Online Encyclopedia

section of Italian territory gave occasion to all the most serious disturbances of Italy between the end of the 13th and the beginning of the 16th centuries, by the introduction of the house of See also:

ANJOU

Anjou into Naples and the disputed See also:

SUCCESSION (Lat. successio, from succedere, to follow after)

succession of Angevin and Aragonese princes . Roger I. was succeeded in 1154 by See also:

William I . " the See also:

BAD, BCD

Bad," who died in 1166, being succeeded by his son William II . " the See also:

GOOD, JOHN MASON (1764-1827)

Good," on whose See also:

DEATH

death in 1189 the See also:

CROWN

crown passed to his illegitimate son See also:

Tancred .

After the death of HThe ohea• Tancred the See also:

EMPEROR (Fr. empereur, from the Lat. imperator)

emperor See also:

Henry VI., of the house of ataulea& See also:

HOHENSTAUFEN

Hohenstaufen, who by his See also:

MARRIAGE

marriage with See also:

Constance or Costanza d' Altavilla, daughter of Roger I . (d . 1154), was Tancred's See also:

RIVAL

rival for the kingdoms of Naples and Sicily, descended into Italy in I194 . He easily conquered both the mainland and the island, and Tancred's only son William III. surrendered the crown to him . But with the excuse of a pre-tended See also:

plot he put a number of the most conspicuous persons in the kingdoms to death, and had William himself blinded . He then returned to See also:

Germany, and during his See also:

ABSENCE (Lat. absentia)

absence an agitation See also:

broke out, provoked by the See also:

CRUELTY (through the O. Fr. crualte, mod. cruaute, from the Lat. crudelitas)

cruelty of his lieutenants and encouraged by his Norman wife . He hurried back to Italy, and repressed the See also:

MOVEMENT

movement with his usual ferocity, but died The in 1197 . Costanza then had her son See also:

Frederick emperor (b . 1194) proclaimed king, and obtained the support Frederick of the See also:

HOLY

Holy See on See also:

CONDITION (Lat. condicio, from condicere, to agree upon, arrange; not connected with conditio, from condere, conditum, to put together)

condition that the kingdom should IL be once more recognized as a See also:

FIEF

fief of the See also:

church . The whole history of the ensuing See also:

period of south Italian history turns on the claims of the papacy over the kingdoms of Naples and Sicily, based on the recognition of papal See also:

SUZERAINTY

suzerainty in 1053 . The Hohenstaufen See also:

KINGS, FIRST AND SECOND BOOKS OF

kings refused to admit this claim; hence the persistent hostility of the popes and the calling in of foreign potentates and armies . Costanza died in 1198, leaving Pope See also:

Innocent III. See also:

REGENT (from Lat. regere, to rule)

regent and See also:

TUTOR (Lat. tutor, guardian, tueri, to watch over, protect)

tutor to her son; the pope's authority was contested by various nobles, but in 1209 Frederick married Costanza, daughter of the king of See also:

ARAGON, or ARRAGON (in Span. Aragon)

Aragon, with whose help he succeeded in reducing a large part of Sicily to obedience .

Two years later he was elected king of the See also:

Romans at the See also:

DIET

diet of See also:

NUREMBERG (Ger. Nurnberg)

Nuremberg in opposition to See also:

OTTO

Otto IV., and in 1220 he was crowned emperor in See also:

Rome by pope See also:

Honorius III., but continued to reside in Sicily . He quelled a rising of Sicilian barons and See also:

SARACENS

Saracens, and confined 6o,000 of the latter at See also:

LUCERA

Lucera in Capitanata, where they ended by becoming a most loyal See also:

COLONY (Lat. colonia, from colonus, a cultivator)

colony . After the death of Frederick's wife Pope Honorius III. arranged a marriage for him with See also:

YOLANDE [or ISABELLA] OF BRIENNE (1212-1228)

Yolande, daughter of See also:

John of Brienne (1225) . But in 1227 See also:

Gregory IX. excommunicated him because he delayed the crusade which he had promised to undertake; and although he sailed the following See also:

YEAR

year, and concluded a treaty with the See also:

SULTAN (an Arabic word meaning " victorious " or " a ruler," sultat, dominion)

sultan of See also:

EGYPT

Egypt whereby the kingdom of See also:

Jerusalem was re-established, the pope was not satisfied and sent an See also:

army into Neapolitan territory . On his return Frederick defeated the pontificals, and in 1230 See also:

peace was made at See also:

San Germano and the See also:

EXCOMMUNICATION (Lat. ex, out of, away from; communis, common)

excommunication withdrawn . In 1231 he issued the celebrated Constitutions of the Sicilian kingdom at the See also:

PARLIAMENT (Anglo-Lat. parliamentum, Fr. parlement, from parler, to speak)

parliament of See also:

MELFI

Melfi . He had further quarrels with successive pontiffs, and was excommunicated more than once . In 1246 a number of his own barons and officials of the mainland conspired against his See also:

RULE

rule, but were crushed with great ferocity, and even his faithful secretary, Pietro della Vigna, See also:

fell a victim to the emperor's suspicions . Frederick's last years were embittered by the hostilities following on the crusade which the pope See also:

pro-claimed against him and by rebellions in Naples and Sicily . He died in 1250 . His policy was See also:

ANTI, or CAMPA

anti-feudal and tended to concentrate See also:

POWER [WILLIAM GRATTAN] TYRONE (1797-1841)

power into his own hands; hence the frequent risings of the barons . His See also:

court at See also:

PALERMO (Greek, Havopuos; Latin, Panhormus, Panormus)

Palermo had been one of the most brilliant in See also:

EUROPE

Europe, and attracted learned men from all over the then known See also:

WORLD

world; his somewhat See also:

pagan See also:

PHILOSOPHY (Gr. gthos, fond of, and vo4 (a, wisdom)

philosophy was afterwards regarded as marking the beginnings of See also:

MODERN

modern See also:

RATIONALISM (from Lat. rationalis, pertaining to reason, ratio)

rationalism .

He opened See also:

SCHOOLS

schools and See also:

UNIVERSITIES

universities, and he himself wrote See also:

POETRY

poetry in Sicilian See also:

DIALECT (from Gr. Sia stcror, conversation, manner of speaking, &aXeyec6at, to converse)

dialect . His son See also:

Conrad IV. succeeded to the See also:

EMPIRE

empire, while to his illegitimate son See also:

MANFRED (c. 1232–1266)

Manfred he See also:

LEFT

left the principality of See also:

TARANTO (anc. Tarentum, q.v.)

Taranto Manfred . and the regency of the See also:

SOUTHERN

southern kingdom, to be held in Conrad's name . By his political sagacity and moderation Manfred won a strong party to his side and helped Conrad tn subjugate the rebellious barons . The emperor died in 1254, Ieav;ng an See also:

INFANT (in early forms enfaunt, enfant, through the Fr. enfant, from Lat. infans, in, not, and fans, the present participle of fari, to speak)

infant son, See also:

CONRADIN, or CONRAD THE YOUNGER (1252–1268)

Conradin (b . 1252), and Manfred was appointed See also:

VICAR (Lat. vicarius, substitute)

vicar-See also:

general during the latter's minority . Manfred, too, encountered the hostility of the popes, against whom he had to wage waf, generally with success, and of some of the barons whom the papacy encouraged to See also:

REBEL, JOHANN PETER (176o-1826)

rebel; and in 1258, on a rumour of Conradin's death, he was offered and accepted the crown of Naples and Sicily . The rumour proved false, but he retained the crown, promising to leave the kingdom to Conradin at his death and to defend his rights . He now became See also:

head of the Ghibellines or Imperialists of Italy, and his position was strengthened by the marriage of his daughter Costanza to See also:

Peter, son of King See also:

James of Aragon . But he met with opposition from the turbulent See also:

NOBILITY

nobility and the See also:

clergy, who had been deprived of many privileges, and he failed to conciliate the communes, which were oppressed by taxes and beginning to aspire to See also:

AUTONOMY (Gr. abr6s, self, and v6pos, law)

autonomy . Innocent IV., in his determination to crush the Hohenstaufens, offered the kingdom in turn to Richard, See also:

EARL

earl of See also:

CORNWALL

Cornwall, to See also:

EDWARD

Edward, son of Henry III. of England, and to See also:

Charles of Anjou, See also:

BROTHER

brother of See also:

Louis IX. of See also:

France . After long negotiations with successive popes, Charles was finally induced by See also:

Clement IV. to come to Italy in 1265, agreeing to accept the kingdom of the Two Sicilies as a fief of the church, and in 1266 he marched southward with the privileges of Charles'. a crusader (see CHARLES I., king of Naples and Sicily) .

The defection of many cities and nobles facilitated his task, and Manfred was forced to retire on See also:

BENEVENTO

Benevento, where, on the 26th of See also:

FEBRUARY

February, owing to the treachery of a part of his troops, he was defeated and killed . As a result of this victory Charles was soon See also:

MASTER (Lat. magister, related to tnagis, more, as the corresponding minister is to minus, less; the English form is due partly to the O. Eng. maegister, and partly to O. Fr. maistre, mod. maitre; cf. Du. meester, Ger. Meister, Ital. maestro)

master of almost the whole kingdom, and he entered Naples, which now became the See also:

capital instead of Palermo . He persecuted the nobles who had sided with Manfred, and established a military despotism which proved more oppressive than that of the Hohenstaufens had ever been . Old See also:

LAWS

laws, customs and immunities were ruthlessly swept away, the See also:

PEOPLE

people were ground down with taxes, and the highest positions and finest estates conferred on See also:

French and Provencal nobles . Al-though the southern Italians had long been ruled by foreigners, it was the Angevin domination which thoroughly denationalized them, and initiated that long period of corruption, decadence and foreign See also:

SLAVERY

slavery which only ended in the 19th century . Invited by Sicilian malcontents and Ghibellines, Conradin (Ital . Corradino), the last surviving Hohenstaufen, descended into Italy in 1267 at the head of a small army collected Conradln. in Germany, and he found many supporters; but King Charles on See also:

HEARING (formed from the verb " to hear," O. Eng. hyran, heron, &c., a common Teutonic verb; cf. Ger. Koren, Dutch hooren, &c.; the O. Tent. form is seen in Goth. hausjan; the initial h makes any connexion with " ear," Lat. audire, or Gr. &Kobew very doub

hearing of his arrival abandoned the See also:

SIEGE (0. Fr. sege, siege, mod. siege, seat, ultimately from sedere, to sit, cf. Class. Lat. obsidium, a siege)

siege of Lucera and came to intercept him . A See also:

BATTLE

battle took See also:

PLACE (through Fr. from Lat. platea, street; Gr. IrAar6s, wide)

place at See also:

TAGLIACOZZO

Tagliacozzo (See also:

AUGUST (originally Sextilis)

August 23rd, 1268), in which the Imperialists were defeated, and Conradin himself was subsequently caught and handed over to Charles, who had him tried for high See also:

TREASON (Fr. trahison, Lat. traditio)

treason and beheaded (see CONRADIN) . All who had assisted the unfortunate youth were cruelly persecuted, and the inhabitants of Agosta put to the See also:

SWORD (0. Eng. sweord; ultimately from an Indo-European root meaning to wound)

sword . Thus ended the power of the Hohenstaufens . Although the picturesque figures of Manfred and Conradin awakened sympathy among the people of the kingdom, their authority was never really consolidated and their See also:

German knights weie hated; which facts rendered the enterprise of another foreigner like the Angevin comparatively easy . In Sicily, however, Charles's government soon made itself odious by its exactions, the insolence and cruelty of the king's French officials and favourites, the depreciation of T the currency, and the oppressive See also:

PERSONAL

personal services, he Sicilian while the nobles were incensed at the violation of See also:

vespers. their feudal constitution .

Just as Charles was contemplating an expedition to the See also:

East, the Sicilians See also:

rose in revolt, massacring the French throughout the island . The malcontents were led by the Salernitan See also:

NOBLE, SIR ANDREW (1832- )

noble Giovanni da See also:

PROCIDA (Gr. Ilpoxi ro, Lat. Prochyta)

Procida,a friend of the emperor Frederick and of Manfred, who had taken See also:

REFUGE

refuge at the court of Peter III. of Aragon, See also:

HUSBAND

husband of Manfred's daughter Costanza . He had induced Peter to make good his somewhat shadowy claims to the crown of Sicily, but while preparations were being made for the expedition, the popular rising known as the Sicilian Vespers, which resulted in the See also:

mass-See also:

acre of nearly all the French in the island, broke out at Palermo on See also:

EASTER

Easter See also:

Day 1282 . Peter reached Palermo in See also:

SEPTEMBER (Lat. septem, seven)

September, and by the following See also:

month had captured Messina, the last French stronghold . Pope See also:

Martin IV. now proclaimed a crusade against the Aragonese, and the See also:

war continued for many years . The Sicilian See also:

FLEET

fleet under Ruggiero di See also:

Lauria defeated that of the Angevins at See also:

Malta in 1283, and 1284 in the See also:

Bay of Naples; where the king's son, Charles the Lame, was captured . Charles I. died in 1286, and, his See also:

HEIR (Lat. heres, from a root meaning to grasp, seen in heres or erus, master of a house, Gr. xeip, hand, Sans. hat ana, hand)

heir being a prisoner, his See also:

GRANDSON (Ger. Grandsee)

grandson, Charles Martel (d . 1295), assumed the regency . Peter died the same year, leaving Aragon to his son See also:

ALPHONSO

Alphonso III. and Sicily to his son James, who was consecrated king in spite of the See also:

INTERDICT (Lat. interdictum, from interdicere, to forbid by decree, lit., interpose by speech)

interdict . The war went on uninterruptedly, for the popes prevented all attempts to arrive at an understanding, as they were determined that the rights of the church should be fully recognized . Charles Charles IL the Lame, who had been liberated in 1288, having renounced his rights on Sicily, was absolved from his See also:

OATH (0. Eng. ddh)

oath by Pope Nicholas IV., who crowned him king of the Two Sicilies and excommunicated Alphonso . The latter's successor James made peace with See also:

Boniface VIII. by renouncing Sicily (in See also:

EXCHANGE

exchange for See also:

SARDINIA (Gr. 'IXs'o"uva, from a fancied resemblance to a footprint in its shape, Ital. Sardegna)

Sardinia and See also:

CORSICA (Fr. Corse)

Corsica and the See also:

hand of Charles's daughter) and promising to help the Angevins to reconquer the island .

But the Sicilians, led by James's brother, Frederick III.,' who had been See also:

GOVERNOR (from the Fr. gouverneur, from gouverner, O. Fr. governer, Lat. gubernare, to steer a ship, to direct, guide)

governor of the island and was now proclaimed king, determined to resist . The war went on with varying success, until Charles of See also:

Valois, summoned by the pope to conduct the See also:

CAMPAIGN

campaign, landed in Sicily and, his army being decimated by disease, made peace with Frederick at Caltabellotta (1302) . The Angevins renounced Sicily in favour of Frederick, who was recognized as king of Trinacria (a name adopted so as not to mention that of Sicily), and he was to marry Leonora, daughter of Charles of Valois; at his death the island would revert to the Angevins, but his See also:

CHILDREN, LAW RELATING TO

children would receive See also:

COMPENSATION (from Lat. compensare, to weigh one thing against another)

compensation else-where . In 1303 the pope unwillingly ratified the treaty . (See CHARLES II., king of Naples and Sicily, and FREDERICK III., king of Sicily.) Charles II. died in 1309 and was succeeded by his second son Robert . (His eldest son had predeceased him, leaving a son, Roberr . Charles Robert, or Caroberto, at this See also:

time king of See also:

Hungary.) Robert now became See also:

LEADER, BENJAMIN WILLIAMS (1831– )

leader of the Guelphs in Italy, and war between Naples and Sicily broke out once more, when Frederick allied himself with the emperor Henry VII. on his descent into Italy, and proclaimed his own son Peter heir to the See also:

THRONE

throne . Robert led or sent many devastating expeditions into Sicily, and hostilities continued under King Peter even after Frederick's death in 1337 . Peter died in 1342, leaving an infant son Louis; but just as Robert was preparing for another expedition he too died in the same year . Robert had been a capable ruler, a See also:

SCHOLAR, SCHOLARSHIP

scholar and a friend of See also:

PETRARCH (1304-1374)

Petrarch, but he lost See also:

INFLUENCE (Late Lat. influentia, from influere, to flow in)

influence as a See also:

GUELPH

Guelph leader owing to the rise of other powerful princes and republics, while in Naples itself his authority was limited by the rights of a turbulent and rebellious baronage (see ROBERT, king of Naples) . His son Charles had died in 1328 and he was succeeded by his granddaughter See also:

JOANNA (1479-1555)

Joanna, wife of See also:

Andrew of Hungary, but the princes of the See also:

BLOOD

blood Joanna L and the barons stirred up trouble, and in 1345 Andrew was assassinated by See also:

order of See also:

Catherine, widow of Philip, son of Charles II., and of several nobles, not without suspicion of Joanna's complicity . Andrew's brother Louis, king of Hungary, now came to Italy to make good his claims on Naples and avenge the See also:

MURDER

murder of Andrew .

With the help of some of the barons he drove Joanna and her second husband, Louis of Taranto, from the kingdom, and murdered Charles of Durazzo; but as Pope Clement refused to recognize his claims he went back to Hungary in 1348, and the fickle barons recalled Joanna, who returned and carried on desultory warfare with the partisans of Louis of Hungary . Louis of Taranto and Joanna were crowned at Naples by the pope's See also:

legate in 1352, but Niccolo Acciaiuoli, the See also:

SENESCHAL (the O. Fr. form, mod. senechal, of the Low Lat. senescalcus, a word of Teutonic origin, meaning " old or senior servant," Goth. sini- old; cf. Lat. senex and stalks, servant; Du Cange's derivation from seneste, flock, herd, must be rejected)

seneschal, became the real master of the kingdom . In 1374 Joanna made peace with Frederick of Sicily, recognizing him as king of Trinacria on condition that he paid her See also:

TRIBUTE (Lat. tributurn, a stated payment, contribution)

tribute and recognized the pope's suzerainty . She nominated Louis of Anjou her heir, but while the latter was recognized by the antipope Clement VII„ Pope See also:

Urban VI. declared Charles of Durazzo (great-grandson of Charles II.) king of Sicily al di qua del See also:

Faro (i.e. of Naples) . Charles conquered the kingdom and took Joanna prisoner in 1381, and had her murdered the following He was the second king of that name in Sicily, but was known as Frederick III. because he was the third son of King Peter.year . Louis, although assisted by Amadeus VI. of See also:

Savoy, failed to drive out Charles, and died in 1384 . Charles III. died two years later and the kingdom was plunged into anarchy once more, part of the barons siding with his sevenyear-old son Ladislas, and part with Louis II. of Anjou . The latter was crowned by the antipope Clement, while Urban regarded both him and his rival as usurpers . On Urban's death in 1389 Boniface IX. crowned Ladislas Ladislas. king of Naples, who by the year 1400 had expelled Louis and made himself master of the kingdom . In 1407 he occupied Rome, which Gregory XII. could not hold . But See also:

Alexander V., elected pope by the See also:

COUNCIL (Lat. concilium, from cum, together, and the root cal, to call)

council of See also:

Pisa, turned against Ladislas and recognized Louis . Ladislas was defeated in 1411 and driven from Rome, but reoccupied the See also:

CITY (through Fr. cite, from Lat. civitas)

city on Louis's return to France .

He died in 1414, and was succeeded by his See also:

SISTER

sister Joanna II . (q.v.), during whose reign the kingdom Joanna !!. sank to the lowest depths of degradation . In 1415 Joanna married James of See also:

Bourbon, who kept his wife in a state of semi-confinement, murdered her See also:

LOVER, SAMUEL (1797-1868)

lover, Pandolfo Alopo, and imprisoned her See also:

CHIEF (from Fr. chef, head, Lat. caput)

chief See also:

CAPTAIN (derived from Lat. ca put, head, through the Low Lat. capitanus)

captain, See also:

Sforza; but his arrogance drove the barons to See also:

REBELLION

rebellion, and they made him renounce the royal dignity and abandon the kingdom . The history of the next few years is a See also:

MAZE

maze of intrigues between Joanna, Sforza, Giovanni See also:

CARACCIOLO, FRANCESCO, PRINCE (1732-1799)

Caracciolo, the See also:

queen's new lover, Alphonso of Aragon, whom she adopted as her heir, and Louis III. of Anjou, whom we find pitted against each other in every possible See also:

COMBINATION (Lat. combinare, to combine)

combination . Louis died in 1434 and Joanna in 1435 (see JOANNA II., queen of Naples) . The succession was disputed by Rene of Anjou and Alphonso, but the former eventually renounced his claims and Alphonso was recognized as king of Naples by Pope See also:

EUGENIUS

Eugenius IV. in 1443 . Under Alphonso,• surnamed "the Magnanimous," Sicily was once more united to Naples and a new era was inaugurated, for the king was at once a brilliant ruler, a scholar and a See also:

PATRON

patron of letters . He died in 1458, leaving Naples thle MaA° to his illegitimate son See also:

Ferdinand I . (See also:

Don Ferrante), nanirnous. and Sicily, Sardinia and Aragon to his brother John . Ferdinand found, however, that Alphonso had not really consolidated his power, and he had practically to reconquer the whole See also:

COUNTRY (from the Mid. Eng. contre or contrie, and O. Fr. cuntree; Late Lat. contrata, showing the derivation from contra, opposite, over against, thus the tract of land which fronts the sight, cf. Ger. Gegend, neighbourhood)

country . By 1464' he was master of the situa- Ferdinand tion, in spite of the See also:

ATTEMPT (Lat. adtemptare, attentare, to try)

attempt of Pope See also:

Calixtus III. is to enforce the claims of the papacy, and that of John of Anjou to enter into the heritage of his ancestors . In See also:

ALLIANCE

alliance with Pope See also:

SIXTUS

Sixtus IV. and the Milanese he waged war on Lorenzo de' See also:

Medici in 1479; but that astute ruler, by visiting Ferdinand in See also:

PERSON, OFFENCES AGAINST THE

person, obtained peace on favourable terms (1479) .

In 1485 the disaffection of the barons, due to the king's harshness and the arrogance and cruelty of his .son, found vent in a revolt led by Roberto Sanseverino and See also:

Francesco Coppola, which was crushed by means of See also:

CRAFT (a word common to Teutonic languages for strength, or power; cf. Ger. Kraft)

craft and treachery . Ferdinand died in 1494 full of forebodings as to the probable effects of the invasion of Charles VIII. of France, and The was succeeded by Alphonso (see FERDINAND I., king of invasion Naples) . The French king entered Italy in September of charges 1495, and conquered the Neapolitan kingdom without VIII. much difficulty . Alphonso abdicated, his son Ferrandino and his brother Frederick withdrew to See also:

ISCHIA (Gr. II19r)KO"va, Lat. Aenaria, in poetry Inarime)

Ischia, and only a few towns in See also:

APULIA (sometimes APPULIa in manuscripts but never in inscriptions)

Apulia still held out for the Aragonese . But when the pope, the emperor, Spain and See also:

Venice, alarmed at Charles's progress, formed a defensive See also:

LEAGUE

league against him, he quitted Naples, and Ferrandino, with the help of Ferdinand II. of Spain, was able to reoccupy his dominions . He died much regretted in 1496 and was succeeded by Frederick . The country was torn by See also:

CIVIL

civil war and See also:

BRIGANDAGE

brigandage, and the French continued to See also:

PRESS (through Fr. presse from Lat. pressare, frequentative of premere, to crush, squeeze, press)

press their claims; and although Louis XII . (who had succeeded Charles VIII.) concluded a treaty with Ferdinand of Spain for the See also:

PARTITION

partition of Naples, France and Spain fell out in 1502 over the See also:

DIVISION (from Lat. dividere, to break up into parts, separate)

division of the spoils, and with Gonzalo de See also:

Cordoba's victory on the Garigliano in See also:

DECEMBER (Lat. decent, ten)

December 1502, the whole kingdom was in See also:

SPANISH

Spanish hands . On the death of Ferdinand in 1516, the See also:

HABSBURG, or HAPSBURG

Habsburg Charles became king of Spain, and three years later was elected emperor as Charles V.; in 1522 he appointed John de See also:

LANNOY, GUILLEBERT DE (1386—1462)

Lannoy See also:

VICEROY (from O. Fr. viceroy, mod. viceroi, i.e. Lat. vice, in place of, and roy or roi, king)

viceroy of Frederick m . Charles HI . Naples, which became henceforth an integral part of the Spanish dominions . The old divisions of nobility, clergy and people were maintained and their mutual rivalry encouraged; the nobles were won over by titles and by the splendour of the viceregal court, but many persons of See also:

low See also:

BIRTH (a word common in various forms to Teutonic languages from the root of the verb " to bear ")

birth who showed See also:

TALENT (Lat. talentum, adaptation of Gr. TaXavrov, balance, ! Recollections of a First Visit to the Alps (1841); Vacation Rambles weight, from root raX-, to lift, as in rXi vac, to bear, 1-aXas, and Thoughts, comprising recollections of three Continental

talent were raised to high positions .

The viceroy was assisted by the See also:

COLLATERAL (from Med. Lat. collateralis,—cum, with, and latus, lateris, side,—side by side, hence parallel or additional)

Collateral Council and the Sacred See also:

COLLEGE (Collegium)

College of See also:

SANTA

Santa Chiara, composed of Spanish and Italian members, and there was an armed force of the two nationalities . Spanish rule on the whole was oppressive and tyrannical, and based solely on the See also:

IDEA (Gr. Ibia, connected with i&eiv, to see; cf. Lat. species from specere, to look at)

idea that the dependencies must pay tribute to the dominant kingdom . During the rule of Don Pedro de See also:

Toledo (one of the best viceroys) Naples became the centre of a See also:

PROTESTANT

Protestant movement which spread to the See also:

REST (O. Eng. rest, reste, bed, cognate with other Teutonic forms, e.g. Ger. Rast, Riiste, rest, and probably Gothic Rasta, league, i.e. resting or stopping place)

rest of Italy, but was ultimately crushed by the See also:

INQUISITION, THE (Lat. inquisitio, an inquiry)

Inquisition . In Sicily Spanish rule was less See also:

ABSOLUTE (Lat. absolvere, to loose, set free)

absolute, for the island had not been conquered, but had given itself over voluntarily to the Aragonese; and the parliament, formed by the three bracci or orders (the militare consisting of the nobility, the ecclesiastico, of the clergy, and the demaniale, of the communes), imposed certain limitations on the viceroy, who had to See also:

PLAY

play off the three bracci against each other . But the oppressive character of the government provoked several rebellions . In 1598 an insurrection, headed by the philosopher Tommaso See also:

CAMPANELLA, TOMMASO (1568-1639)

Campanella, broke out in See also:

CALABRIA

Calabria, and was crushed with great severity . In 1647, during the viceroyalty of the See also:

MARQUIS

marquis de Los Leres in Sicily, See also:

BREAD

bread riots in Palermo became a veritable revolution, and the people, led by the See also:

goldsmith Giovanni d' Alessio, drove the viceroy from the city; but the nobles, fearing for their privileges, took the viceroy's part and turned the people against d' Alessio, who was murdered, and Los Leres returned . On the 7th of See also:

JULY

July 1647, tumults occurred at Naples in consequence of a new See also:

FRUIT (through the French from the Lat. fructus; frui, to enjoy)

fruit tax, and the viceroy, Count d' Arcos, was forced to take refuge in the Castelnuovo . The populace, led by an Masanleito . See also:

AMALFI

Amalfi fisherman, known as See also:

MASANIELLO

Masaniello (q.v.), obtained arms, erected barricades, and, while professing See also:

LOYALTY

loyalty to the king of Spain, demanded the removal of the oppressive taxes and murdered many of the nobles . D' Arcos came to terms with Masaniello; but in spite of this, and of the assassination of Masaniello, whose arrogance and ferocity had made him unpopular, the disturbances continued, and again the viceroy had to retire to Castelnuovo and make concessions . Even the arrival of reinforcements from Spain failed to restore order, and the new popular leader, Gennaro Annese, now sought assistance from the French, and invited the See also:

DUKE (corresponding to Fr. duc, Ital. duca, Ger. Herzog)

duke of See also:

Guise to come to Naples .

The duke came with some soldiers and See also:

SHIPS

ships, but failed to effect anything; and after the recall of d' Arcos the new viceroy, Count d'Ognate, having come to an arrangement with Annese and got Guise out of the city, proceeded to punish all who had taken part in the disturbances, and had Annese and a number of others beheaded . In 167o disorders broke out at Messina . They began with a See also:

RIOT (0. Fr. riote, of uncertain etymology)

riot between the nobles and the burghers, but ended in an anti- Spanish movement; and while the inhabitants called The re- in the French, the Spaniards, who could not crush the vohnion at Messina. rising, called in the Dutch . Louis XIV. sent a fleet under the duc de Vivonne to Sicily, which defeated the Dutch under de Ruyter in r676 . But at the peace of See also:

NIJMWEGEN, NIMEGUEN, NYMEGEN

Nijmwegen (1679) Louis treacherously abandoned the Messinese, who suffered cruel persecution at the hands of the Spaniards and lost all their privileges . An anti-Spanish See also:

CONSPIRACY (from Lat. conspirare, literally to breathe together, to agree, combine, and especially to form a secret plot)

conspiracy of Neapolitan nobles, led by Macchia, with the See also:

OBJECT

object of proclaiming the See also:

ARCHDUKE (Lat. archidux, Ger. Erzherzog)

archduke Charles of See also:

Austria king of Naples, was discovered; but in 1707 an See also:

AUSTRIAN

Austrian army conquered the kingdom, and Spanish rule came to an end after 203 years, during which it had succeeded in thoroughly demoralizing the people . In Sicily the Spaniards held their own until the peace of See also:

Utrecht in 1713, when the island was given over to Duke See also:

Victor of Savoy, who assumed the title of king . In 1718 he had to hand back his new See also:

possession to Spain, who, in 1720, surrendered it to Austria and gave Sardinia to Victor Amadeus . In 1733 the treaty of the Escurial between France, Spain and Savoy against Austria was signed . Don See also:

Carlos of Bourbon, son of Philip V. of Spain, easily conquered both Naples and Sicily, and in 1738 he was recognized as king of the Two Sicilies, Spain renouncing all her claims. charges Charles was well received, for the country now was an 111 . See also:

INDEPENDENT

independent kingdom once more . With the Tuscan Bernardo Tanucci as his See also:

MINISTER (Lat. minister, servant)

minister, he introduced many useful reforms, improved the army, which was thus able to repel an Austrian invasion in 1744, embellished the city of Naples and built roads .

In 1759 Charles III., having succeeded to the Spanish crown, abdicated that of the Two Sicilies in favour of his son Ferdinand, who became Ferdinand IV. of Naples and III. of Sicily .