See also:

• NAPOLEON

NAPOLEON I  . The Parisians received the See also:

• NEWS

news of the event with joy, believing that freedom was now at last to be established on a See also:

• FIRM

firm basis by the See also:

• MAN
• MAN, ISLE OF (anc. Mona)

man whose name was the synonym for victory in the See also:

• FIELD (a word common to many West German languages, cf. Ger. Feld, Dutch veld, possibly cognate with O.E. f olde, the earth, and ultimately with root of the Gr. irAaror, broad)
• FIELD, CYRUS WEST (1819-1892)
• FIELD, DAVID DUDLEY (18o5-1894)
• FIELD, EUGENE (1850-1895)
• FIELD, FREDERICK (18o1—1885)
• FIELD, HENRY MARTYN (1822-1907)
• FIELD, JOHN (1782—1837)
• FIELD, MARSHALL (183 1906)
• FIELD, NATHAN (1587—1633)
• FIELD, STEPHEN JOHNSON (1816-1899)
• FIELD, WILLIAM VENTRIS FIELD, BARON (1813-1907)

field and disinterestedness in See also:

• CIVIL

civil affairs . " See also:

• PEOPLE

People are full of mirth " (wrote Madame Reinhard, wife of the See also:

• MINISTER (Lat. minister, servant)

minister for See also:

• FOREIGN

Foreign Affairs, four days later) " believing that they have regained See also:

• LIBERTY (Lat. libertas, from liber, free)

liberty." She added that all the parties except the See also:

• JACOBINS, THE

Jacobins were full of confidence; and that the nobles now cherished hopes of a reaction, seeing that the reduction of the number of rulers from five to three pointed towards See also:

• MONARCHY (Fr. monarchic, from Lat. monarchia, Gr. uovapXia, rule of one, µbvos, alone, apXi7, rule)

monarchy . Her comment on this delusion is instructive . Three consuls had been appointed, she remarked, precisely in See also:

• ORDER
• ORDER (through Fr. ordre, for earlier ordene, from Lat. ordo, ordinis, rank, service, arrangement; the ultimate source is generally taken to be the root seen in Lat. oriri, rise, arise, begin; cf. " origin ")
• ORDER, HOLY

order that See also:

• POWER [WILLIAM GRATTAN] TYRONE (1797-1841)

power might not be vested in the hands of one man . Only by degrees did the events of the 19th of See also:

• BRUMAIRE

Brumaire stand out in their real significance; for the new consuls, installed at the See also:

• LUXEMBURG
• LUXEMBURG, FRANCOIS HENRI DE MONTMORENCYBOUTEVILLE, DUKE

Luxemburg See also:

• PALACE (Lat. Palatium, the name given by Augustus to his residence on the Palatine Hill)

palace, and somewhat later at the Tuileries, took care that the new constitution, which they along with the two commissions were now secretly See also:

• DRAWING

drawing up, should not be promulgated until See also:

• PARIS
• PARIS (also called ALEXANDROS)
• PARIS, ALEXIS PAULIN (1800-x881)
• PARIS, BRUNO PAULIN GASTON (1839-1903)
• PARIS, FRANCOIS DE (169o-1727)
• PARIS, LOUIS PHILIPPE ALBERT
• PARIS, TREATIES OF (1814-1815)

Paris and See also:

• FRANCE
• FRANCE, ANATOLE (1844– )

France had settled down to the See also:

• ORDINARY (med. Lat. ordinarius, Fr. ordinaire)

ordinary See also:

• LIFE

life of See also:

• PLEASURE (through Fr. plaisir from Lat. placere, to please; Gr. rlbovii)

pleasure and toil . In the meantime they won See also:

• CREDIT (Lat. credere, to believe)

credit by popular See also:

• MEASURES

measures such as the abolition of forced loans and of the objectionable See also:

• HABIT (through the French from Lat. habitus, from habere, to have, hold, or, in a reflective sense, to be in a certain condition; in many of the English senses the French use habitude, not habit)

habit of seizing hostages from the districts of the See also:

• WEST
• WEST, BENJAMIN (1738-1820)
• WEST, NICHOLAS (1461-1533)

west where the royalist ferment was still strongly working . The feelings of suprise at the clemency and moderation with which the victors used their See also:

• POWERS, HIRAM (1805-1873)

powers predisposed men every-where to accept their constitution . Sieyes now sketched its out-lines in vaguely republican forms; thereupon See also:

• BONAPARTE

Bonaparte freely altered them and gave them strongly See also:

• PERSONAL

personal touches . The theorist laid before the See also:

• JOINT (through Fr. from Lat. junctum, jungere, to join)

joint See also:

• COMMISSION (from Lat. commissio, committere)

commission his projet, the result of five years of cogitation, only to have it ridiculed by the See also:

• GREAT

great soldier . In one respect alone did it suit him . While restoring the principle of universal See also:

• SUFFRAGE (Lat. suffragium)

suffrage, which had been partially abrogated in 1795, Sieyes rendered this See also:

• SYSTEM

system of See also:

• ELECTION
• ELECTION (from Lat. eligere, to pick out)

election practically a nullity .

The voters were to choose one-tenth of their number (notabilities of the See also:

• COMMUNE (Med. Lat. communia, Lat. communis, common)
• COMMUNE, MEDIEVAL

commune); one-tenth of these would See also:

• FORM (Lat. forma)

form the notabilities of the See also:

• DEPARTMENT (Fr. departement, from departir, to separate into parts)

department; while by a similar decimal sifting, the notabilities of the nation were selected . The final and all-important See also:

• ACT (Lat. actus, actum)

act of selection from among these men was, however, to be made by a personage, styled the proclamateur-electeur, who See also:

• CHOSE (Fr. for " thing ")

chose all the important functionaries, and, conjointly with the notabilities of the nation, chose the members for the See also:

• COUNCIL (Lat. concilium, from cum, together, and the root cal, to call)

Council of See also:

• STATE
• STATE, GREAT OFFICERS OF

State (wielding the See also:

• CHIEF (from Fr. chef, head, Lat. caput)

chief executive powers), the Tribunate and the See also:

• SENATE (Lat. senatus, from root sen-, as in senex, old; the root is the Sanskrit sana, cf. Gr. 'vos; the same element appears in senor, seigneur, seneschal)

Senate . The latter See also:

• BODY

body would, however, have the power to " absorb " the See also:

• HEAD (in 0. Eng. heafad; the word is common to Teutonic languages; cf. Dutch hoofd, Ger. Haupt, generally taken to be in origin connected with Lat. caput, Gr. KerbOvi7)
• HEAD, SIR EDMUND WALKER, BART
• HEAD, SIR FRANCIS BOND, BART

head of the state if he showed signs of ambition . Against this power of absorption Bonaparte declaimed vehemently, asserting also that the proclamateurelecteur would be a See also:

• MERE
• MERE, ADALBERT (1838-1909)

mere cochon d l'engrais . In vain did Sieyes modify his See also:

• SCHEME (Lat. schema, Gr. oxfjya, figure, form, from the root axe, seen in exeiv, to have, hold, to be of such shape, form, &c.)

scheme so as to provide for two consuls, one holding the chief executive powers for See also:

• WAR
• WAR (O. Eng. werre, Fr. guerre, of Teutonic origin; cf. O.H.G. werran, to confound)

war, the other for See also:

• PEACE
• PEACE, BREACH OF THE

peace . This See also:

• DIVISION (from Lat. dividere, to break up into parts, separate)

division of powers was equally distasteful to Bonaparte: he formed a See also:

• KIND (O. E. ge-cynde, from the same root as is seen in " kin," supra)

kind of See also:

• CABAL (through the Fr. cabale from the Cabbala or Kabbalah, the theosophical interpretation of the Hebrew scriptures)

cabal within the joint commission, and there intimidated the theorist, with the result already foreseen by the latter . Sieyes, conscious that his See also:

• POLITICAL

political mechanism would merely winnow the See also:

• AIR (from an Indo-European root meaning " breathe," " blow ")
• AIR, or ASBEN

air, until the profoundly able and forceful man at his See also:

• SIDE
• SIDE (mod. Eski Adalia)

side adapted it to the See also:

• WORK

work of See also:

• GOVERNMENT
• GOVERNMENT (0. Fr. governement, mod. gouvernement, O. Fr. governer, mod. gouverner, from Lat. gubernare, to steer a ship, guide, rule; cf. Gr. xv(3epvav)

government, relapsed into silence; and his resignation of the See also:

• OFFICE (from Lat. officium, " duty," " service," a shortened form of opifacium, from facere, " to do," and either the stem of opes, " wealth," " aid," or opus, " work ")

office of See also:

• CONSUL
• CONSUL (in Gr. generally ihraros,ashortened form of errpavgybs 8hraeos, i.e. praetor maximus)

consul, together with that of See also:

• DUCOS, PIERRE ROGER (1754-1816)

Ducos, was announced as imminent . Bonaparte further brushed aside a frankly democratic constitution See also:

• PRO

pro-posed by See also:

• DAUNOU, PIERRE CLAUDE FRANCOIS (1761-1840)

Daunou, and intimidated his opponents in the joint commission by a See also:

• THREAT

threat that he would himself draft a constitution and propose it to the people in a See also:

• MASS (O.E. maesse; Fr. messe; Ger. Messe; Ital. messa; from eccl. Lat. missa)
• MASS, IN

mass See also:

• VOTE

vote . This was what really happened . They looked. on helplessly while he refashioned the scheme of Sieyes . Keeping the electoral machinery almost unchanged (See also:

• SAVE, or SAVA (Ger. Sau; Hungarian Szdva; Lat. Savus)

save that the lists of notables were to be permanent) Bonaparte entirely altered the upper parts of the constitutional See also:

• PYRAMID

pyramid reared by the philosopher . Improving upon the See also:

• PROCEDURE (Fr. procedure, from Lat. procedere, to go for-ward)

procedure of the See also:

• CONVENTION (Lat. conventio, an assembly or agreement, from convenire, to come together)
• CONVENTION, THE NATIONAL

Convention in Vendemiaire 1795, Bonaparte procured the nomination of three consuls in an See also:

• ARTICLE (from Lat. articulus, a joint)

article of the new constitution; they were Bonaparte (First Consul), See also:

• CAMBACERES, JEAN JACQUES REGIS DE

Cambaceres and See also:

• LEBRUN, CHARLES FRANCCOIS
• LEBRUN, PIERRE ANTOINE (1785–1873)
• LEBRUN, PONCE DENIS ECOUCHARD (1729-1807)

Lebrun .

The latter two, uniting with the two retiring consuls, Sieyes and Ducos, were to form the closed, thanks to the ability of See also:

• FOUCHE, JOSEPH, DUKE OF OTRANTO (1763—1820)

Fouche, the new minister of See also:

• POLICE (Fr. police, government, civil administration, a police force, Gr. sroXumeia, constitution, condition of a state, roars, city, state)

Police; but the hopes of Sieyes were dashed by the See also:

• DEATH

death of See also:

• GENERAL
• GENERAL (Lat. generalis, of or relating to a genus, kind or class)

General See also:

• JOUBERT, BARTHELEMY CATHERINE (1769–1799)
• JOUBERT, JOSEPH (1754–1824)
• JOUBERT, PETRUS JACOBUS (1834–1900)

Joubert, See also:

• COMMANDER

commander of the See also:

• ARMY
• ARMY (from Fr. armee, Lat. armata)

Army of See also:

• ITALY
• ITALY (Italia)

Italy, at the disastrous See also:

• BATTLE

battle of Novi (15th of See also:

• AUGUST (originally Sextilis)

August) . The dearth of ability among the generals See also:

• LEFT

left in France (Kleber and Desaix were in See also:

• EGYPT

Egypt) was now painfully apparent . See also:

• MOREAU, GUSTAVE (1826-1898)
• MOREAU, HEGESIPPE (18ro-1838)
• MOREAU, JEAN VICTOR MARIE (1763-1813)

Moreau was notoriously lethargic in civil affairs . Bernadotte, See also:

• JOURDAN, JEAN BAPTISTE, COUNT (1762-1833)

Jourdan and See also:

• AUGEREAU, PIERRE FRANCOIS CHARLES

Augereau had compromised themselves by See also:

• CLOSE
• CLOSE (from Lat. clausum, shut)
• CLOSE, MAXWELL HENRY (1822-1903)

close association with the Jacobins . The soldiery had never forgiven See also:

• MASSENA, ANDRE, or ANDREA

Massena his peculations after the See also:

• CAPTURE (from Lat. capere, to take; Fr. prise maritime; Ger. Wegnahme)

capture of See also:

• ROME
• ROME (Roma)

Rome . One name, and one alone, leaped to men's thoughts, that of Bonaparte . He arrived from Egypt at the psychological moment,and his See also:

• JOURNEY (through O. Fr. jornee or journee, mod. Fr. journee, from med. Lat. diurnata, Lat. diurnus, of or belonging to dies, day)

journey from See also:

• FREJUS

Frejus to Paris resembled a triumphant procession . Nevertheless he acted with the utmost caution . A fortnight passed before he decided to support Sieyes in effecting a See also:

• CHANGE (derived through the Fr. from the Late Lat. cambium, cambiare, to barter; the ultimate derivation is probably from the root which appears in the Gr. «a urmu', to bend)

change in the constitution; and by then he had captivated all men except Bernadotte and a few intransigeant Jacobins . Talleyrand, See also:

• ROEDERER, PIERRE LOUIS, COMTE (1754-1835)

Roederer, Cambaceres and Real were among his See also:

• SPECIAL

special confidants, his See also:

• BROTHERS, RICHARD (1757-1824)

brothers See also:

• JOSEPH
• JOSEPH, COMTE DE (1785-1870)
• JOSEPH, FATHER (FRANCOIS LECLERC DU TREMBLAY) (1577-1638)

Joseph and Lucien also giving useful See also:

• ADVICE (Fr. avis, from Lat. ad, to, and visum, viewed)

advice . Of the generals, See also:

• MURAT, JOACHIM (1767—1815)

Murat, See also:

• BERTHIER, LOUIS ALEXANDRE

Berthier, See also:

• LANNES, JEAN

Lannes and Leclerc were those who prepared the way for the coup d'etat . Fouche, pulling the wires through the police, was an invaluable helper .

The conduct of See also:

• BARRAS, PAUL FRANCOIS NICOLAS, COMTE DE (1755-1829)

Barras was known to depend on material considerations . All being ready, the Ancients on the 18 Brumaire (9th of See also:

• NOVEMBER (Lat. novem, nine)

November) decreed the transference of the sessions of both See also:

• COUNCILS

Councils to St See also:

• CLOUD (from the same root, if not the same word, as " clod," a word common in various forms to Teutonic languages for a mass or lump; it is first applied in the usual sense in the late 13th century; the Anglo-Saxon chid is only used in the sense of " a ma

Cloud, on the plea of a Jacobin See also:

• PLOT
• PLOT, ROBERT (164o-1696)

plot which threatened the peace of Paris . They also placed the troops in Paris and its neighbourhood under the command of Bonaparte . Thereupon Sieyes and Ducos resigned office . Barras, after a calculating delay, followed suit . See also:

• GOHIER, LOUIS JEROME (1.746–1830)

Gohier and See also:

• MOULIN (Fr. moulin, a mill)

Moulin, on refusing to retire, were placed under a military guard; and General Moreau showed his political incapacity by discharging this See also:

• DUTY (from " due," that which is owing, O. Fr. deu, dil, past participle of devoir; Lat. debere, debitum; cf. " debt ")

duty, for the benefit of Bonaparte . Nevertheless the proceedings of St Cloud on the See also:

• DAY (O. Eng. dreg, Ger. Tag; according to the New English Dictionary, " in no way related to the Lat. dies")
• DAY, JOHN (1574-1640?)
• DAY, THOMAS (1748-1789)

day following bade See also:

• FAIR

fair to upset the best-laid schemes of Bonaparte and his coadjutors . The Five See also:

• HUNDRED

Hundred, See also:

• MEETING (from " to meet," to come together, assemble, 0. Eng. metals ; cf. Du. moeten, Swed. mota, Goth. gamotjan, &c., derivatives of the Teut. word for a meeting, seen in O. Eng. Wit, moot, an assembly of the people; cf. witanagemot)

meeting in the Orangerie of the palace, had by this See also:

• TIME (0. Eng. Lima, cf. Icel. timi, Swed. timme, hour, Dan. time; from the root also seen in " tide," properly the time of between the flow and ebb of the sea, cf. O. Eng. getidan, to happen, " even-tide," &c.; it is not directly related to Lat. tempus)
• TIME, MEASUREMENT OF
• TIME, STANDARD

time seen through the plot; and, on the entrance of the general with four grenadiers, several deputies rushed at him, shook him violently, while others vehemently demanded a See also:

• DECREE (from the past participle, decretus, of Lat. decernere)

decree of See also:

• OUTLAWRY

outlawry against the new See also:

• CROMWELL, HENRY (1628-1674)
• CROMWELL, OLIVER (1599-1658)
• CROMWELL, RICHARD (1626–1712)
• CROMWELL, THOMAS, EARL OF

Cromwell . He himself lost his See also:

• NERVE (Lat. nervus, Gr. vevpov, a bowstring)

nerve, stammered, nearly fainted, and was dragged out by the soldiers in a state of See also:

• MENTAL

mental and See also:

• PHYSICAL

physical collapse . The situation was saved solely by the skill of his See also:

• BROTHER

brother Lucien, then See also:

• PRESIDENT (Fr. president, from Lat. praesidens, post-Augustan Lat. for praeses, director, ruler, from praesidere, to sit in front of, preside)

president of the Council . He refused to put the vote of outlawry, uttered a few passionate words, See also:

• CAST (from the verb meaning " to throw "; the word is Scand. in origin, cf. Dan. kaste, and Swed. kasta; " cast " in Middle Eng. took the place of the A.S. weor pan, cf. Ger. werf en)

cast off his See also:

• OFFICIAL (Late Lat. QJicialis, for class. Lat. apparitor, from officium, office, duty)

official See also:

• ROBES (Fr. robe, Late Lat. roba, raupa, meaning (1)

robes, declared the session at an end, and made his way out under See also:

• PROTECTION

protection of a squad of grenadiers . The coup d'etat seemed to have failed .

In reality matters now rested with the troops out-side . Stung to See also:

• ACTION

action by some words of Sieyes, Bonaparte appealed to the troops of the See also:

• LINE

line in terms which provoked a ready response . Imprecations uttered by Lucien against the brigands and traitors in the pay of See also:

• ENGLAND
• ENGLAND, THE CHURCH OF

England decided the grenadiers of the Council to See also:

• MARCH
• MARCH (1) (from Fr. marcher, to walk; the earliest sense in French appears to be " to trample," and the origin has usually been found in the Lat. marcus, hammer; Low Lat. marcare, to hammer; hence to beat the road with the regular tread of a soldier: cf.
• MARCH, AUZIAS (c. "1395-1458)
• MARCH, EARLS OF
• MARCH, FRANCIS ANDREW (1825– )

march against the deputies whom it was their special duty to protect . Drums See also:

• BEAT (a word common in various forms to the Teutonic languages; it is connected with the similar Romanic words derived from the Late Lat. battere)

beat the See also:

• CHARGE
• CHARGE (through the Fr. from the Late Lat. carricare, to load in a carrus or wagon; cf. " cargo ")

charge, Murat led the way through the corridors of the palace to the Orangerie, and levelled bayonets ended the existence of the Council . Within the space of ten and a See also:

• HALF

half years from the summoning of the States-General at See also:

• VERSAILLES

Versailles (May 1789), See also:

• PARLIAMENTARY

parliamentary government See also:

• FELL
• FELL, JOHN (1625-1686)

fell beneath the See also:

• SWORD (0. Eng. sweord; ultimately from an Indo-European root meaning to wound)

sword . Lucien now consolidated the work of the soldiery by procuring from the Ancients a decree which named Bonaparte, Sieyes and Ducos as provisional consuls, while a legislative commission was appointed to See also:

• REPORT (O.Fr. report or raport, modern rapport, from O.Fr. reporter, mod. rap porter, Lat. reportare, to bring back, in poetical use only, of bringing back an account, news, &c.)

report on necessary changes in the constitution . Lucien also gathered together a small See also:

• GROUP

group of the younger deputies to throw the cloak of legality over the events of the day . The Rump proceeded to expel sixty-one Jacobins from the Council of Five Hundred, adjourned its sessions until the 19th of See also:

• FEBRUARY

February 'Soo, and appointed a commission of twenty-five members with power to act in the meantime . Clearly the success of the coup d'etat of Brumaire was due in the last resort to Lucien Bonaparte . See also:

• NUCLEUS (Lat. for the kernal of a nut, nux, the stone of fruit)

nucleus of the senate and choose the See also:

• MAJORITY (Fr. majorite; Med. Lat. majoritas; Lat. major, greater)

majority among its full See also:

• COMPLEMENT (Lat. complementum, from complere, to fill up)

complement of sixty members, the minority being thereafter chosen by co-optation . To the senate, thus chosen " from above," was allotted the important task of supervising the constitution, and of selecting, from among the notabilities of the nation, the members of the See also:

• CORPS (pronounced as in French, from which it is taken, being a late spelling of tors, from Lat. corpus, a body; cf. " corpse ")

Corps Legislatif and the Tribunate . These two bodies nominally formed the legislature, the Tribunate merely discussing the bills sent to it by an important body, the Council of State; while the Corps Legislatif, sitting in silence, heard them defended by councillors of state and criticized by members of the Tribunate; thereupon it passed or rejected such proposals by See also:

• SECRET (Lat. secretum, hidden, concealed)

secret voting .

Thus, the initiative in See also:

• LAW
• LAW (0. Eng. lagu, M. Eng. lawe; from an old Teutonic root lag, " lie," what lies fixed or evenly; cf. Lat. lex, Fr. loi)
• LAW, JOHN (1671—1729)
• LAW, WILLIAM (1686-1761)

law-making See also:

• LAY

lay with the Council of State; but, as its members were all chosen by the First Consul, it is dear that that important duty was vested really in him . The executive powers were placed almost entirely in his hands, as will be seen by the terms of article 41 which defined his functions: " The First . Consul promulgates the See also:

• LAWS

laws; he appoints and dismisses at will the members of the Council of State, the ministers, the ambassadors and other leading agents serving abroad, the See also:

• OFFICERS

officers of the army and See also:

• NAVY

navy, the members of See also:

• LOCAL

local administrative bodies and the commissioners of government attached to the tribunals . He names all the See also:

• JUDGES, THE BOOK OF

judges for criminal and civil cases, other than the juges de paix (magistrates) and the judges of the Cour de cassalion, without having the power to See also:

• DISCHARGE (adapted from the O. Fr. discharge, modern decharge, from a med. Lat. discargare, to unload, dis- and earn care, to load, cf. " charge ")

discharge them."—As for the second and third consuls, their functions were almost entirely consultative and formal, their opposition being recorded, but having no further significance against the fiat of the First Consul . Bonaparte's powers were subsequently extended in the years 1802, 1804 and 1807; but it is clear that See also:

• AUTOCRACY (Gr. abroepareca, absolute power)

autocracy was practically established by his own action in the secret commission of 1799 . The new constitution was promulgated on the 15th of See also:

• DECEMBER (Lat. decent, ten)

December 1799 and in a See also:

• PLEBISCITE (Lat. plebiscitum, a decree of the plebs)

plebiscite held during See also:

• JANUARY

January 1800 it received the support of 3,011,007 voters, only 1562 persons voting against it . The fact that the three new consuls had entered upon office and set the constitutional machinery in See also:

• MOTION (Lat. motio, from movere, to move)
• MOTION, LAWS OF

motion fully six See also:

• WEEKS, EDWIN LORD (1849-1903)

weeks before the completion of the plebiscite, detracts somewhat from the impressiveness of the vox populi on that occasion . Bonaparte selected his ministers with much skill . They were Talleyrand, Foreign Affairs; Berthier, War; Abrial, See also:

• JUSTICE (Lat. justitia)

Justice; Lucien Bonaparte, Interior; Gaudin, See also:

• FINANCE

Finance; Forfait, Navy and Colonies . See also:

• MARET

Maret became secretary of state to the consuls . Bonaparte's selection gave general See also:

• SATISFACTION (Lat. salisfacerc, to satisfy)

satisfaction, as also did the personnel of the Council of State (divided into five sections for the chief See also:

• SPHERES, MUSIC OF THE

spheres of government) and of the other See also:

• ORGANS

organs of state . Many of the furious Terrorists now became quiet and active councillors or administrators, the First Consul adopting the See also:

• PLAN
• PLAN (from Lat. planes, flat)

plan of multiplying " places," of overwhelming all officials with work, and of busying the See also:

• WATCH (in O. Eng. wcecce, a keeping guard or watching, from wacian, to guard, watch, wacan, to wake)

watch-See also:

• DOGS, ISLE OF

dogs of the Jacobinical party by " throwing them bones to gnaw." In our survey of the career of See also:

• NAPOLEON

Napoleon, we have now reached the time of the Consulate (November 1799–May 1804), which marks the See also:

• ZENITH (from the Arabic)

zenith of his mental powers and creative activity .

Externally, and in a personal sense, the See also:

• PERIOD
• PERIOD (Gr. irepioSos, a going or way round, circuit, aepi, round, and &Sis, way, road)

period falls into two parts . The former of these extends to August 1802, when the powers of the First Consul, which had been decreed for ten years, were prolonged to the duration of his life . But in another and wider sense the Consulate has a well-defined unity; it is the time when France gained most of her institutions and the essentials of her machinery of government . The reader is referred to the article FRANCE (Law and Institutions) for the See also:

• INFORMATION (from Lat. informare, to give shape or form to, to represent, describe)

information respecting the various codes dating from this period, and to the article See also:

• CONCORDAT (Lat. concordatum, agreed upon, from con-, together, and cor, heart)

CONCORDAT for the famous measure whereby Napoleon re-established official relations between the state and the See also:

• CHURCH
• CHURCH (according to most authorities derived from the Gr. Kvpcaxov [&wµa], " the Lord's [house]," and common to many Teutonic, Slavonic and other languages under various forms—Scottish kirk, Ger. Kirche, Swed. kirka, Dan. kirke, Russ. tserkov, Buig. cerk
• CHURCH, FREDERICK EDWIN (1826-1900)
• CHURCH, GEORGE EARL (1835–1910)
• CHURCH, RICHARD WILLIAM (1815–189o)
• CHURCH, SIR RICHARD (1784–1873)

church in France . More pressing even than that question was the regulation of local government . Bonaparte's action in this See also:

• MATTER

matter was so characteristic as to deserve close See also:

• ATTENTION (from Lat. ad-tendo, await, expect; the condition of being " stretched " or " tense ")

attention . Undoubtedly the question was one of great importance; for local affairs had fallen into See also:

• CHAOS

chaos . The aim of the constituent See also:

• ASSEMBLY, UNLAWFUL

assembly in its departmental system (1789–1790) had been to vest local affairs ultimately in councils elected by universal suffrage, alike in the department and in the three smaller areas within it . These councils and the executive officers dependent on them soon proved to be unable to See also:

• MANAGE

manage even local affairs efficiently, while they were verylax in the collection of the See also:

• NATIONAL

national taxes unwisely entrusted to them . Lack of central See also:

• CONTROL (Fr. contrdle, older form contre rolle, from Med. Lat. contra-rotulus, a counter roll or copy of a document used to check the original; there is no instance in English of the use of " control " in this, its literal, meaning)

control over the virtually See also:

• INDEPENDENT

independent communes (over See also:

• FORTY

forty thousand in number) led to a See also:

• SHARP, GRANVILLE (1735-1813)
• SHARP, JAMES (1618-1679)
• SHARP, JOHN (1645-1714)
• SHARP, RICHARD (1759-1835)
• SHARP, WILLIAM (1749-1824)
• SHARP, WILLIAM (1856-1905)

sharp rebound under the Convention, when all matters of importance were disposed of by commissioners appointed by that body . The relations between national and local authorities fluctuated considerably during the See also:

• DIRECTORY

Directory; and it is noteworthy that the constitution of December 1799 placed local See also:

• ADMINISTRATION (Lat. administrare, to serve)

administration merely under the control of ministers at Paris . Everything, therefore, portended a change in this See also:

• SPHERE (Gr. vclsa?pa, a ball or globe)

sphere, but few persons expected a change so drastic as that which Bonaparte now brought about in the measure of 28 Pluvi8se, See also:

• YEAR

year VIII .

(16th of February 1800) . Certainly no measure marked more clearly the See also:

• ABANDONMENT (Fr. abandonnement, from abandonner, to abandon, relinquish; abandonner was originally equivalent to mettred banddn, to leave to the jurisdiction, i.e. of another, bandon being from Low Latin bandum, bannum, order, decree, " ban ")

abandonment of democratic ideals . The powers formerly vested in elective bodies were now to be wielded by prefects and sub-prefects, nominated by the First Consul and responsible to him . The elective councils for the department and for the See also:

• ARRONDISSEMENT (from arrondir, to make round)

arrondissement (a new See also:

• AREA

area which replaced the " districts " of the year 1795) continued to exist, but they sat only for a fortnight in the year and had to See also:

• DEAL

deal mainly with the See also:

• ASSESSMENT, (from Lat. assessare, to sit beside, to judge)

assessment of taxes for their respective areas . They might be consulted by the See also:

• PREFECT (prefet)

prefect or sub-prefect; but they had no hold over him . The municipal councils had slightly larger powers, See also:

• RELATING

relating to loans, octrois, &c . But the chief municipal officer, the See also:

• MAYOR (Lat. major, greater)
• MAYOR, JOHN EYTON BICKERSTETH (1825– )

mayor, was chosen by the prefect . The police of all towns containing more than See also:

• IOO

ioo,000 inhabitants was 'controlled by the central government . It is significant that Bonaparte proposed this See also:

• BILL

bill (drafted in the Council of State) to the Tribunate and the Corps Legislatif on the very day on which it was first certainly known that France had accepted the new constitution . The opposition in the Tribunate was sharp, but was paralysed by the knowledge of the fact just named and by the lack of a See also:

• FREE

free See also:

• PRESS (through Fr. presse from Lat. pressare, frequentative of premere, to crush, squeeze, press)

press . The bill passed there by 71 votes to 25; and in the Corps Legislatif by 217 to 68 . The acquiescence of these bodies in the transition to despotic methods predisposed the public to a similar attitude of mind .

At first the sharpness of the change was not fully apparent owing to the tactful choice of prefects made by the First Consul; but before See also:

• LONG, GEORGE (1800-1879)
• LONG, JOHN DAVIS (1838– )

long their very extensive powers were seen to form an important See also:

• PART

part of the new machinery of autocracy . In this connexion we may See also:

• NOTE
• NOTE (Lat. nota, mark, sign, from noscere, to know)

note that the disturbances, mainly royalist but sometimes Jacobinical, in several districts of France enabled Bonaparte to propose the See also:

• ESTABLISHMENT (0. Fr. establissement, Fr. etablissement, late Norm. Fr. establishement, from O. Fr. establir, Fr. etablir, Lat. stabilire, to make stable)

establishment in the troubled districts of special tribunals for the trial of all offences tending to disturb the general peace . Here again the Tribunate offered a vehement opposition to the measure, and. in spite of official pressure passed the bill only by a majority of eight . Becoming law on 18 Pluvi8se, year IX . (6th of February 18oi), it enabled the government to supersede the ordinary judicial machinery for political offences in no fewer than See also:

• THIRTY

thirty-two departments . Bonaparte signalized his See also:

• TENURE (Fr. tenure, from Lat. tenere, to hold)

tenure of power by no very important developments in the sphere of elementary See also:

• EDUCATION

education . This was left to the local authorities, and led to little result . The more advanced See also:

• SCHOOLS

schools, known as ecoles centrales, were reconstituted either as ecoles secondaires or as lycees by the law of the 3oth of See also:

• APRIL

April 1802 . The former of these were designed for the completion of the training of the most promising pupils in the communal elementary schools, and were left to local control or even to management by private individuals . Far more important, however, were the lycees, where an excellent education was imparted, semi-military in form and under the control of government . It gained valuable powers of patronage by See also:

• FOUNDING (from Lat. fundere, to pour)

founding 6400 exhibitions (bourses) in connexion with the lycees; 2400 of which were reserved for the sons of soldiers and government officials . The same centralizing tendency is strcngly marked in the organization of the university of France, the general principle of which was set forth in May 18o6, while the details were arranged by that of March the 17th, 18o8 .

It was designed to control all the educational institutions of France, both public and private; and it did so with two exceptions, the Museum and the Colllge de France . The discipline was strict . Fidelity to the See also:

• EMPEROR (Fr. empereur, from the Lat. imperator)

emperor and to the teaching of the See also:

• ROMAN

Roman See also:

• CATHOLIC (Gr. KcaBoXuK6s, general, universal)

Catholic See also:

• DOCTRINE

doctrine formed part of the aims of this comprehensive. See also:

• CORPORATION (from Lat. corporare, to form into a body, corpus, corporis)

corporation . Its officers were required to obey " the statutes of See also:

• TITLE (0. Fr. title, mod. titre, from Lat. titulus)

title teaching body, which have for their See also:

• OBJECT

object uniformity of instruction, and which tend to form for the state citizens attached to their See also:

• RELIGION
• RELIGION, FOLKLORE, CUSTOM

religion, their See also:

• PRINCE
• PRINCE (Lat. princeps, from primus capio, " I am the first to take "; Ital. principe, Fr. prince)

prince, their See also:

• COUNTRY (from the Mid. Eng. contre or contrie, and O. Fr. cuntree; Late Lat. contrata, showing the derivation from contra, opposite, over against, thus the tract of land which fronts the sight, cf. Ger. Gegend, neighbourhood)

country and their See also:

• FAMILY

family." These words sufficiently illustrate the essentially political See also:

• CHARACTER (Gr. xapareri7p, from xap&crew, to scratch)

character of the institution . Its organization was completed by the decree of the 15th of November 1811 . Napoleon's ideas on the education of girls may be judged by this See also:

• EXTRACT (from Lat. extrahere, to draw out)

extract from his speech at the Council of State on the 1st of March 18o6: " I do not think that we need trouble ourselves with any plan of instruction for See also:

• YOUNG
• YOUNG, A
• YOUNG, ARTHUR (1741-1820)
• YOUNG, BRIGHAM (1801-1877)
• YOUNG, CHARLES MAYNE (1777–1856)
• YOUNG, EDWARD (1683–1765)
• YOUNG, JAMES (1811-1883)
• YOUNG, THOMAS (1773-1829)

young See also:

• FEMALES

females: they cannot be better brought up than by their mothers . Public education is not suitable for them, because they are never called upon to act in public . See also:

• MANNERS, CHARLES (1857– )

Manners are all in all to them, and See also:

• MARRIAGE

marriage Is all they look to." Returning to the period of the Consulate, we See also:

• NOTICE

notice the founding of an institution which also had its See also:

• COMPLETE

complete development during the See also:

• EMPIRE

Empire, namely, the See also:

• LEGION (Lat. legio)

Legion of See also:

• HONOUR (Lat. honos or lwnor, honoris; in English the word was spelled with or without the u indifferently until the 17th century, but during the 18th century it became fashion-able to spell the word " honor "; Johnson's and Webster's Dictionaries stereoty

Honour (19th of May 1802) . Napoleon intended it as a protest against the spirit of equality which pervaded revolutionary thought . In one respect the new institution marked an enormous advance on titles of See also:

• NOBILITY

nobility, which had been granted nearly always for warlike exploits, or merely as a See also:

• MARK
• MARK, CARL (1858– )
• MARK, GOSPEL OF ST
• MARK, ST

mark of the favour of the See also:

• SOVEREIGN

sovereign . The First Consul, on the I98 other See also:

• HAND
• HAND (a word common to Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Hand, Goth. handus)
• HAND, FERDINAND GOTTHELF (1786-185r)

hand, sought to recognize and See also:

• REWARD

reward merit in all walks of life . Nevertheless his 'proposal met with strong opposition in the Corps Legislatif and Tribunate, where members saw that it portended a revival of the older distinction .

This was so: abolished in 1790 by the constituent assembly, titles of nobility were virtually restored by Napoleon in 'See also:

• FLOE (of uncertain derivation; cf. Norse flo, layer, level plain)

Floe, and legally in 18o8 . Side by side with them there continued to exist the Legion of Honour . It was organized in fifteen cohorts, each comprising seven See also:

• GRAND

grand officers, twenty commanders, thirty officers and 35o legionaries . A See also:

• STIPEND

stipend, ranging from 5000 francs a year to 25o francs, was attached to each grade of the institution . The benefits attaching to membership and the number of the members were increased during the Empire, when the See also:

• AVERAGE

average number somewhat exceeded thirty thousand . Napoleon's aim of bidding for the support of all able men is disagreeably prominent in all details of this institution, which may be looked upon as the tangible outcome of the conviction which he thus frankly ex-pressed: " In ambition is to be found the chief See also:

• MOTIVE (from Lat. movere, to move)

motive-force of humanity; and a man puts forth his best powers in proportion to his hopes of See also:

• ADVANCEMENT

advancement." The success of Bonaparte in reorganizing France may be ascribed to his determined practicality and to his See also:

• PERCEPTION (from Lat. percipere, to perceive)

perception of the needs of the average man . Since the death of See also:

• MIRABEAU, ANDRE BONIFACE LOUIS RIQUETI, VICOMTE DE (1754-1792)
• MIRABEAU, HONORS GABRIEL RIQUETI, COMTE DE (1749-1791)
• MIRABEAU, VICTOR RIQUETI, MARQUIS DE (1715-1789)

Mirabeau no one had appeared who could strike the happy mean and enforce his will on the extremes on either side . Bonaparte did so with a forcefulness rarely possessed by that usually mediocre creature, the moderate man . It is time now to notice the chief events which ensured the ascendancy of Bonaparte . Military, See also:

• DIPLOMATIC

diplomatic and police affairs were skilfully made to conduce to that result . In the first of these spheres the victory of See also:

• MARENGO

Marengo (14th of See also:

• JUNE

June 1800) was of special importance, as it consolidated the reputation of t onaparte at a time when republican opposition was gathering strength . As Lucien Bonaparte remarked, if Marengo had been lost—and it was saved only by Desaix and See also:

• KELLERMANN, FRANCOIS CHRISTOPHE DE (1735-1820)

Kellermann—the Bonaparte family would have been proscribed .

Negotiations for peace now followed; but they led to nothing, until Moreau's See also:

• TRIUMPH (triumphus)

triumph at Hohenlinden (December 2nd, 1800) brought the See also:

• COURT
• COURT (from the O. Fr. court, Late Lat. cortis, curtis, a popular form of class. Lat. cohors, gen. cohortis; the mod. Fr. form tour is due to the influence of the Lat. curia, the word used in medieval documents to translate " court " in the feudal sense)
• COURT, ANTOINE (1696-176o)

court of See also:

• VIENNA (Ger. Wien; Lat. Vindobona)
• VIENNA, CONGRESS OF (1814-1815)

Vienna to a state of despair . By the treaty with See also:

• AUSTRIA
• AUSTRIA, LOWER (Ger. Niederosterreich or Osterreich unter der Enns, " Austria below the river Enns ")
• AUSTRIA, UPPER (Ger. Oberosterreich or Osterreich ob der Enns, " Austria above the river Enns ")

Austria, signed by Joseph Bonaparte at See also:

• LUNEVILLE

Luneville on the 9th of February 1801, France regained all that she had won at Campo Formio, much of which had been lost for a time in the war of the Second See also:

• COALITION (Lat. coalitio, the verbal substantive of coalescere, to grow together)

Coalition . True, she now agreed to recognise the See also:

• INDEPENDENCE
• INDEPENDENCE, DECLARATION OF
• INDEPENDENCE, WAR OF

independence of the Cisalpine, Ligurian, Helvetic and Batavian (Dutch) republics; but the masterful acquisitiveness of the First Consul and the weak conduct of See also:

• AUSTRIAN

Austrian and See also:

• BRITISH

British affairs at that time soon made that clause of the treaty a dead See also:

• LETTER (through Fr. lettre from Lat. littera or litera, letter of the alphabet; the origin of the Latin word is obscure; it has probably no connexion with the root of linere, to smear, i.e. with wax, for an inscription with a stilus)

letter . Bonaparte mean-while, by dexterous behaviour to See also:

• PAUL
• PAUL (PAULUS)

Paul I. of See also:

• RUSSIA
• RUSSIA (Rossiya)

Russia, had won the friendship of that potentate, whose resentment against his former See also:

• ALLIES, THOMAS WILLIAM (1813-1903)

allies, Austria and England, facilitated a re-grouping of the Powers . The new Franco-See also:

• RUSSIAN

Russian entente helped on the formation of the Armed See also:

• NEUTRALITY

Neutrality See also:

• LEAGUE

League and led to the concoction of schemes for the See also:

• DRIVING (from " to drive," i.e. generally to propel, force along or in, a word common in various forms to the Teutonic languages)

driving of the British from See also:

• INDIA
• INDIA, FRENCH

India . But these undertakings were thwarted in March–April 18oI by the See also:

• MURDER

murder of the See also:

• TSAR, or CZAR

tsar Paul and by See also:

• NELSON
• NELSON, HORATIO NELSON, VISCOUNT (1758-1805)
• NELSON, ROBERT (s656-1715)

Nelson's victory at See also:

• COPENHAGEN (Danish Kjobenhavn)

Copenhagen . The See also:

• ADVENT (Lat. Adventus, sc. Redemptoris, " the coming of the Saviour ")

advent of the more peaceful and Anglophile tsar, See also:

• ALEXANDER
• ALEXANDER (1461-1506)
• ALEXANDER (ALEXANDER OF BATTENBERG) (1857-1893)
• ALEXANDER (ALEXANDER OsxENOVici) (1876-1903)
• ALEXANDER, ARCHIBALD (1772—1851)
• ALEXANDER, FRANCIS (1800—1881)
• ALEXANDER, GEORGE (1858— )
• ALEXANDER, JOHN WHITE (1856- )
• ALEXANDER, JOSEPH ADDISON (18o9—186o)
• ALEXANDER, SIR JAMES EDWARD (1803—1885)
• ALEXANDER, WILLIAM (1824— )
• ALEXANDER, WILLIAM LINDSAY (1808—1884)

Alexander I . (q.v.), brought about the See also:

• DISSOLUTION (from Lat. dissolvere, to break up into parts)

dissolution of the League, and the abandonment of the See also:

• ORIENTAL

oriental schemes which Bonaparte had so closely at See also:

• HEART
• HEART, LUNG

heart . Another disappointment befel him in the same See also:

• QUARTER (through Fr. from Lat. quartarius, fourth part)

quarter, the surrender of the See also:

• FRENCH
• FRENCH, DANIEL CHESTER (1850– )
• FRENCH, NICHOLAS (1604-1678)

French forces in Egypt to the British expedition commanded first by General See also:

• ABERCROMBY
• ABERCROMBY, PATRICK (1656–c.-1716)
• ABERCROMBY, SIR RALPH (1734-1801)

Abercromby and afterwards by General See also:

• JOHN
• JOHN (1167–1216)
• JOHN (1290-c. 1320)
• JOHN (1296-1346)
• JOHN (1371–1419)
• JOHN (1468-1532)
• JOHN (1801-1873)
• JOHN (Heb. llni')
• JOHN (ZAPOLYA) (1487-1540)
• JOHN, 4TH MARQUESS OF TWEEDDALE (c. 1695-1762)
• JOHN, DON (1545-1578)
• JOHN, DON (1629–1679)
• JOHN, GOSPEL OF ST
• JOHN, or HAYS (1513–1571)
• JOHN, THE APOSTLE
• JOHN, THE EPISTLES OF

John HelyyjIutchinson (3oth of August 1891) . These events disposed both Bonaparte and the British See also:

• CABINET

cabinet towards peace . He was all powerful on See also:

• LAND

land, they on the See also:

• SEA (in O. Eng. sae, a common Teutonic word; cf. Ger. See, Dutch Zee, &c.; the ultimate source is uncertain)
• SEA, COMMAND OF THE

sea; and for the See also:

• PRESENT

present each was powerless to harm the other . Bonaparte in particular discerned the advantages which peace would bring in the consolidation of his position .

The beginning of negotiations had been somewhat facilitated by the resignation of See also:

• PITT, THOMAS (1653-1726)
• PITT, WILLIAM (1759-1806)

Pitt (4th of February 18o1) and the advent to office of See also:

• HENRY
• HENRY (1129-1195)
• HENRY (c. 1108-1139)
• HENRY (c. 1174–1216)
• HENRY (Fr. Henri; Span. Enrique; Ger. Heinrich; Mid. H. Ger. Heinrich and Heimrich; O.H.G. Haimi- or Heimirih, i.e. " prince, or chief of the house," from O.H.G. heim, the Eng. home, and rih, Goth. reiks; compare Lat. rex " king "—" rich," therefore " mig
• HENRY, EDWARD LAMSON (1841– )
• HENRY, JAMES (1798-1876)
• HENRY, JOSEPH (1797-1878)
• HENRY, MATTHEW (1662-1714)
• HENRY, PATRICK (1736–1799)
• HENRY, PRINCE OF BATTENBERG (1858-1896)
• HENRY, ROBERT (1718-1790)
• HENRY, VICTOR (1850– )
• HENRY, WILLIAM (1795-1836)

Henry Addington . Bonaparte, perceiving the weakness of Addington, both as a man and as a minister, pressed him hard; and both the Preliminaries of Peace, concluded at See also:

• LONDON

London on the 1st of See also:

• OCTOBER

October 18o1, and the terms of the treaty of See also:

• AMIENS

Amiens (27th of March 18oz) were such as to spread through the See also:

• UNITED

United See also:

• KINGDOM

Kingdom a feeling of annoyance . In everything which related to the See also:

• CONTINENT (from Lat. continere, "to hold together "; hence " connected," " continuous ")

continent of See also:

• EUROPE

Europe and to the resumption of See also:

• TRADE (O. Eng. trod, footstep, from tredan, to tread; in M. Eng. the forms teed, trod and trade appear, the last in the sense of a beaten track)
• TRADE, BOARD OF

trade relations between Great See also:

• BRITAIN (Gr. Hperavuml vi7vot, Bperravia; Lat. Britannia, rarely Britannia)

Britain and France, Bonaparte had his way; and he abatedhis demands only in a few questions relating to India and See also:

• NEWFOUNDLAND

Newfoundland . The terms of the treaty of Amiens may be thus summarized: Great Britain restored to France the colonial possessions (almost the whole of the French colonial empire) conquered in the See also:

• LATE

late war . Of their many maritime conquests the British retained only the See also:

• SPANISH

Spanish See also:

• ISLAND (O.E. ieg =isle, +land')

island of See also:

• TRINIDAD

Trinidad and the Dutch settlements in See also:

• CEYLON

Ceylon . Their other conquests at the expense of these allies of France were restored to them, including the Cape of See also:

• GOOD, JOHN MASON (1764-1827)

Good See also:

• HOPE, ANTHONY
• HOPE, THOMAS (c. 1770-1831)

Hope to the Dutch . France recognized the integrity of the See also:

• TURKISH

Turkish Empire and promised an See also:

• INDEMNITY (through Fr. indemnite, Lat. indemnis, free from damage or loss; in-, negative, and damnum, loss)

indemnity to the See also:

• HOUSE
• HOUSE (O. Eng. hiss, a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Dut. huis, Ger. Haus; in Gothic it is only found in gudhiss, a temple; it may be ultimately connected with the root of " hide," conceal)

House of See also:

• ORANGE
• ORANGE (Citrus Aurantium)
• ORANGE, HOUSE OF

Orange exiled from the Batavian (Dutch) See also:

• REPUBLIC (Lat. respublica, a commonweal or common-wealth)

Republic ,See also:

• INCE, WILLIAM

ince 1794 . She further agreed to evacuate the papal states, See also:

• TARANTO (anc. Tarentum, q.v.)

Taranto and other towns in the Mediterranean coasts which she had occupied . The independence of the Ionian Isles (now reconstituted as the Republic of the Seven Islands) was guaranteed . As to See also:

• MALTA
• MALTA (or MEDITERRANEAN) FEVER

Malta, the United Kingdom was to restore it to the order of St John (its possessors previous to 1798) when the Great Powers had guaranteed its independence . It was to receive a Neapolitan See also:

• GARRISON
• GARRISON, WILLIAM LLOYD (1805-1879)

garrison for a year, and, if necessary, for a longer time . No event in the life of Bonaparte was more auspicious than the conclusion of this highly advantageous bargain .

By retaining nearly all the See also:

• CONTINENTAL

continental conquests of France, and by recovering every one of those which the British had made at her expense beyond the seas, he achieved a feat which was far beyond the powers even of See also:

• LOUIS
• LOUIS (804–876)
• LOUIS (893–911)
• LOUIS, JOSEPH DOMINIQUE, BARON (1755-1837)
• LOUIS, or LEWIS (from the Frankish Chlodowich, Chlodwig, Latinized as Chlodowius, Lodhuwicus, Lodhuvicus, whence-in the Strassburg oath of 842-0. Fr. Lodhuwigs, then Chlovis, Loys and later Louis, whence Span. Luiz and—through the Angevin kings—Hungarian

Louis XIV . The gratitude of the French for this triumph found expression in a proposal, emanating from the Tribunate, that the First Consul should receive a See also:

• PLEDGE

pledge of the gratitude of the nation . When referred to the senate, the matter underwent secret manipulation, largely through the See also:

• INFLUENCE (Late Lat. influentia, from influere, to flow in)