

• EXTERNAL

external or too subtle for stability . With music there is a stronger See also:

• PROBABILITY (Lat. probabilis, probable or credible)

probability than in any other art that merely See also:

• MECHANICAL

mechanical devices will be self-evident, and thus they may become either dangerous or effective . With the masters of the Netherlands they speedily became both . Two adjacent See also:

• GROUPS
• GROUPS, THEORY

groups of illustrations in See also:

• BURNEY, CHARLES (1726-1814)

Burney's 1 The technical nature of the subject forbids us to discuss the origin and characteristics of the great Ambrosian and Gregorian collections of melodic See also:

• CHURCH
• CHURCH (according to most authorities derived from the Gr. Kvpcaxov [&wµa], " the Lord's [house]," and common to many Teutonic, Slavonic and other languages under various forms—Scottish kirk, Ger. Kirche, Swed. kirka, Dan. kirke, Russ. tserkov, Buig. cerk
• CHURCH, FREDERICK EDWIN (1826-1900)
• CHURCH, GEORGE EARL (1835–1910)
• CHURCH, RICHARD WILLIAM (1815–189o)
• CHURCH, SIR RICHARD (1784–1873)

church music on which nearly all medieval and 16th-century polyphony was based, and from which the ecclesiastical modes were derived . Professor Wooldridge in The Oxford History of Music, i . 2o-44, has shown the continuity of this early Christian music with the Graeco-Roman music, and the origin of its modes in the Ptolemaic modification (c . A . D . 15o) of the Greek diatonic scale; while a recent See also:

• DEFENCE
• DEFENCE (Lat. defendere, to defend)

defence of the ecclesiastical tradition of a revision by St See also:

• GREGORY
• GREGORY (Gregorius)
• GREGORY (Grigorii) GRIGORIEVICH ORLOV, COUNT (1734-1783)
• GREGORY, EDWARD JOHN (1850-19o9)
• GREGORY, OLINTHUS GILBERT (1774—1841)
• GREGORY, ST (c. 213-C. 270)
• GREGORY, ST, OF NAZIANZUS (329–389)
• GREGORY, ST, OF NYSSA (c.331—c. 396)
• GREGORY, ST, OF TOURS (538-594)

Gregory will he found in the article on " Gregorian music " in Grove's Dictionary (new ed.), ii . 235 . History of Music will show on the one hand the astonishing way in which early polyphonic composers learnt to " dance in fetters," and, on the other hand, the expressive power that they attained by that discipline .

Burney quotes from the See also:

• VENERABLE (Lat. venerabilis, worthy of reverence, venerari, to reverence, to worship, allied to Venus, love; the Indo-Germ. root is wen-, to desire, whence Eng. " win, properly to struggle for, hence to gain)

venerable 15th-century master Okeghem, or Okenheim, some canons so designed as to be singable in all modes . They are by no means extreme cases of the ingenuity which Okenheim and his pupils often employed; but though they are not very valuable artistically (and are not even correctly deciphered by Burney)' they prove that mechanical principles may be a help rather than a hindrance to the attainment of a smooth and plastic style . Burney most appropriately follows them with Josquin See also:

• DES

Des Pres's wonderful Deploration de Jehan Okenheim, in which the See also:

• TENOR (through Fr. and It. from Lat. tenor, holding on, course, sense of a law, tone)

tenor sings the See also:

• PLAIN (O. Fr. plain, from Lat. plenum)

plain See also:

• CHANT (derived through the Fr. from the Lat. cantare, to sing; an old form is " chaunt ")

chant of the See also:

• REQUIEM

Requiem a degree below its proper pitch, while the other voices sing a See also:

• PASTORAL (from Lat. pastor, a shepherd)

pastoral See also:

• DIRGE

dirge in French . The See also:

• DEVICE

device of transposing the plain chant a note lower, and making the tenor sing it in that position through-out the whole piece, is obviously as mechanical as any form of See also:

• ACROSTIC (Gr. aKpos, at the end, and arixos, line or verse)

acrostic: but it is happily calculated to impress our ears, even though, unlike Josquin's contemporaries, most of us are not familiar with the plain chant in its normal position; because it alters the position of all the semitones and gives the chant a plaintive minor character which is no less impressive in itself than as a contrast to the orthodox form . And the harmonic superstructure is as See also:

• FINE

fine an instance of the expressive possibilities of the church modes at their apogee from modern tonality as could be found anywhere . A still nobler example, which we may perhaps acclaim as the earliest really See also:

• SUBLIME (Lat. sublimis, exalted)

sublime masterpiece in music, is Josquin's See also:

• MISERERE (the imperative of Lat. misereri, to have mercy or pity)

Miserere, which is accessible in a modern edition . In this monumental work one of the tenor parts is called Vagans, because it sings the See also:

• BURDEN, or BURTHEN

burden Miserere mei See also:

• DEUS
• DEUS, JOAO DE (1830-1896)

Deus at See also:

• REGULAR