NATURALISM  . " Nature " is a See also:

• TERM

term of very uncertain extent, and the " natural " has accordingly several antitheses, often more or less conflicting, and only to be learnt from the context in which they occur . Thus, though See also:

• MAN
• MAN, ISLE OF (anc. Mona)

Man and the See also:

• WORLD

World are often opposed as respectively subject and See also:

• OBJECT

object, yet the word nature is applied to both: hence Naturalism is used in both a subjective and an See also:

• OBJECTIVE, or OBJECT GLASS

objective sense . In the subjective sense the natural, as the See also:

• ORIGINAL

original or essential, is opposed to what is acquired, artificial, conventional or accidental . On this opposition the See also:

• CASUISTRY (from the Lat. casus, a point of law)

casuistry and paradoxes of the See also:

• SOPHISTS (from Gr. codtoris, literally, man of wisdom)

Sophists largely turned; it determined also, at least negatively, the conduct of the See also:

• CYNICS

Cynics in their contempt for the customary duties and decencies; and it led the See also:

• STOICS

Stoics to seek See also:

• POSITIVE (or PORTABLE) ORGAN

positive rules of See also:

• LIFE

life in " conformity to nature." This deference for the " natural " generally, and distrust of traditional systems of thought and even of traditional institutions, has played a large See also:

• PART

part in See also:

• MODERN

modern See also:

• PHILOSOPHY (Gr. gthos, fond of, and vo4 (a, wisdom)

philosophy, especially See also:

• BRITISH

British philosophy . It was perhaps the inevitable outcome of the reaction, which began with the See also:

• RENAISSANCE, THE

Renaissance, against the See also:

• MEDIEVAL

medieval domination of See also:

• MERE
• MERE, ADALBERT (1838-1909)

mere authority . " L'homme qui medite est un See also:

• ANIMAL
• ANIMAL (Lat. animalis, from anima, breath, soul)

animal deprave," said See also:

• ROUSSEAU, JACQUES (1633-1693)
• ROUSSEAU, JEAN BAPTISTE (1671-1741)
• ROUSSEAU, JEAN JACQUES (1712-1778)
• ROUSSEAU, PIERRE ETIENNE THEODORE (1812–1867); French painter of the Barbizon school, was born in Paris on the 15th of April 1812, of a bourgeois family which included one or two artists. At first he received a business training, but soon displayed aptitu

Rousseau; and again, " Tout est mien sortant See also:

• DES

des mains de l'auteur des choses, tout degenere entre See also:

• LES

les mains de 1'homme." I In See also:

• PSYCHOLOGY
• PSYCHOLOGY (>Guxrl, the mind or soul, and X yos, theory)

psychology and See also:

• EPISTEMOLOGY

epistemology, " no one," as See also:

• GREEN, A
• GREEN, ALEXANDER HENRY (1832—1896)
• GREEN, DUFF (1791—1875)
• GREEN, JOHN RICHARD (1837—1883)
• GREEN, MATTHEW (1696-1737)
• GREEN, THOMAS HILL (1836-1882)
• GREEN, VALENTINE (1739–1813)
• GREEN, WILLIAM HENRY (.1825–1900)

Green has said, " is more emphatic than See also:

• LOCKE, GOTTFRIED CHRISTIAN FRIEDRICH (1791–1855)
• LOCKE, JOHN (1632-1704)
• LOCKE, MATTHEW (c. 1630-1677)

Locke in opposing what is real to what we ` make for ourselves '—the See also:

• WORK

work of nature to the work of the mind . See also:

• SIMPLE

Simple ideas or sensations we certainly do not ` make for ourselves.' They therefore, and See also:

• MATTER

matter supposed to cause them, are, according to Locke, real . But relations are neither simple ideas nor their material archetypes . They therefore, as Locke explicitly holds, fall under the See also:

• HEAD (in 0. Eng. heafad; the word is common to Teutonic languages; cf. Dutch hoofd, Ger. Haupt, generally taken to be in origin connected with Lat. caput, Gr. KerbOvi7)
• HEAD, SIR EDMUND WALKER, BART
• HEAD, SIR FRANCIS BOND, BART

head of the work of the mind, which is opposed to the real."2 This opposition again led See also:

• HUME, ALEXANDER (c. 1557-1609)
• HUME, DAVID (1711-1776)
• HUME, JOSEPH (1777-1855)

Hume, in the first See also:

• PLACE (through Fr. from Lat. platea, street; Gr. IrAar6s, wide)

place, to distinguish between natural and philosophical relations—the former determined simply by association, the latter by an abitrary See also:

• UNION
• UNION (known locally as Union Hill and officially as Town of Union)

union of two ideas, which we may think proper to compare—and then, in the next, to reduce identity and causality, the two See also:

• CHIEF (from Fr. chef, head, Lat. caput)

chief philosophical relations," to See also:

• FICTIONS

fictions resulting from " natural relations," that is to say, from associations of similarity and contiguity . Subjective naturalism thus tended to become, and in the end became, what is more commonly called See also:

• SENSATIONALISM

Sensationalism or Associatianism, thereby approximating towards that objective naturalism which reduces the See also:

• EXTERNAL

external world to a mechanism describable in terms of matter and See also:

• MOTION (Lat. motio, from movere, to move)
• MOTION, LAWS OF

motion—a result already foreshadowed when See also:

• HARTLEY, DAVID (1705–1757)
• HARTLEY, JONATHAN SCOTT (1845– )
• HARTLEY, SIR CHARLES AUGUSTUS (1825– )

Hartley connected ideas and their association with See also:

• BRAIN (A.S. braegen)

brain vibrations and vibratiuncles . In See also:

• ETHICS
• ETHICS, SHAFTESBURY, HOBBES

ethics, also, the striving to get back to the natural entailed a similar downward trend .

From the See also:

• CAMBRIDGE
• CAMBRIDGE, EARLS AND DUKES OF
• CAMBRIDGE, RICHARD OWEN (1717-1802)

Cambridge Platonists, from Locke and See also:

• CLARKE, ADAM (1762?—1832)
• CLARKE, CHARLES COWDEN (1787-1877)
• CLARKE, EDWARD DANIEL (1769–1822)
• CLARKE, JAMES FREEMAN (1810–1888)
• CLARKE, JOHN SLEEPER (1833–1899)
• CLARKE, MARCUS ANDREW HISLOP (1846–1881)
• CLARKE, MARY ANNE (c.1776–1852)
• CLARKE, SAMUEL (1675–1729)
• CLARKE, SIR ANDREW (1824-1902)
• CLARKE, SIR EDWARD GEORGE (1841– )
• CLARKE, THOMAS SHIELDS (1866- )
• CLARKE, WILLIAM BRANWHITE (1798-1878)

Clarke, we hear much of rational 1 Quoted by Eisler, Worterbuch der philosophischen Begriffe (1899), s.o . " Naturalismus." 2 T . H . Green, Prolegomena to Ethics (1883), § 20.principles of conduct, comparable in respect of intelligibility with the truths of See also:

• MATHEMATICS (Gr. /saBnµar1Kil, Sc. vOcvn or E7rlQTt'µn; from p iN.La, "learning" or "science ")

mathematics; but already we find that in See also:

• SHAFTESBURY
• SHAFTESBURY, ANTHONY ASHLEY COOPER, 1ST EARL OF (1621-1683)
• SHAFTESBURY, ANTHONY ASHLEY COOPER, 7TH EARL OF (1801–1885)
• SHAFTESBURY, ANTHONYASHLEY COOPER, 3RD EARL OF (1671-1713)

Shaftesbury the centre of ethical See also:

• INTEREST

interest is transferred from the See also:

• REASON (Lat. ratio, through French raison)

Reason, conceived as apprehending either abstract moral distinctions or See also:

• LAWS

laws of divine legislation, to the " natural affections " that prompt to social See also:

• DUTY (from " due," that which is owing, O. Fr. deu, dil, past participle of devoir; Lat. debere, debitum; cf. " debt ")

duty;3 and when we reach See also:

• BENTHAM, GEORGE (1800-1884)
• BENTHAM, JEREMY (1748-1832)

Bentham, with See also:

• PLEASURE (through Fr. plaisir from Lat. placere, to please; Gr. rlbovii)

pleasure and See also:

• PAIN (from Lat. poena, Gr. robin, penalty, that which must be paid: O. Fr. peine)
• PAIN, BARRY (1867– )

pain as " See also:

• SOVEREIGN

sovereign masters," and the See also:

• MILLS, JOHN (d. 1736)
• MILLS, ROGER QUARLES (1832– )

Mills, with love of virtue explained by the laws of association, all seems to be non-rational.' There is much resemblance, as well as some See also:

• HISTORICAL

historical connexion, between the naturalism of moralists such as Shaftesbury and See also:

• HUTCHESON, FRANCIS (1694-1746)

Hutcheson and the See also:

• COMMON

Common-Sense See also:

• METAPHYSICS
• METAPHYSICS, or METAPHYSIC (from Gr. /sera, after, d v med, things of nature, lots, i.e. the natural universe)

metaphysics of See also:

• REID, ROBERT (1862– )
• REID, SIR GEORGE (1841- )
• REID, SIR ROBERT GILLESPIE (184o-19o8)
• REID, SIR WILLIAM (1791-1858)
• REID, THOMAS (1710-1796)
• REID, THOMAS MAYNE (1818-1883)
• REID, WHITELAW (1837- )

Reid and his school.5 Hence See also:

• KANT, IMMANUEL (1724-1804)

Kant, distinguishing between a " naturalistic " and " scientific " or See also:

• CRITICAL (in alphabetical order of authors)

critical method in metaphysics, styles Reid and his followers " naturalists of pure reason," satirically comparing them to See also:

• PEOPLE

people who think they can See also:

• SETTLE
• SETTLE, ELKANAH (1648–1724)

settle the See also:

• SIZE

size and distance of the See also:

• MOON (a common Teutonic word, cf. Ger. Mond, Du. maan, Dan. maane, &c., and cognate with such Indo-Germanic forms as Gr. µlip, Sans. ma's, Irish mi, &c.; Lat. uses luna, i.e. lucna, the shining one, lucere, to shine, for the moon, but preserves the word i
• MOON, SIR RICHARD, 1ST BARONET (1814-1899)

moon by See also:

• DIRECT

direct eyesight better than by the roundabout calculations of mathematics . So far we have seen the natural approximating to the non-rational . But when used in a subjective sense in opposition to the supernatural, it means the rational as opposed to what is above reason, or even contrary to reason . It is in this sense that the term Naturalism most frequently occurs; and it was so applied specially to the doctrines of the See also:

• ENGLISH

English Deists and the See also:

• GERMAN
• GERMAN, DUTCH AND SCANDINAVIAN

German See also:

• ILLUMINATI (Lat. illuminare)

Illuminati of the 17th and 18th centuries: those of them who held that human reason alone was capable of attaining to the knowledge of See also:

• GOD

God were called theological naturalists or rationalists, while those who denied the possibility of See also:

• REVELATION, BOOK OF

revelation altogether were called philosophical naturalists or naturalists simply s In these controversies the term Naturalist was also sometimes used in an objective sense for those who identified God and Nature, but they were more frequently styled Spinozists, Pantheists or even Atheists . But it is at once obvious that dispute as to what is natural and what supernatural is vain and hopeless till the meanings of reason and nature are clearly defined . " The only distinct meaning of the word " [natural], said See also:

• BUTLER
• BUTLER (or BOTELER), SAMUEL (1612–168o)
• BUTLER (through the O. Fr. bouteillier, from the Late Lat. buticularius, buticula, a bottle)
• BUTLER, ALBAN (1710-1773)
• BUTLER, BENJAMIN FRANKLIN (1818-1893)
• BUTLER, CHARLES (1750–1832)
• BUTLER, GEORGE (1774-1853)
• BUTLER, JOSEPH (1692-1752)
• BUTLER, NICHOLAS MURRAY (1862– )
• BUTLER, SAMUEL (1774-1839)
• BUTLER, SAMUEL (1835-1902)
• BUTLER, SIR WILLIAM FRANCIS (1838– )
• BUTLER, WILLIAM ARCHER (1814-1848)

Butler, " is stated, fixed or settled; since what is natural as much requires and presupposes an intelligent See also:

• AGENT (from Lat. agere, to act)

agent to render it so, i.e. to effect it continually, or at stated times, as what is supernatural or miraculous does to effect it for once . And from hence it must follow that persons' notion of what is natural will be enlarged in proportion to tl}eir greater knowledge . . . . Nor is there any absurdity in supposing that there may be beings in the universe, whose capacities .

. . may be so extensive, as that the whole See also:

• CHRISTIAN
• CHRISTIAN, WILLIAM (1608-1663)

Christian See also:

• DISPENSATION

dispensation may to them appear natural, i.e. analogous or conformable to God's dealings with other parts of His creation; as natural as the visible known course of things appears to us." 7 The See also:

• ANTITHESIS (the Greek for " setting opposite ")

antithesis of natural to spiritual (or ideal) has mainly determined the use of the term Naturalism in the See also:

• PRESENT

present See also:

• DAY (O. Eng. dreg, Ger. Tag; according to the New English Dictionary, " in no way related to the Lat. dies")
• DAY, JOHN (1574-1640?)
• DAY, THOMAS (1748-1789)

day.$ But current naturalism is not to be called See also:

• MATERIALISM (from Lat. materia, matter)

materialism, though these terms are often used synonymously, as by See also:

• HEGEL, GEORG WILHELM FRIEDRICH (1770-1831)

Hegel, See also:

• UEBERWEG, FRIEDRICH (1826-1871)

Ueberweg and other historians of philosophy; nor yet See also:

• PAN (" pasturer ")
• PAN (common in various forms to many Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Pfanne; it is generally taken to be an early adaptation in a shortened form of Lat. patina, shallow bowl or dish, from patere, to lie open)

pan-See also:

• THEISM
• THEISM (Gr. Beor, god)

theism, if by that is meant the See also:

• IMMANENCE (from Lat. in-manere to dwell in, remain)

immanence of all things in one God . We know only material phenomena, it is said; matter is an abstract conception simply, not a substantial reality . It is therefore meaningless to describe mind as its effect . Moreover, mind also is but an abstract conception; and here again all our knowledge is confined to the phenomenal . To identify the two classes of phenomena is, however, impossible, and indeed absurd; nevertheless we find a See also:

• CONSTANT, BENJAMIN (1845-1902)

constant concomitance of psychosis and neurosis; and the more sensationalist and associationist our psychology, the easier it becomes to correlate the 3 Cf . See also:

• SIDGWICK, HENRY (1838-1900)

Sidgwick, See also:

• HISTORY

History of Ethics (1886), p . 181 . ' Cf . W . R . Sorley, The Ethics of Naturalism (1885), pp . 16 sqq .

'Cf . W . R . See also:

• SCOTT, ALEXANDER (fl. 1550)
• SCOTT, DAVID (18o6-1849)
• SCOTT, MICHAEL (1789-1835)
• SCOTT, ROBERT (1811-1887)
• SCOTT, SIR GEORGE GILBERT (1811-1878)
• SCOTT, SIR WALTER, BART
• SCOTT, WILLIAM BELL (1811-1890)
• SCOTT, WINFIELD (1786-1866)

Scott, See also:

• FRANCIS
• FRANCIS (FRarrcols) OF SALES, ST (1567-1622)
• FRANCIS (Lat. Franciscus, Ital. Francesco, Span. Francisco, Fr. Francois, Ger. Franz)
• FRANCIS, SIR PHILIP (174o-1818)

Francis Hutcheson; his Life, Teaching and Position in Philosophy (1900), pp . 121, 265 seq . 2 See See also:

• RATIONALISM (from Lat. rationalis, pertaining to reason, ratio)

RATIONALISM; Kant, See also:

• RELIGION
• RELIGION, FOLKLORE, CUSTOM

Religion innerhalb der Grenzen der blossen Vernunft, Hartenstein's edition, vi . 253; and See also:

• LECHLER, GOTTHARD VICTOR (1811–1888)

Lechler, Geschichte des Englischen Deismus (1841), pp . 454 sqq . ' See also:

• ANALOGY (Gr. avaXo-yLa, proportion)

Analogy, part i. See also:

• CHAP

chap. i. end . Cf. also J . S . See also:

• MILL
• MILL (O. Eng. mylen, later myln, or miln, adapted from the late Lat. molina, cf. Fr. moulin, from Lat. mola, a mill, molere, to grind; from the same root, mol, is derived " meal;" the word appears in other Teutonic languages, cf. Du. molen, Ger. muhle)
• MILL, JAMES (1773-1836)
• MILL, JOHN (c. 1645–1707)
• MILL, JOHN STUART (1806-1873)

Mill, See also:

• LOGIC (Xoy1K7, sc. rixvrt, the art of reasoning)

Logic, See also:

• BOOK

book iii. chap. See also:

• XXV

xxv .

§ 2, and Essays on Religion . 2In See also:

• AESTHETICS

aesthetics we find Naturalism used in a cognate sense: the Flemish painters, such writers as See also:

• FLAUBERT, GUSTAVE (1821-1880)

Flaubert or See also:

• ZOLA, EMILE EDOUARD CHARLES ANTOINE (1840-1902)

Zola, for example, being called naturalistic or realistic, in contrast to the See also:

• ITALIAN

Italian painters or writers like See also:

• GEORGE
• GEORGE, 8TH MARQUESS OF TWEEDDALE (1787-1876)
• GEORGE, HENRY (1839—1897)
• GEORGE, LAKE
• GEORGE, SAINT (d. 303)

George See also:

• SAND
• SAND, GEORGE (1804-1876)

Sand or the Brontes . psychical and the See also:

• PHYSICAL

physical as but " two aspects " of one and the same fact . It is therefore simplest and sufficient to assume an underlying, albeit unknown, unity connecting the two . A See also:

• MONISM (from Gr. µ6vos, alone)

monism—so far neutral, neither materialistic nor spiritualistic—is thus a characteristic of the prevailing naturalism . But when the question arises, how best to systematize experience as a whole, it is contended that we must begin from the physical See also:

• SIDE
• SIDE (mod. Eski Adalia)

side . Here we have precise conceptions, quantitative exactness and thoroughgoing continuity; every thought that has ever stirred the See also:

• HEARTS

hearts of men, not less than every See also:

• BREEZE

breeze that has ever rippled the See also:

• FACE (from Lat. fades, derived either from facere, to make, or from a root fa-, meaning " appear "; cf. Gr. cbatvstv)

face of the deep, has meant a perfectly definite re-See also:

• DISTRIBUTION (Lat. distribuere, to deal out)

distribution of matter and motion . To the See also:

• MECHANICAL

mechanical principles of this redistribution an ultimate See also:

• ANALYSIS (Gr. avci and Meta, to break up into parts)

analysis brings us down; and—beginning from these—the nebular See also:

• HYPOTHESIS (from Gr. inrorcOivat, to put under; cf. Lat. suppositio, from sub-ponere)

hypothesis and the theory of natural selection will enable us to explain all subsequent See also:

• SYNTHESIS (Gr. a6vOeacs, from avvrcBivac, to put together)

synthesis.' Life and mind now clearly take a secondary place; the cosmical mechanism determines them, while they are powerless to modify it . The spiritual becomes the " epiphenomenal," a merely incidental See also:

• PHOSPHORESCENCE

phosphorescence, so to say, that regularly accompanies physical processes of a certain type and complexity . (See also PSYCHOLOGY.) This See also:

• ABSOLUTE (Lat. absolvere, to loose, set free)

absolute naturalism, as we may See also:

• CALL (from Anglo-Saxon ceallian, a common Teutonic word, cf. Dutch kallen, to talk or chatter)

call it, the union, that is, of psychological and cosmological. naturalism, is in fact a See also:

• SPECIES

species of See also:

• FATALISM (Lat. fatum, that which is spoken, decreed)

Fatalism, as Kant indeed entitled it ? It is the logical outcome of a sensationalist psychology, and of the epistemology which this entails . As See also:

• LONG, GEORGE (1800-1879)
• LONG, JOHN DAVIS (1838– )

long as association of ideas (or sensory residua) is held to explain See also:

• JUDGMENT

judgment and See also:

• CONSCIENCE (Lat. con-scientia, literally " knowledge of a thing shared with another person " or " complete knowledge," and derivatively " consciousness in general)
• CONSCIENCE, HENDRIK (1812-1883)

conscience, so long may naturalism stand .

The naturalistic work of chief See also:

• ACCOUNT
• ACCOUNT (through O. Fr. acont, Late Lat. comptum, cornputare, to calculate)

account at the present day is E . See also:

• HAECKEL, ERNST HEINRICH (1834- )

Haeckel's See also:

• DIE
• DIE (Fr. de, from Lat. datum, given)

Die Weltratsel, gemeinverstdndliche Studien fiber monistische Philosophie (5th ed., 1900), of which an English See also:

• TRANSLATION

translation has appeared . Effective refutations will be found in the See also:

• WORKS

works of two of Haeckel's colleagues, O . Liebmann, Zur Analysis der Wirklichkeil (3rd ed., 1900) ; R . See also:

• EUCKEN, RUDOLF CHRISTOPH (1846– )

Eucken, Die Einheit des Geisteslebens in Bewusstsein and That der Menschheit (1888, Eng. trans.); Der Kampf um einen geistigen Lebensinhalt (1898) . See also A . J . See also:

• BALFOUR, FRANCIS MAITLAND (1851-1882)
• BALFOUR, ROBERT (known also as BALFOREUS) (1550?-1625?)
• BALFOUR, SIR JAMES (of Pittendreich) (d. 1583 Or 1584)
• BALFOUR, SIR JAMES, BART

Balfour, See also:

• FOUNDATIONS

Foundations of Belief (8th ed., 19or); J . See also:

• WARD
• WARD, ADOLPHUS WILLIAM (1837- )
• WARD, ARTEMUS
• WARD, EDWARD MATTHEW (1816-1879)
• WARD, ELIZABETH STUART PHELPS (1844-1911)
• WARD, JAMES (1769--1859)
• WARD, JAMES (1843– )
• WARD, JOHN QUINCY ADAMS (1830-1910)
• WARD, LESTER FRANK (1841– )
• WARD, MARY AUGUSTA [MRS HUMPHRY WARD]
• WARD, WILLIAM (1766-1826)
• WARD, WILLIAM GEORGE (1812-1882)

Ward, Naturalism and See also:

• AGNOSTICISM

Agnosticism (1899) . (J .