MYTHOLOGY  (Gr. pvOo7'.oyia, the See also:

• SCIENCE (Lat. scientia, from scire; to learn, know)

science which examines µ118o', myths or legends of See also:

• COSMOGONY (from Gr. K6Qµos, world and yiyvevGay to be born)

cosmogony and of gods and heroes . Mythology is also used as a See also:

• TERM

term for these legends themselves . Thus when we speak of " the mythology of See also:

• GREECE

Greece " we mean the whole See also:

• BODY

body of See also:

• GREEK
• GREEK, ETRUSCAN AND

Greek divine and heroic and cosmogonic legends . When we speak of the" science of mythology " we refer to the various attempts which have been made to explain these See also:

• ANCIENT
• ANCIENT (also spelt ANTIENT; derived, through the Fr. ancien, old, from the late Lat. antianum, from ante, before)

ancient narratives . Very See also:

• EARLY
• EARLY, JUBAL ANDERSON (1816-1894)

early indeed in the See also:

• HISTORY

history of human thought men awoke to the consciousness that their religious stories were much in want of explanation . The myths of civilized peoples, as of Greeks and the See also:

• ARYANS

Aryans of See also:

• INDIA
• INDIA, FRENCH

India, contain two elements, the rational and what to See also:

• MODERN

modern minds seems the irrational . The rational myths are those which represent the gods as beautiful and See also:

• WISE, HENRY ALEXANDER (1806-1876)
• WISE, ISAAC MAYER (1819-1900)

wise beings . The See also:

• ARTEMIS

Artemis of the Odyssey " taking her pastime in the See also:

• CHASE
• CHASE, SALMON PORTLAND (1808-1873)
• CHASE, SAMUEL (1741–1811)
• CHASE, WILLIAM MERRITT (1849– )

chase of boars and See also:

• SWIFT
• SWIFT, JONATHAN (1667—1745)

swift See also:

• DEER (O. E. rigor, dfor, a common Teutonic word, meaning a wild animal, cf. Ger. Tier, Du. dier, &c., probably from a root dhus-, to breathe)
• DEER, CHINESE

deer, while with her the See also:

• WILD, JONATHAN (c. 1682-1725)

wild See also:

• WOOD, ANTHONY A2 (1632-1695)
• WOOD, JOHN GEORGE (1827—1889)
• WOOD, MRS HENRY [ELLEN] (1814—1887)
• WOOD, SEARLES VALENTINE (1798—188o)

wood-See also:

• NYMPHS

nymphs disport them, and high over them all she rears her brow, and is easily to be known where all are See also:

• FAIR

fair," is a perfectly rational mythic See also:

• REPRESENTATION

representation of a divine being . We feel, even now, that the conception of a " See also:

• QUEEN
• QUEEN (O.E. cwen, wife, related to "quean," O.E. cwene, a hussy; cf. Gr. yvvi7: from root gan-, to produce; cf. genus, " kin," &c.)

queen and huntress, chaste and fair," the See also:

• LADY (0. Eng. hlaefdige, Mid. Eng. ldfdi, lavedi; the first part of the word is hldf, loaf, bread, as in the corresponding hldford, lord; the second part is usually taken to be from the root dig-, to knead, seen also in " dough "; the sense development fr

lady See also:

• WARDEN

warden of the woodlands, is a beautiful and natural See also:

• FANCY (a shortened form, dating from the 15th century, of " fantasy," which is derived through the O. Fr. fantasie, modern fantaisie. from the Latinized form of the Gr. cbavraoia, Oavrai'ecv, Oat Pais, to show)

fancy which requires no explanation . On the other See also:

• HAND
• HAND (a word common to Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Hand, Goth. handus)
• HAND, FERDINAND GOTTHELF (1786-185r)

hand, the Artemis of See also:

• ARCADIA

Arcadia, who is confused with the nymph See also:

• CALLISTO

Callisto, who, again, is said to have become a she-See also:

• BEAR
• BEAR, BLACK
• BEAR, BROWN
• BEAR, GRIZZLY
• BEAR, ISABELLINE
• BEAR, WHITE

bear, and later a See also:

• STAR

star, and the Brauronian Artemis, whose See also:

• MAIDEN, or MAID

maiden ministers danced a bear-See also:

• DANCE
• DANCE (Fr. danse; of obscure origin, connected with Old High Ger. danson, to stretch)

dance, are goddesses whose See also:

• LEGEND (through the French from the med. Lat. legenda, things to be read, from legere, to read)

legend seems unnatural, and is See also:

• FELT (cognate with Ger. Filz, Du. vilt, Swed. and Dan. fill; the root is unknown; the word has given Med. Lat. filtrum, " filter ")

felt to need explanation . Or, again, there is nothing not explicable and natural in the conception of the Olympian See also:

• ZEUS

Zeus as represented by the See also:

• GREAT

great See also:

• CHRYSELEPHANTINE (Gr. xpvouOr, gold, and XEgas, ivory)

chryselephantine statue of Zeus at See also:

• OLYMPIA

Olympia, or in the Homeric conception of Zeus as a See also:

• GOD

god who " turns everywhere his shining eyes " and beholds all things . But the Zeus whose See also:

• GRAVE

grave was shown in See also:

• CRETE (Gr. Kp;rrrr; Turk. Kirid, Ital. Candia)

Crete, or the Zeus who played See also:

• DEMETER

Demeter an obscene See also:

• TRICK

trick by the aid of a See also:

• RAM
• RAM, PIERRE FRANCOIS XAVIER DE (18o4-1865)

ram, or the Zeus who, in the shape of a See also:

• SWAN (A. S. swan and swan, Icel. svanr, Du. zwaart, Ger. Schwan)
• SWAN, J
• SWAN, JOHN MACALLAN (1847-1910)
• SWAN, SIR JOSEPH WILSON (1828– )

swan, became the See also:

• FATHER

father of See also:

• CASTOR

Castor and See also:

• POLLUX, JULIUS
• POLLUX, or POLLUCITE

Pollux, or the Zeus who was merely a rough See also:

• STONE
• STONE (0. Eng. shin; the word is common to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Stein, Du. steen, Dan. and Swed. sten; the root is also seen in Gr. aria, pebble)
• STONE, CHARLES POMEROY (1824-1887)
• STONE, EDWARD JAMES (1831-1897)
• STONE, FRANK (1800-1859)
• STONE, GEORGE (1708—1764)
• STONE, LUCY [BLACKWELL] (1818-1893)
• STONE, MARCUS (184o— )
• STONE, NICHOLAS (1586-1647)

stone, or the Zeus who deceived See also:

• HERA

Hera by means of a feigned See also:

• MARRIAGE

marriage with an inanimate See also:

• OBJECT

object, or the Zeus who was afraid of Attes, is a being whose myth is felt to be unnatural and in great need of explanation .

It is this irrational and unnatural See also:

• ELEMENT (Lat. elementum)

element—as Max See also:

• MULLER, FERDINAND VON, BARON (1825–1896)
• MULLER, FRIEDRICH (1749-1825)
• MULLER, GEORGE (1805-1898)
• MULLER, JOHANNES PETER (18o1-1858)
• MULLER, JOHANNES VON (1752-1809)
• MULLER, JULIUS (18oi-1878)
• MULLER, KARL OTFRIED (1797-1840)
• MULLER, LUCIAN (1836-1898)
• MULLER, WILHELM (1794-1827)
• MULLER, WILLIAM JAMES (1812-1845)

Muller says, " the See also:

• SILLY

silly, See also:

• SAVAGE
• SAVAGE, MINOT JUDSON (1841– )
• SAVAGE, RICHARD (d. 1743)

savage and senseless element " —that makes mythology the See also:

• PUZZLE

puzzle which men have so See also:

• LONG, GEORGE (1800-1879)
• LONG, JOHN DAVIS (1838– )

long found it . Early Explanations of Myths.—The earliest attempts at a crude science of mythology were efforts to reconcile the legends of the gods and heroes with the religious sentiment which recognized in these beings See also:

• OBJECTS

objects of See also:

• WORSHIP (i.e. " worth-ship," O. Eng. weor8scipe)

worship and respect . Closely as See also:

• RELIGION
• RELIGION, FOLKLORE, CUSTOM

religion and myth are intertwined, it is necessary to hold them apart for the purposes of this discussion . Religion may here be defined as the conception of divine, or at least supernatural See also:

• POWERS, HIRAM (1805-1873)

powers entertained by men in moments of gratitude or of need and See also:

• DISTRESS

distress, in See also:

• HOURS, CANONICAL

hours of weakness, when, as See also:

• HOMER, WINSLOW (1836-191o)

Homer says, " all folk yearn after the gods." Now this conception may be See also:

• RUDE, FRANCOIS (1784–1855)

rude enough, and it is nearly related to purely magical ideas, to efforts to secure supernatural aid by magical ceremonies . Still the roughest See also:

• FORM (Lat. forma)

form of spiritual See also:

• PRAYER (from Lat. precari, entreat; Ital. pregaria, Fr. priere)
• PRAYER, BOOK OF COMMON

prayer has for its basis the See also:

• HYPOTHESIS (from Gr. inrorcOivat, to put under; cf. Lat. suppositio, from sub-ponere)

hypothesis of beneficent beings, visible or invisible . The senseless stories or myths about the gods are soon felt to be at variance with this hypothesis . As an example we may take the instance of Qing, the Bushman See also:

• HUNTER, JOHN (1728-1793)
• HUNTER, ROBERT MERCER TALIAFERRO (r8o9-1887)
• HUNTER, SIR WILLIAM WILSON (1840-19oo)
• HUNTER, WILLIAM (1718–1783)
• HUNTER, WILLIAM ALEXANDER (1844-1898)

hunter . Qing, when first he met See also:

• WHITE
• WHITE, ANDREW DICKSON (1832– )
• WHITE, GILBERT (1720–1793)
• WHITE, HENRY KIRKE (1785-1806)
• WHITE, HUGH LAWSON (1773-1840)
• WHITE, JOSEPH BLANCO (1775-1841)
• WHITE, RICHARD GRANT (1822-1885)
• WHITE, ROBERT (1645-1704)
• WHITE, SIR GEORGE STUART (1835– )
• WHITE, SIR THOMAS (1492-1567)
• WHITE, SIR WILLIAM ARTHUR (1824--1891)
• WHITE, SIR WILLIAM HENRY (1845– )
• WHITE, THOMAS (1628-1698)
• WHITE, THOMAS (c. 1550-1624)

white men., was asked about his religion . He began to explain, and mentioned Cagn . Mr Orpen, the See also:

• CHIEF (from Fr. chef, head, Lat. caput)

chief See also:

• MAGISTRATE (Lat. magistratus, from magister, master, properly a public office, hence the person holding such an office)

magistrate of St See also:

• JOHN
• JOHN (1167–1216)
• JOHN (1290-c. 1320)
• JOHN (1296-1346)
• JOHN (1371–1419)
• JOHN (1468-1532)
• JOHN (1801-1873)
• JOHN (Heb. llni')
• JOHN (ZAPOLYA) (1487-1540)
• JOHN, 4TH MARQUESS OF TWEEDDALE (c. 1695-1762)
• JOHN, DON (1545-1578)
• JOHN, DON (1629–1679)
• JOHN, GOSPEL OF ST
• JOHN, or HAYS (1513–1571)
• JOHN, THE APOSTLE
• JOHN, THE EPISTLES OF

John's Territory, asked: " Is Cagn See also:

• GOOD, JOHN MASON (1764-1827)

good or malicious? how do you pray to him ? " See also:

• ANSWER (derived from and, against, and the same root as swear)

Answer (in a See also:

• LOW, SETH (1850- )
• LOW, WILL HICOK (1853- )

low imploring See also:

• TONE, THEOBALD WOLFE (1763-1798)

tone) : " `O Cagn ! 0 Cagn! are we not your See also:

• CHILDREN, LAW RELATING TO

children? do you not see our See also:

• HUNGER

hunger? give us See also:

• FOOD
• FOOD (like the verb " to feed," from a Teutonic root, whence O. Eng. foda; cf. " fodder "; connected with Gr. lrareicOae, to feed)

food;' and he gives us both hands full " (Cape Monthly See also:

• MAGAZINE

Magazine, See also:

• JULY

July 1874) .

Here we see the religiousview of Cagn, the Bushman god . But in the mythological See also:

• ACCOUNT
• ACCOUNT (through O. Fr. acont, Late Lat. comptum, cornputare, to calculate)

account of Cagn given by Qing he appears as a See also:

• KIND (O. E. ge-cynde, from the same root as is seen in " kin," supra)

kind of grass-hopper, supernaturally endowed, the See also:

• HERO (Gr. open)
• HERO, THE YOUNGER

hero of a most absurd See also:

• CYCLE
• CYCLE (Gr. KUK)^os, a circle)

cycle of senseless adventures . Even religion is affected by these irrational notions, and the gods of savages and of many civilized peoples are worshipped with cruel, obscene, and irrational See also:

• RITES

rites . But, on the whole, the religious sentiment strives to transcend the mythical conceptions of the gods, and is shocked and puzzled by the mythical narratives . As soon as this sense of perplexity is felt by poets, by priests, or by most men in an See also:

• AGE (Fr. age, through late Lat. aetaticum, from aetas)

age of nascent See also:

• CRITICISM
• CRITICISM (from the Gr. KpiTrlS, a judge, Kpivew, to decide, to give an authoritative opinion)

criticism, explanations of what is most crude and absurd in the myths are put forward . -Men ask themselves why their gods are worshipped in the form of beasts, birds, and fishes; why their gods are said to have prosecuted their amours in bestial shapes; why they are represented as lustful and passionate—thieves, robbers, murderers and adulterers . The answers to these questions sometimes become myths themselves . Thus both the Mangaians and the Egyptians have been puzzled by their own gods in the form of beasts . The Egyptians invented an explanation—itself a myth—that in some moment of danger the gods concealed themselves from their foes in the shapes of animals.' The Mangaians, according to W . W . Gill, hold that " the heavenly See also:

• FAMILY

family had taken up their See also:

• ABODE (from " abide," to dwell, properly " to wait for ," to bide)

abode in these birds, fishes, and See also:

• REPTILES (Lat. Reptilia, creeping things, from reptilis; ref ere, to creep; Gr. Ep7rety, whence the term " herpetology," for the science dealing with them)

reptiles."2 A See also:

• PEOPLE

people so curious and refined as the Greeks were certain to be greatly perplexed by even such comparatively pure mythical narratives as they found in Homer, still more by the coarser legends of See also:

• HESIOD

Hesiod, and above all by the ancient See also:

• LOCAL

local myths preserved by local priesthoods . Thus, in the 6th. See also:

• CENTURY (from Lat. centuria, a division of a hundred men)

century before See also:

• CHRIST (Gr. X pLQTOS, Anointed)
• CHRIST, WILHELM VON (1831-1906)

Christ, See also:

• XENOPHANES

Xenophanes of See also:

• COLOPHON

Colophon severely blamed the poets for their unbecoming legends, and boldly called certain myths " the fables of men of old." 3 Theagenes of Rhegium (520 B.C.?), according to the scholiast on Iliad, xx .

67,4 was the author of a very ancient See also:

• SYSTEM

system of mythology . Admitting that the See also:

• FABLE (Fr. fable, Lat. fabula)

fable of the See also:

• BATTLE

battle of the gods was " unbecoming," if literally understood, Theagenes represented it as an allegorical account of the See also:

• WAR
• WAR (O. Eng. werre, Fr. guerre, of Teutonic origin; cf. O.H.G. werran, to confound)

war of the elements . See also:

• APOLLO (Gr. 'A2r6XXwv,'Airkkhwv)

Apollo, Helios, and See also:

• HEPHAESTUS

Hephaestus were See also:

• FIRE (in O. Eng. f j'r; the word is common to West German languages, cf. Dutch vuur, Ger. Feuer; the pre-Teutonic form is seen in Sanskrit pu, pavaka, and Gr. irup; the ultimate origin is usually taken to be a root meaning to purify, cf. Lat. purus)

fire, Hera was See also:

• AIR (from an Indo-European root meaning " breathe," " blow ")
• AIR, or ASBEN

air, See also:

• POSEIDON

Poseidon was See also:

• WATER

water, Artemis was the See also:

• MOON (a common Teutonic word, cf. Ger. Mond, Du. maan, Dan. maane, &c., and cognate with such Indo-Germanic forms as Gr. µlip, Sans. ma's, Irish mi, &c.; Lat. uses luna, i.e. lucna, the shining one, lucere, to shine, for the moon, but preserves the word i
• MOON, SIR RICHARD, 1ST BARONET (1814-1899)

moon, Kai -See also:

• EA(nar...), (p.s„,.,.)
• EA(psr...), (p, „...)• (pqr...)

ea Xoora oµoiw . Or, by another system, the names of the gods represented moral and intellectual qualities . Heraclitus, too, disposed of the myth of the bondage of Hera as allegorical See also:

• PHILOSOPHY (Gr. gthos, fond of, and vo4 (a, wisdom)

philosophy . See also:

• SOCRATES

Socrates, in the Cratylus of See also:

• PLATO

Plato, expounds " a philosophy which came to him all in an instant," an explanation of the divine beings based on crude philological analyses of their names . See also:

• METRODORUS

Metrodorus, rivalling some See also:

• RECENT

recent flights of conjecture, resolved not only the gods but even heroes like See also:

• AGAMEMNON

Agamemnon, See also:

• HECTOR

Hector and See also:

• ACHILLES
• ACHILLES (Gr. 'AxtXXeus)

Achilles " into elemental combinations and See also:

• PHYSICAL

physical agencies." 5 See also:

• EURIPIDES (48o–4o6 B.C.)

Euripides makes See also:

• PENTHEUS

Pentheus (but he was notoriously impious) advance a " rationalistic " theory of the See also:

• STORY, JOHN (c. 1510-1571)
• STORY, JOSEPH (1779-1845)
• STORY, ROBERT HERBERT (1835-1907)
• STORY, WILLIAM WETMORE (1819—1895)

story that See also:

• DIONYSUS (probably = " son of Zeus," from & Os and vv(7os, a Thracian word for " son ")

Dionysus was stitched up in the thigh of Zeus . When See also:

• CHRISTIANITY

Christianity became powerful the See also:

• HEATHEN

heathen philosophers evaded its See also:

• SATIRE (Lat. satira, satura; see below)

satire by making more and more use of the allegorical and non-natural system of explanation . That method has two faults . First (as See also:

• ARNOBIUS (" the younger ")
• ARNOBIUS (called Afer, and sometimes " the Elder ")

Arnobius and See also:

• EUSEBIUS
• EUSEBIUS (Gr. EuOi/3tos, from ebaegils, pious, cf. the Latin name Pius)
• EUSEBIUS [OF CAESAREA] (c. 260-c. 340)
• EUSEBIUS [OF EMESA] (d. c. "36o)

Eusebius reminded their heathen opponents), the allegorical explanations are purely arbitrary, depend upon the fancy of their author, and are all equally plausible and equally unsupported by See also:

• EVIDENCE (Lat. evidentia, evideri, to appear clearly)

evidence .8 Secondly, there is no See also:

• PROOF (in M. Eng. preove, proeve, preve, &°c., from O. Fr . prueve, proeve, &c., mod. preuve, Late. Lat. proba, probate, to prove, to test the goodness of anything, probus, good)

proof at all that, in the distant age when the myths were See also:

• DEVELOPED

developed, men entertained the moral notions and physical philosophies which are supposed to be " wrapped up, " as See also:

• CICERO

Cicero says, " in impious fables." Another system of explanation is that associated with the name of Euemerus (316 B.c.) . According to this author, the myths are history in disguise . All the gods were once men, whose real feats have been decorated and distorted by later fancy .

This view suited Lactantius, St See also:

• AUGUSTINE, SAINT (354-430)
• AUGUSTINE, SAINT (d. c.613)

Augustine and other early See also:

• CHRISTIAN
• CHRISTIAN, WILLIAM (1608-1663)

Christian writers ' See also:

• PLUTARCH
• PLUTARCH (Gr. llXoi rapxos) (c. A.D. 46–120)

Plutarch, Dc Iside et Osiride . 2 Myths and Songs from the See also:

• SOUTH
• SOUTH, ROBERT (1634–1716)

South Pacific, p . 35 (1876) . 3 Xenoph . Fr. i . 42 . 4 See also:

• DINDORF, KARL WILHELM (1802-1883)

Dindorf's ed., iv . 231 . 5 See also:

• GROTE, GEORGE (1794–1871)

Grote, Hist. of Greece, (ed . 1869) i . 404 . 6 Cf .

See also:

• LOBECK, CHRISTIAN AUGUST (1781-186o)

Lobeck, Aglaophamus, i . 151-152, on allegorical interprets• ton of myths in the mysteries . very well . They were pleased to believe that Euemerus " by See also:

• HISTORICAL

historical See also:

• RESEARCH (O. Fr. recerche, from recercher, re- and cercer, mod. chercher, to search; Late Lat. circare, to go round in a circle, to explore)

research had ascertained that the gods were once but mortal men." Precisely the same convenient See also:

• LINE

line was taken by Sahagun in his account of Mexican religious myths . As there can be no doubt that the ghosts of dead men have been worshipped in many lands, and as the gods of many faiths are tricked out with attributes derived from ancestor-worship, the system of Euemerus retains some measure of plausibility . While we need not believe with Euemerus and with See also:

• HERBERT (FAMILY)
• HERBERT, GEORGE (1593-1633)
• HERBERT, HENRY WILLIAM
• HERBERT, SIR THOMAS (1606-1682)

Herbert See also:

• SPENCER
• SPENCER, HERBERT (1820-1903)
• SPENCER, JOHN CHARLES SPENCER, 3RD EARL (1782-1845)
• SPENCER, JOHNPOYNTZ SPENCER
• SPENCER, WILLIAM ROBERT (1769-1834)

Spencer that the god of Greece or the god of the See also:

• HOTTENTOTS

Hottentots was once a See also:

• MAN
• MAN, ISLE OF (anc. Mona)

man, we cannot deny that the myths of both these gods have passed through and been coloured by the imaginations of men who practised the worship of real ancestors . For example, the Cretans showed the See also:

• TOMB (Gr. Tuµ/3a, Tuµ(3os, probably allied to Lat. tumulus, literally a swelling, tumere, to swell)

tomb of Zeus, and the Phocians (See also:

• PAUSANIAS

Pausanias x . 5) daily poured See also:

• BLOOD

blood of victims into the tomb of a hero; obviously by way of feeding his See also:

• GHOST (a word common to the W. Teutonic languages; O.E. vest, Dutch, 'geest, Ger. Geist)

ghost . The Hottentots show many tombs of their god, Tsui-Goab, and tell tales about his See also:

• DEATH

death; they also pray regularly for aid at the tombs of their own parents.' We may therefore say that, while it is rather absurd to believe that Zeus and Tsui-Goab were o.nce real men, yet their myths are such as would be developed by people accustomed, among other forms of religion, to the worship of dead men . Very probably portions of the legends of real men have been attracted into the mythic accounts of gods of another See also:

• CHARACTER (Gr. xapareri7p, from xap&crew, to scratch)

character, and this is the element of truth at the bottom of Euemerism . Later Explanations of Mythology.—The ancient systems of explaining what needed explanation in myths were, then, physical, ethical, religious and historical . One student, like Theagenes, would see a physical philosophy underlying Homeric legends .

Another, like See also:

• PORPHYRY (IlopcPisptos) (A.D. 233-c. 304)

Porphyry, would imagine that the meaning was partly moral, partly of a dark theosophic and religious character . Another would detect moral See also:

• ALLEGORY (iXXos, other, and ayopeuav, to speak)

allegory alone, and See also:

• ARISTOTLE
• ARISTOTLE (384-322 B.C.)

Aristotle expresses the See also:

• OPINION (Lat. opinio, from opinari, to think)

opinion that the myths were the 'inventions of legislators " to persuade the many, and to be used in support of See also:

• LAW
• LAW (0. Eng. lagu, M. Eng. lawe; from an old Teutonic root lag, " lie," what lies fixed or evenly; cf. Lat. lex, Fr. loi)
• LAW, JOHN (1671—1729)
• LAW, WILLIAM (1686-1761)

law " (Met. xi . 8, 1q) . A See also:

• FOURTH

fourth, like Euemerus, would get rid of the supernatural element altogether, and find only an imaginative rendering of actual history . When Christians approached the problem of heathen mythology, they sometimes held, with St Augustine, a form of the See also:

• DOCTRINE

doctrine of Euemerus.2 In other words, they regarded Zeus, See also:

• APHRODITE

Aphrodite and the See also:

• REST (O. Eng. rest, reste, bed, cognate with other Teutonic forms, e.g. Ger. Rast, Riiste, rest, and probably Gothic Rasta, league, i.e. resting or stopping place)

rest as real persons, diabolical not divine . Some later philosophers, especially of the 17th century, misled by the resemblance between Biblical narratives and ancient myths, came to the conclusion that the See also:

• BIBLE
• BIBLE, ENGLISH

Bible contains a pure, the myths a distorted, form of an See also:

• ORIGINAL

original See also:

• REVELATION, BOOK OF

revelation . The See also:

• ABBE (Serbo-Croatian Rai))

abbe Banier published a mythological compilation in which he systematically resolved all the Greek myths into See also:

• ORDINARY (med. Lat. ordinarius, Fr. ordinaire)

ordinary history.' See also:

• BRYANT, WILLIAM CULLEN (1794-1878)

Bryant published (1774) A New System, or an See also:

• ANALYSIS (Gr. avci and Meta, to break up into parts)

Analysis of Ancient Mythology, wherein an See also:

• ATTEMPT (Lat. adtemptare, attentare, to try)

Attempt is made to divest Tradition of Fable, in which he talked very learnedly of " that wonderful people, the descendants of See also:

• CUSH

Cush," and saw everywhere symbols of the See also:

• ARK (a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Arche, adapted from the Lat. area, chest, cf. arcere, to shut up, enclose)„ a chest, basket or box. The Hebrew word tebah, translated in the' A.V. by " ark," is used in the Old Testament (1)

ark and traces of the Noachian See also:

• DELUGE, THE (through the Fr. from Lat. diluvium, flood, diluere, to wash away)

deluge . See also:

• THOMAS
• THOMAS (c. 1654-1720)
• THOMAS (d. 110o)
• THOMAS, ARTHUR GORING (1850-1892)
• THOMAS, CHARLES LOUIS AMBROISE (1811-1896)
• THOMAS, GEORGE (c. 1756-1802)
• THOMAS, GEORGE HENRY (1816-187o)
• THOMAS, ISAIAH (1749-1831)
• THOMAS, PIERRE (1634-1698)
• THOMAS, SIDNEY GILCHRIST (1850-1885)
• THOMAS, ST
• THOMAS, THEODORE (1835-1905)
• THOMAS, WILLIAM (d. 1554)

Thomas See also:

• TAYLOR
• TAYLOR, ANN (1782-1866)
• TAYLOR, BAYARD (1825–1878)
• TAYLOR, BROOK (1685–1731)
• TAYLOR, ISAAC (1787-1865)
• TAYLOR, ISAAC (1829-1901)
• TAYLOR, JEREMY (1613-1667)
• TAYLOR, JOHN (158o-1653)
• TAYLOR, JOHN (1704-1766)
• TAYLOR, JOSEPH (c. 1586-c. 1653)
• TAYLOR, MICHAEL ANGELO (1757–1834)
• TAYLOR, NATHANIEL WILLIAM (1786-1858)
• TAYLOR, PHILIP MEADOWS (1808–1876)
• TAYLOR, ROWLAND (d. 1555)
• TAYLOR, SIR HENRY (1800-1886)
• TAYLOR, THOMAS (1758-1835)
• TAYLOR, TOM (1817-1880)
• TAYLOR, WILLIAM (1765-1836)
• TAYLOR, ZACHARY (1784-1850)

Taylor, at the end of the 18th century, indulged in much mystical allegorizing of myths, as in the notes to his See also:

• TRANSLATION

translation of Pausanias (1794) . At an earlier date (176o) De See also:

• BROSSES, CHARLES DE (1709-1777)

Brosses struck on the true line of See also:

• INTERPRETATION (from Lat. interpretari, to expound, explain, inter pres, an agent, go-between, interpreter; inter, between, and the root pret-, possibly connected with that seen either in Greek 4 p4'ew, to speak, or irpa-rrecv, to do)

interpretation in his little See also:

• WORK

work Du Culte See also:

• DES

des dieux fetiches, on pm-allele de l'ancienne religion de l'Egypte avec la religion actuelle de Nigritie . In this See also:

• TRACT (from Lat. tractare, to treat of a matter, through Provencal tractat and Ital. trattato)

tract De Brosses explained the See also:

• ANIMAL
• ANIMAL (Lat. animalis, from anima, breath, soul)

animal-worship of the Egyptians as a survival among a civilized people of ideas and practices springing from the intellectual See also:

• CONDITION (Lat. condicio, from condicere, to agree upon, arrange; not connected with conditio, from condere, conditum, to put together)

condition of savages, and actually existing among negroes . A vast symbolical explanation of myths and mysteries was attempted by See also:

• FRIEDRICH, JOHANN (1836— )

Friedrich Creuzer.4 The learning and See also:

• SOUND
• SOUND, THE (Danish Oresund)

sound sense of Lobeck, in his Aglaophamus, exploded the See also:

• IDEA (Gr. Ibia, connected with i&eiv, to see; cf. Lat. species from specere, to look at)

idea that the Eleusinian and other mysteries revealed or concealed See also:

• MATTER

matter of momentous religious importance . It ought not to be forgotten ' See also:

• HAHN, AUGUST (1792–1863)

Hahn, Tsuni-Goam, the Supreme Being of the See also:

• KHOI

Khoi-Khoi, p .

113 . 2 De civ. dei., vii . 18; viii . 26 . La Mythologic et See also:

• LES

les fables expliquees See also:

• PAR (Lat. par, equal)

par l'histoire (See also:

• PARIS
• PARIS (also called ALEXANDROS)
• PARIS, ALEXIS PAULIN (1800-x881)
• PARIS, BRUNO PAULIN GASTON (1839-1903)
• PARIS, FRANCOIS DE (169o-1727)
• PARIS, LOUIS PHILIPPE ALBERT
• PARIS, TREATIES OF (1814-1815)

Paris, 1738; 3 vols . 4t0) . * Symbolik and Mythologic der See also:

• ALIEN (Lat. alienus)

alien Volker (See also:

• LEIPZIG

Leipzig and See also:

• DARMSTADT

Darmstadt, 1836-1843) . that Lafitau, a Jesuit missionary in See also:

• NORTH
• NORTH, BARONS
• NORTH, MARIANNE (1830—1890)
• NORTH, ROGER (1653-1734)
• NORTH, SIR THOMAS (1535?-16o1?)

North See also:

• AMERICA

America, while inclined to take a mystical view of the secrets concealed by See also:

• IROQUOIS

Iroquois myths, had also pointed out the savage element surviving in Greek mythology.' Recent Mythological Systems.—Up to a very recent date students of mythology were hampered by orthodox traditions, and still more by See also:

• IGNORANCE (Lat. ignorantia, from ignorare, not to know); want of knowledge, a state of mind which in law has important consequences. A well-known legal maxim runs: ignorantia juris non excusat ("ignorance of the law does not excuse")

ignorance of the ancient See also:

• LANGUAGES

languages and of the natural history of rnan . Only recently have See also:

• SANSKRIT

Sanskrit and the See also:

• EGYPTIAN

Egyptian and Babylonian languages become books not absolutely sealed . Again, the study of the See also:

• EVOLUTION

evolution of human institutions from the lowest savagery to See also:

• CIVILIZATION

civilization is essentially a novel See also:

• BRANCH (from the Fr. branche, late Lat. branca, an animal's paw)

branch of research, though ideas derived from an unsystematic study of See also:

• ANTHROPOLOGY (Gr. avOpw1ror man, and Xoyos, theory or science)

anthropology are at least as old as Aristotle . The new theories of mythology are based on the belief that " it is man, it is human thought and human See also:

• LANGUAGE (adapted from the Fr. langage, from langue, tongue, Lat. lingua)

language combined, which naturally and necessarily produced the See also:

• STRANGE, SIR ROBERT (1721-1792)

strange See also:

• CONGLOMERATE (from the Lat. conglomerare, to form into a ball, glomus, glomeris; so also the general term " conglomeration " for a miscellaneous collection of things, gathered together in a mass)

conglomerate of ancient fable."' But, while there is now universal agreement so far, modern mythologists differed essentially on one point . There was a school (with See also:

• INTERNAL

internal divisions) which regarded ancient fable as almost entirely " a disease of language," that is, as the result of See also:

• CON

con-fusions arising from misunderstood terms that have survived in speech after their original significance was lost .

Another school (also somewhat divided against itself) believes that misunderstood language played but a very slight See also:

• PART

part in the evolution of mythology, and that the irrational element in myths is merely the survival from a condition of thought which was once See also:

• COMMON

common, if not universal, but is now found chiefly among savages, and to a certain extent among children . The former school considered that the See also:

• STATE
• STATE, GREAT OFFICERS OF

state of thought out of which myths were developed was produced by decaying language; the latter maintains that the corresponding phenomena of language were the reflection of thought . For the See also:

• SAKE

sake of brevity we might See also:

• CALL (from Anglo-Saxon ceallian, a common Teutonic word, cf. Dutch kallen, to talk or chatter)

call the former the " philological " system, as it rests chiefly on the study of language, while the latter might be styled the " historical " or " anthropological " school, as it is based on the study of man in the sum of his See also:

• MANNERS, CHARLES (1857– )

manners, ideas and institutions . The System of Max Muller.—The most distinguished and popular See also:

• ADVOCATE (Lat. advocatus, from advocare, to summon, especially in law to call in the aid of a counsel or witness, and so generally to summon to one's assistance)

advocate of the philological school was Max Muller, whose views may be found in his Selected Essays and Lectures on Language . The problem was to explain what he calls " the silly, savage and senseless element " in mythology (Set . See also:

• ESS, JOHANN HEINRICH VAN (1772-1847)

Ess. i . 578) . Max Muller says (speaking of the Greeks), " their poets had an instinctive aversion to every-thing excessive or monstrous, yet they would relate of their gods what would make the most savage of Red See also:

• INDIANS, NORTH AMERICAN

Indians creep and shudder "—stories, that is, of the See also:

• CANNIBALISM

cannibalism of Demeter, of the See also:

• MUTILATION (from Lat. mutilus, maimed)

mutilation of See also:

• URANUS
• URANUS (Heaven)

Uranus, the cannibalism of Cronus, who swallowed his own children, and the like . " Among the lowest tribes of See also:

• AFRICA
• AFRICA, ROMAN

Africa and America we hardly find anything more hideous and revolting." Max Muller refers the beginning of his system of mythology to the See also:

• DISCOVERY

discovery of the connexion of the Indo-See also:

• EUROPEAN

European or, as they are called, " See also:

• ARYAN

Aryan " languages . Celts, Germans, speakers of Sanskrit and Zend, Latins and Greeks, all prove by their languages that their See also:

• TONGUES, GIFT OF, or GLOSSOLALIA (yXwova, tongue, aXeiv, speak)

tongues may be traced to one family of speech . The comparison of the various words which, in different forms, are common to all Indo-European languages must inevitably throw much See also:

• LIGHT

light on the original meaning of these words . Take, for example, the name of a god, Zeus, or Athene, or any other .

The word may have no intelligible meaning in Greek, but its counterpart in the allied tongues, especially in Sanskrit or Zend, may reveal the original significance of the terms . " To understand the origin and meaning of the names of the Greek gods, and to enter into the original intention of the fables told of each, we must take into account the See also:

• COLLATERAL (from Med. Lat. collateralis,—cum, with, and latus, lateris, side,—side by side, hence parallel or additional)

collateral evidence supplied by Latin, See also:

• GERMAN
• GERMAN, DUTCH AND SCANDINAVIAN

German, Sanskrit and Zend See also:

• PHILOLOGY

philology " (Lett. on See also:

• LANG, ANDREW (1844— )
• LANG, KARL HEINRICH, RITTER VON (1764-1835)

Lang., 2nd See also:

• SERIES (a Latin word from serere, to join)

series, p . 406) . A name may be intelligible in Sanskrit which has no sense in Greek . Thus Athene is a divine name without meaning in Greek, but Max Muller advances reasons for supposing that it is identical with ahana, " the See also:

• DAWN (the 16th-century form of the earlier " Jawing " or " dawning," from an old verb " daw," O. Eng. dagian, to become day; cf. Dutch dagen, and Ger. tagen)

dawn," in Sanskrit . It is his opinion, apparently, that whatever story. is told of Athene must have originally been told of the dawn, and that we must keep this before us in attempting to understand the legends of Athene . Thus again (op. cit. p . 410), he says, " we have a right to explain all that is told of him " (See also:

• AGNI

Agni, " fire ") " as originally meant for fire." The system is simply this: the original meaning of the names of gods must be ascertained by See also:

• COMPARATIVE

comparative philology . The names, as a See also:

• RULE

rule, will be found to denote elemental phenomena . And the.silly, ' Meeurs des sauvages (Paris, 1724) . s Max Muller . Lectures on Language (1864), 2nd series, p .

410 . II savage and senseless elements in the legends of the gods will be shown to have a natural significance, as descriptions of See also:

• SKY (M. Eng. skie, cloud; O. Eng. skua, shade; connected with an Indo-European root sku, cover, whence " scum," Lat. obscurus, dark, &c.)

sky, storms, sunset, water, fire, dawn, See also:

• TWILIGHT

twilight, the See also:

• LIFE

life of See also:

• EARTH
• EARTH (a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Erde, Dutch aarde, Swed. and Dan. jord; outside Teutonic it appears only in the Gr. 'pq'e, on the ground; it has been connected by some etymologists with the Aryan root ar-, to plough, which is seen in
• EARTH, FIGURE OF
• EARTH, FIGURE OF THE

earth, and other See also:

• CELESTIAL, OR STELLAR

celestial and terrestrial existences . Stated in the barest form, these results do not differ greatly from the conclusions of Theagenes of Rhegium, who held that " Hephaestus was fire, Hera was air, Poseidon was water, Artemis was the moon, at 'ea aoara bgoiws." But Max Muller's system is based on scientific philology, not on conjecture, and is supported by a theory of the various processes in the evolution of myths out of language . It is no longer necessary to give an elaborate analysis of this theory, because neither in its philological nor mythological See also:

• SIDE
• SIDE (mod. Eski Adalia)

side has it any See also:

• ADVOCATES, FACULTY OF

advocates who need be reckoned with . The attempt to disengage the history of times forgotten and unknown, by means of analysis of roots and words in Aryan languages, has been unsuccessful, or has at best produced disputable results . Max Muller's system was a result of the philological theories that indicated the linguistic unity of the Indo-European or " Aryan " peoples, and was founded on an analysis of their language . But myths precisely similar in irrational and repulsive character, even in See also:

• MINUTE
• MINUTE (Lat. minutes, small; minuere, to make less)

minute details, to those of the Aryan races, exist among Australians, South See also:

• SEA (in O. Eng. sae, a common Teutonic word; cf. Ger. See, Dutch Zee, &c.; the ultimate source is uncertain)
• SEA, COMMAND OF THE

Sea Islanders, See also:

• ESKIMO, ESKIMOS

Eskimo, See also:

• BUSHMEN, or BOSJESMANS

Bushmen in Africa, among See also:

• SOLOMON, ODES OF
• SOLOMON, PSALMS OF

Solomon Islanders, Iroquois, and so forth . The facts being identical, an identical explanation should be sought, and, as the languages in which the myths exist are essentially different, an explanation founded on the Aryan language is likely to prove too narrow . Once more, even if we discover the original meaning of a god's name, it does not follow that we can explain by aid of the significance of the name the myths about the god . For nothing is more common than the attraction of a more ancient story into the legend of a later god or hero . Myths of unknown antiquity, for example, have been attracted into the legend of See also:

• CHARLEMAGNE [CHARLES THE GREAT] (c. 742-814)
• CHARLEMAGNE, JEAN ARMAND (1753–1838)

Charlemagne, just as the bans mots of old wits are transferred to living humorists . Therefore, though we may ascertain that Zeus means " sky " and Agni " fire," we cannot assert, with Max Muller, that all the myths about Agni and Zeus were originally told of fire and sky .

When these gods became popular they would inevitably inherit any current exploits of earlier heroes or gods . These exploits would therefore be explained erroneously if regarded as originally myths of sky or fire . We cannot convert Max Muller's proposition " there was nothing told of the sky that could not in some form or other be ascribed to Zeus" into " there was nothing ascribed to Zeus that had not at some See also:

• TIME (0. Eng. Lima, cf. Icel. timi, Swed. timme, hour, Dan. time; from the root also seen in " tide," properly the time of between the flow and ebb of the sea, cf. O. Eng. getidan, to happen, " even-tide," &c.; it is not directly related to Lat. tempus)
• TIME, MEASUREMENT OF
• TIME, STANDARD

time or other been told of the sky." This is also, perhaps, the proper See also:

• PLACE (through Fr. from Lat. platea, street; Gr. IrAar6s, wide)

place to observe that names derived from natural phenomena—sky, clouds, dawn and See also:

• SUN
• SUN (0. Eng. sonne, Ger. sonne. Fr. soleil, Lat. sol, Gr. ijXior, from which comes helio- in various English compounds)

sun—are habitually assigned by Brazilians, Ojibways, Australians and other savages to living men and See also:

• WOMEN

women . Thus the story originally told of a man or woman bearing the name " sun," " dawn," " See also:

• CLOUD (from the same root, if not the same word, as " clod," a word common in various forms to Teutonic languages for a mass or lump; it is first applied in the usual sense in the late 13th century; the Anglo-Saxon chid is only used in the sense of " a ma

cloud," may be mixed up later with myths about the real celestial dawn, cloud or sun . For all these reasons the See also:

• INFORMATION (from Lat. informare, to give shape or form to, to represent, describe)

information obtained from philological analysis of names is to be distrusted . We must also bear in mind that early men when they conceived, and savage men when they conceive, of the sun, moon, See also:

• WIND
• WIND (a common Teut. word, cognate with Skt. vats, Lat. ventus, cf. " weather," to be of course distinguished from to " wind," to coil or twist, O.Eng. windan, cf. "wander," "wend," &c.)

wind, earth, sky and so forth, have no such ideas in their minds as we attach to these names . They think of sun, moon, wind, earth and sky as of living human beings with bodily parts and passions . Thus, even when we discover an elemental meaning in a god's name, that meaning may be all unlike what the word suggests to civilized men . A final objection is that philologists differ widely as to the true analysis and real meaning of the divine names . Max Muller, for example, connects Kronos (K See also:

• ABYSS (Gr. as, privative, ,6u6QOs, bottom)

abyss) with y.povos, "time"; Prellerwith Kpaivw,"I fulfil," and so forth . The civilized men of the Mythopoeic age were not obliged, as Max Muller held, to believe that all phenomena were persons, because the words which denoted the phenomena had gender-terminations . On the other hand, the gender-terminations were survivals from an early See also:

• STAGE (Fr. 6/age; from Lat. stare, to stand)

stage of thought in which See also:

• PERSONAL

personal characteristics, including See also:

• SEX (Lat. sexes; possibly connected with secure, to cut)

sex, had been attributed to all phenomena .

This condition of thought is demonstrated to be, and to have been, universal among savages, and it may notoriously be observed among children . Thus Max Muller's theory that myths are " a disease of language " seems destitute of evidence, and inconsistent with what is historically known about the relations between the language and the social, See also:

• POLITICAL

political and See also:

• LITERARY

literary condition of men . Theory of Herbert Spencer.—The system of Herbert Spencer, as explained in Principles of See also:

• SOCIOLOGY

Sociology, has many points in common with that of Max Muller . Spencer attempts to account for the state of mind (the See also:

• FOUNDATION (Lat. fundatio, from fundare, to found)

foundation of myths) in which man personifies and animates all phenomena . According to his theory, too, this See also:

• HABIT (through the French from Lat. habitus, from habere, to have, hold, or, in a reflective sense, to be in a certain condition; in many of the English senses the French use habitude, not habit)

habit of mind may be regarded as the result of degeneration, for in his view, as in Max Muller's, it is not See also:

• PRIMARY

primary, but the result of misconceptions . But, while language is the chief cause of misconceptions with Max Muller, with Spencer it is only one of several forces all working to the same result . Statements which originally had a different significance are misinterpreted, he thinks, and names of human beings are also misinterpreted in such a manner that early races are gradually led to believe in the See also:

• PERSONALITY (from Lat. persona, originally an actor's mask, from personare,1 to sound through)

personality of phenomena . He too notes " the defect in early speech "—that is, the " lack of words See also:

• FREE

free from implications of vitality "—as one of the causes which " favour personalization." Here, of course, we have to ask Spencer, with Max Muller, why words in early languages " implyvitality." These words must reflect the thought of the men who use them before they react upon that thought and confirm it in its misconceptions . So far Spencer seems at one with the philological school of mythologists, but he warns us that the misconstructions of language in his system are" different in kind, and the erroneous course of thought is opposite in direction." According to Spencer (and his premises, at least, are correct), the names of human beings in an early state of society are derived from incidents of the moment, and often refer to the See also:

• PERIOD
• PERIOD (Gr. irepioSos, a going or way round, circuit, aepi, round, and &Sis, way, road)

period of the See also:

• DAY (O. Eng. dreg, Ger. Tag; according to the New English Dictionary, " in no way related to the Lat. dies")
• DAY, JOHN (1574-1640?)
• DAY, THOMAS (1748-1789)

day or the nature of the See also:

• WEATHER (O. Eng. weder; the word is common to Teutonic languages; cf. Du. weder, Dan. veir, Icel. ve8r, and Ger. Wetter and Gewitter, storm; the root is wa- to blow, from which is derived " wind ")

weather . We find, among Australian natives, among See also:

• ABIPONES

Abipones in South America, and among Ojibways in the North, actual people named Dawn,See also:

• GOLD
• GOLD [symbol Au, atomic weight 195.7(H = 1),197.2(0 =16)]

Gold See also:

• FLOWER (Lat. flos, floris; Fr. fleur)
• FLOWER, SIB

Flower of Day, Dark Cloud, Sun, and so forth . Spencer's See also:

• ARGUMENT

argument is that, given a story about real people so named, in See also:

• PROCESS

process of time and forgetfulness the See also:

• ANECDOTE (from av-, privative, and isSLSwµu, to give out or publish)

anecdote which was once current about a man named See also:

• STORM (in O. Eng..storm, and so in Du. and Low Ger.; in O. H. Ger. and mod. Ger. Sturm; the root is probably that seen in " stir," to rouse, move, disturb, cf. Ger. storen)
• STORM, THEODOR WOLDSEN (1817-1888)

Storm and a woman named See also:

• SUNSHINE

Sunshine will be transferred to the meteorological phenomena of sun and See also:

• TEMPEST, MARIE (1866– )

tempest . Thus these purely natural agents will come to be " personalized " (Prin .

See also:

• SOC

Soc . 392), and to be credited with purely human origin and human adventures . Another misconception would arise when men had a tradition that they came to their actual seats from this See also:

• MOUNTAIN (0. Fr. montaigne; popular Lat. montanea, an adjectival form from the classical mons, montis, whence Eng. " mount," a form usually used along with the name of an individual mountain, e.g. Mt Everest)
• MOUNTAIN, THE (La Montagne)

mountain, or that See also:

• LAKE
• LAKE, GERARD LAKE, 1ST VISCOUNT (1744-1808)

lake or See also:

• RIVER

river, or from lands across the sea . They will See also:

• MISTAKE (i.e. take amiss)

mistake this tradition of local origin for one of actual parentage, and will come to believe that, like certain Homeric heroes, they are the sons of a river (now personified), or of a mountain, or, like a tribe mentioned by Garcilasso de la See also:

• VEGA, GARCILASO DE LA
• VEGA, GARCILASO DE LA (1503-1536)

Vega, that they are descended from the sea . Once more, if their old legend told them that they came from the rising sun, they will hold, like many races, that they are actually the children of the sun . By this process of forgetfulness and misinterpretation, mountains, See also:

• RIVERS
• RIVERS, ANTHONY WOODVILLE, or WYDEVILLE, 2ND EARL (c. 1442—1483)
• RIVERS, EARL
• RIVERS, RICHARD SAVAGE, 4TH EARL (c. 1660—1712)

rivers, lakes, sun and sea would receive human attributes, while men would degenerate from a more sensible condition into a belief in the personality and vitality of inanimate objects . As Spencer thinks ancestor-worship the first form of religion, and as he holds that persons with such names as sun, moon and the like became worshipped as ancestors, his theory results in the belief that nature-worship and the myths about natural phenomena—dawn, wind, sky, See also:

• NIGHT

night and the rest—are a kind of transmuted worship of ancestors and transmuted myths about real men and women .. " Partly by confounding the parentage of the See also:

• RACE

race with a conspicuous object marking the See also:

• NATAL

natal region of the race, partly by literal interpretation of See also:

• BIRTH (a word common in various forms to Teutonic languages from the root of the verb " to bear ")

birth names, and partly by literal interpretation of names given in eulogy " (such as Sun and See also:

• BULL
• BULL, GEORGE (1634–1710)
• BULL, JOHN (c. 1562–1628)
• BULL, OLE BORNEMANN (18ro-188o)

Bull, among the Egyptian See also:

• KINGS, FIRST AND SECOND BOOKS OF

kings), and also through " implicit belief in the statements of forefathers," there has been produced belief in descent from mountains, sea, dawn, from animals which have become constellations, and from persons once on earth who now appear as sun and moon . A very common class of myths (see See also:

• TOTEMISM

TOTEMISM) assures us that certain See also:

• STOCKS

stocks of men are descended from beasts, or from gods in the shape of beasts . Spencer explains these by the theory that the remembered ancestor of a stock had, as savages often have, an animal name, as Bear, See also:

• WOLF
• WOLF (Canis lupus)
• WOLF, FRIEDRICH AUGUST (1759-1824)
• WOLF, HUGO (1860-1903)
• WOLF, JOSEPH (1820-1899)

Wolf, See also:

• COYOTE

Coyote, or what not . In time his descendants came to forget that the name was a See also:

• MERE
• MERE, ADALBERT (1838-1909)

mere name, and were misled into the opinion that they were children of a real coyote, wolf or bear . This idea, once current, would naturally stimulate and diffuse the belief that such descents were possible, and that the animals are closely akin to men .

The chief objection to these processes is that they require, as a necessary condition, a singular amount of memory on the one hand and of forgetfulness on the other . The lowest contemporary savages remember little or nothing of any ancestor farther back than the-grandfather . But men in Spencer's Mythopoeic age had much longer memories . On the other hand, the most ordinary savage does not misunderstand so universal a See also:

• CUSTOM (from O. Fr. costume, costume or coustume; Low Lat. costuma, a shortened form of consuetudo)

custom as the See also:

• IMPOSITION (from Lat. imponere, to place or lay upon)

imposition of names See also:

• PECULIAR

peculiar to animals or derived from atmospheric phenomena . He calls his own See also:

• CHILD
• CHILD, FRANCIS JAMES (1825-1896)
• CHILD, L
• CHILD, LYDIA MARIA (1802-1880)
• CHILD, SIR FRANCIS (1642-1713)
• CHILD, SIR JOHN (d. 1690)