See also:

• NEGRO (from Lat. eager, black)

NEGRO (from See also:

• LAT

Lat. eager, See also:

• BLACK
• BLACK, ADAM (1784-1874)
• BLACK, JEREMIAH SULLIVAN (1810–1883)
• BLACK, WILLIAM (1841-1898)

black)  , in See also:

• ANTHROPOLOGY (Gr. avOpw1ror man, and Xoyos, theory or science)

anthropology, the designa- among the See also:

• BANTU

Bantu, who are also as a See also:

• RULE

rule less tall, less prognathous, tion of the distinctly dark-skinned, as opposed to the See also:

• FAIR

fair, yellow, and See also:

• BROWN
• BROWN, CHARLES BROCKDEN (1771-181o)
• BROWN, FORD MADOX (1821-1893)
• BROWN, FRANCIS (1849- )
• BROWN, GEORGE (1818-188o)
• BROWN, HENRY KIRKE (1814-1886)
• BROWN, JACOB (1775–1828)
• BROWN, JOHN (1715–1766)
• BROWN, JOHN (1722-1787)
• BROWN, JOHN (1735–1788)
• BROWN, JOHN (1784–1858)
• BROWN, JOHN (1800-1859)
• BROWN, JOHN (1810—1882)
• BROWN, JOHN GEORGE (1831— )
• BROWN, ROBERT (1773-1858)
• BROWN, SAMUEL MORISON (1817—1856)
• BROWN, SIR GEORGE (1790-1865)
• BROWN, SIR JOHN (1816-1896)
• BROWN, SIR WILLIAM, BART
• BROWN, THOMAS (1663-1704)
• BROWN, THOMAS (1778-1820)
• BROWN, THOMAS EDWARD (1830-1897)
• BROWN, WILLIAM LAURENCE (1755–1830)

brown See also:

• VARIATIONS
• VARIATIONS, CALCULUS
• VARIATIONS, CALCULUS OF

variations of mankind . In its widest sense it embraces all the dark races, whose See also:

• ORIGINAL

original See also:

• HOME
• HOME, DANIEL DUNGLAS (1833-1886)
• HOME, EARLS OF

home is the intertropical and sub-tropical regions of the eastern hemisphere, stretching roughly from See also:

• SENEGAMBIA

Senegambia, See also:

• WEST
• WEST, BENJAMIN (1738-1820)
• WEST, NICHOLAS (1461-1533)

West See also:

• AFRICA
• AFRICA, ROMAN

Africa, to the Fijian Islands in the Pacific, between the extreme See also:

• PARALLELS

parallels of the Philippines and See also:

• TASMANIA

Tasmania . It is most convenient, however, to refer to the dark-skinned inhabitants of this See also:

• ZONE (Gr. 'WV77, a girdle, from 'wvvLvay to gird)

zone by the collective See also:

• TERM

term of Negroids, and to reserve the word See also:

• NEGRO (from Lat. eager, black)

Negro for the tribes which are considered to exhibit in the highest degree the characteristics taken as typical of the variety . These tribes are found in Africa; their home, being See also:

• SOUTH
• SOUTH, ROBERT (1634–1716)

south of the See also:

• SAHARA

Sahara and See also:

• NORTH
• NORTH, BARONS
• NORTH, MARIANNE (1830—1890)
• NORTH, ROGER (1653-1734)
• NORTH, SIR THOMAS (1535?-16o1?)

north of a not very well-defined See also:

• LINE

line See also:

• RUNNING

running roughly from the Gulf of Biafra with a south-easterly trend across the See also:

• EQUATOR (Late Lat. aequator, from aequare, to make equal)

equator to the mouth of the See also:

• TANA

Tana . In this See also:

• TRACT (from Lat. tractare, to treat of a matter, through Provencal tractat and Ital. trattato)

tract are found the true negroes; and their nearest relatives, the Bantu-negroids, are found to the south of the last-mentioned line . The relation of the yellowish-brown Bushman and Hottentot peoples of the See also:

• SOUTHERN

southern extremity of Africa to the negro is uncertain; they possess certain See also:

• NEGROID

negroid characters, the tightly curled See also:

• HAIR (a word common to Teutonic languages)

hair, the broad See also:

• NOSE (O.Eng. nosu, cf. Dutch neus, Swed. nos, snout; the Aix in Provence. Both at Aix and at Lyons he acquired great connexion with O.Eng. nasu is obscure, cf. Ger. Nase, Lat. pares, distinction by his labours during outbreaks of the plague. In nostrils,

nose, the tendency towards See also:

• PROGNATHISM (Gr. 7rpb, forward, and yv&Oos, jaw)

prognathism; but their See also:

• COLOUR (Lat. color, connected with celare, to hide, the root meaning, therefore, being that of a covering)

colour and a number of psychological and cultural See also:

• DIFFERENCES, CALCULUS OF (Theory of Finite Differences)

differences would seem to show that the relation is not See also:

• CLOSE
• CLOSE (from Lat. clausum, shut)
• CLOSE, MAXWELL HENRY (1822-1903)

close . Between the two a certain See also:

• AFFINITY (Lat. affinitas, relationship by marriage, from offinis, bordering on, related to; finis, border, boundary)
• AFFINITY, CHEMICAL

affinity seems to exist, and the Hottentot is probably the product of an See also:

• EARLY
• EARLY, JUBAL ANDERSON (1816-1894)

early intermixture of the first Hamito-Bantu immigrants with the Bushman See also:

• ABORIGINES

aborigines (see AFRICA: See also:

• ETHNOLOGY

Ethnology) . The relation of the negroids of Africa to those of See also:

• ASIA

Asia (southern See also:

• INDIA
• INDIA, FRENCH

India and Malaysia) and See also:

• AUSTRALASIA

Australasia cannot be discussed with profit owing to lack of See also:

• EVIDENCE (Lat. evidentia, evideri, to appear clearly)

evidence; still less the theories which have been put forward to See also:

• ACCOUNT
• ACCOUNT (through O. Fr. acont, Late Lat. comptum, cornputare, to calculate)

account for the wide dispersal from what seems to be a single stock . It will be sufficient to say that the two See also:

• GROUPS
• GROUPS, THEORY

groups have in See also:

• COMMON

common a number of well-defined characteristics of which the following See also:

• ALE

ale the See also:

• CHIEF (from Fr. chef, head, Lat. caput)

chief: A dark skin, varying from dark brown, reddish-brown, or See also:

• CHOCOLATE

chocolate to nearly See also:

• BLACK
• BLACK, ADAM (1784-1874)
• BLACK, JEREMIAH SULLIVAN (1810–1883)
• BLACK, WILLIAM (1841-1898)

black; dark tightly curled hair, fiat in transverse See also:

• SECTION
• SECTION (Lat. sectio, cutting, secare, to cut)

section,' of the " woolly " or the " frizzly " type; a greater or less tendency to prognathism; eyes dark brown with yellowish cornea; nose more or less broad and See also:

• FLAT (a modification of O. Eng. flet, an obsolete word of Teutonic origin, meaning the ground beneath the feet)

flat; and large See also:

• TEETH (O.E. Eel); plural of tooth, O.E. top)

teeth . Sharing these characteristics, but distinguished by See also:

• SHORT, FRANCIS JOB (1857– )

short stature and brachycephaly, is a See also:

• GROUP

group to which the name Negrito (q.v.) has been given; with this exception the tendency among the negroids appears to be towards tall stature and dolichocephaly in proportion as they approach the pure negro type . As the most typical representatives of the variety are found in Africa, the See also:

• ASIATIC

Asiatic and Australasian negroids may be dismissed with this introduction . The negro and negroid See also:

• POPULATION (Lat. populus, people; populare, to populate)

population of See also:

• AMERICA

America, the descendants of the slaves imported from West Africa, and in a less degree, from the See also:

• MOZAMBIQUE [Sao Sebastiao de Mocambique]

Mozambique See also:

• COAST (from Lat. costa, a rib, side)

coast, before the abolition of the.slave-See also:

• TRADE (O. Eng. trod, footstep, from tredan, to tread; in M. Eng. the forms teed, trod and trade appear, the last in the sense of a beaten track)
• TRADE, BOARD OF

trade, are treated separately below .

In Africa three races have intermingled to a certain extent with the negro; the Libyans (See also:

• BERBERS

Berbers: q.v.) in the Western See also:

• SUDAN (Arabic Bilad-es-Sudan, country of the blacks)

Sudan.; and the Hamitic races (q.v.) and See also:

• ARABS

Arabs (q.v.) in the See also:

• EAST
• EAST, ALFRED (1849- )

east . The identity of the See also:

• PEOPLE

people who have amalgamated with the negro to See also:

• FORM (Lat. forma)

form the Bantu-speaking peoples in the southern portion of the See also:

• CONTINENT (from Lat. continere, "to hold together "; hence " connected," " continuous ")

continent is not certain, but as the latter appear to approach the Hamites in those characteristics in which they differ from the true negroes, it seems probable that they are infused with a proportion of Hamitic See also:

• BLOOD

blood . The true negroes show See also:

• GREAT

great similarity of See also:

• PHYSICAL

physical characteristics; besides those already mentioned they are distinguished by length of See also:

• ARM (a common Teutonic word; the Indo-European root is ar, to join or fit; cf. the Lat. armus, shoulder, and the plural word arma, weapons, Gr. apphs, joint, and the reduplicated apapilKSV, to join)

arm, especially of fore arm, length of See also:

• LEG
• LEG (a word of Scandinavian origin, from the Old Norwegian leggr, cf. Swed. lagg, Dan. laeg; the O. Eng. word was sceanca, shank)

leg, smallness of See also:

• CALF
• CALF, THE GOLDEN

calf and See also:

• PROJECTION

projection of See also:

• HEEL

heel; characteristics which frequently fail to appear to the same degree ' This point has been fully determined by P . A . Brown (See also:

• CLASSIFICATION (Lat. classis, a class, probably from the root cal-, cla-, as in Gr. icaMce, clamor)

Classification of Mankind by the Hair, &c.), who shows conclusively that, unlike true hair and like true See also:

• WOOL, WORSTED AND WOOLLEN MANUFACTURES

wool, the negro hair is flat, issues from the epidermis at a right See also:

• ANGLE (from the Lat. angulus, a corner, a diminutive, of which the primitive form, angus, does not occur in Latin; cognate are the Lat. angere, to compress into a bend or to strangle, and the Gr. ayKOS, a bend; both connected with the Aryan root ank-, to

angle, is spirally See also:

• TWISTED

twisted or crisped, has no central duct, the colouring See also:

• MATTER

matter being disseminated through the cortex and intermediate See also:

• FIBRES
• FIBRES (or FIBERS, in American spelling; from Lat. fibra, apparently connected either with filum, thread, or findere, to split)

fibres, while the cortex itself is covered with numerous rough, pointed filaments adhering loosely to the See also:

• SHAFT
• SHAFT (O. Eng., sceaft, from scafan, to shave; the word is common to Teutonic languages)

shaft; lastly, the negro See also:

• PILE

pile will See also:

• FELT (cognate with Ger. Filz, Du. vilt, Swed. and Dan. fill; the root is unknown; the word has given Med. Lat. filtrum, " filter ")

felt, like wool, whereas true hair cannot be felted . and it is not fair to See also:

• JUDGE (Lat. judex, Fr. juge)

judge of his See also:

• MENTAL

mental capacity by tests taken directly from the environment of the See also:

• WHITE
• WHITE, ANDREW DICKSON (1832– )
• WHITE, GILBERT (1720–1793)
• WHITE, HENRY KIRKE (1785-1806)
• WHITE, HUGH LAWSON (1773-1840)
• WHITE, JOSEPH BLANCO (1775-1841)
• WHITE, RICHARD GRANT (1822-1885)
• WHITE, ROBERT (1645-1704)
• WHITE, SIR GEORGE STUART (1835– )
• WHITE, SIR THOMAS (1492-1567)
• WHITE, SIR WILLIAM ARTHUR (1824--1891)
• WHITE, SIR WILLIAM HENRY (1845– )
• WHITE, THOMAS (1628-1698)
• WHITE, THOMAS (c. 1550-1624)

white See also:

• MAN
• MAN, ISLE OF (anc. Mona)

man, as for instance tests in mental See also:

• ARITHMETIC (Gr. apeOµ7run7, sc. TEXVn, the art of counting, from (ipLBµos, number)

arithmetic; skill in reckoning is necessary to the white See also:

• RACE

race, and it has cultivated this See also:

• FACULTY (through the French, from the Lat. facultas, ability to do anything, from facilis, easy, facere, to do; another form of the word in Lat. facilitas, facility, ease, keeps the original meaning)

faculty; but it is not necessary to the negro . On the other See also:

• HAND
• HAND (a word common to Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Hand, Goth. handus)
• HAND, FERDINAND GOTTHELF (1786-185r)

hand negroes far surpass white men in acuteness of See also:

• VISION (from Lat. videre, to see), or SIGHT

vision, See also:

• HEARING (formed from the verb " to hear," O. Eng. hyran, heron, &c., a common Teutonic verb; cf. Ger. Koren, Dutch hooren, &c.; the O. Tent. form is seen in Goth. hausjan; the initial h makes any connexion with " ear," Lat. audire, or Gr. &Kobew very doub

hearing, sense of direction and See also:

• TOPOGRAPHY
• TOPOGRAPHY (Gr. Toros, place, -partied', to write)

topography . A native who has once visited a particular locality will rarely fail to recognize it again . For the See also:

• REST (O. Eng. rest, reste, bed, cognate with other Teutonic forms, e.g. Ger. Rast, Riiste, rest, and probably Gothic Rasta, league, i.e. resting or stopping place)

rest, the mental constitution of the negro is very similar to that of a See also:

• CHILD
• CHILD, FRANCIS JAMES (1825-1896)
• CHILD, L
• CHILD, LYDIA MARIA (1802-1880)
• CHILD, SIR FRANCIS (1642-1713)
• CHILD, SIR JOHN (d. 1690)
• CHILD, SIR JOSIAH (163o - 1699)

child, normally See also:

• GOOD, JOHN MASON (1764-1827)

good-natured and cheerful, but subject to sudden fits of emotion and See also:

• PASSION (post-classical Lat. passio, formed from pati, passus, to suffer, endure)

passion during which he is capable of performing acts of singular atrocity, impressionable, vain, but often exhibiting in the capacity of servant a See also:

• DOG

dog-like fidelity which has stood the supreme test . Given suitable training, the negro is capable of becoming a craftsman of considerable skill, particularly in See also:

• METAL
• METAL (through Fr. from Lat. metallum, mine, quarry, adapted from Gr. µATaXAov, in the same sense, probably connected with ,ueraAAdv, to search after, explore, µeTa, after, aAAos, other)

metal See also:

• WORK

work, See also:

• CARPENTRY

carpentry and See also:

• CARVING

carving . The See also:

• BRONZE

bronze castings by the cure perdue See also:

• PROCESS

process, and the cups and horns of See also:

• IVORY (Fr. ivoire, Lat. ebur)
• IVORY, SIR JAMES (1765-1842)

ivory elaborately carved, which were produced by the natives of See also:

• GUINEA

Guinea after their intercourse with the Portuguese of the 16th See also:

• CENTURY (from Lat. centuria, a division of a hundred men)

century, See also:

• BEAR
• BEAR, BLACK
• BEAR, BROWN
• BEAR, GRIZZLY
• BEAR, ISABELLINE
• BEAR, WHITE

bear ample See also:

• WITNESS
• WITNESS (from O. Eng. witan, to know)

witness to this . But the rapid decline and See also:

• PRACTICAL

practical evanescence of both See also:

• INDUSTRIES

industries, when that intercourse was interrupted, shows that the native craftsman was raised for the moment above his normal level by See also:

• DIRECT

direct See also:

• FOREIGN

foreign See also:

• INSPIRATION (Lat. inspirare, breathe upon or into)

inspiration, and was unable to sustain the high quality of his work when that inspiration failed .

In speaking of the form or forms of culture found among negro and negroid tribes, the dependence of the native upon his environment must be kept in mind, particularly in Africa, where interchange of customs is continually taking See also:

• PLACE (through Fr. from Lat. platea, street; Gr. IrAar6s, wide)

place among neighbours . Thus the See also:

• FOREST

forest regions are distinguished by a particular form of culture which differs from that prevailing in the more open See also:

• COUNTRY (from the Mid. Eng. contre or contrie, and O. Fr. cuntree; Late Lat. contrata, showing the derivation from contra, opposite, over against, thus the tract of land which fronts the sight, cf. Ger. Gegend, neighbourhood)

country (see AFRICA: Ethnology) . But it may be said generally that the negro is first and foremost an agriculturist . The See also:

• NEGRITOS (Span. for " little negroes ")

negritos are on a See also:

• LOWER

lower cultural See also:

• PLANE

plane; they are nomadic hunters who do no cultivation whatever . Next in importance to See also:

• AGRICULTURE
• AGRICULTURE (from Lat. ages, field, and colere, to cultivate)
• AGRICULTURE, BOARD OF

agriculture come See also:

• HUNTING (the verbal substantive from " hunt "; O. Eng. huntian, hunta; apparently connected with O. Eng. hentan, Gothic hinpan, to capture, O.H.G. hunda,booty)

hunting and fishing and, locally, See also:

• CATTLE (Norman Fr. catel, from Late Lat. capitale, wealth or property, a word applied in the feudal system to movable property and particularly to live stock, and surviving in its wider meaning as " chattel " or " chattle ")

cattle-keeping . The last is not strictly typical of negro culture at all; nearly all the tribes by whom it is practised are of mixed origin, and their devotion to cattle seems to vary inversely with the purity of race . The most striking exception to this statement is the See also:

• DINKA (called by the Arabs Jange)

Dinka of the upper See also:

• NILE
• NILE, BATTLE OF THE
• NILE, SOBAT

Nile, the whole of whose existence centres See also:

• ROUND (O. Fr. rond, Lat. rotundus, the Fr. is the source also of Du. rond; Ger., Swed., Dan. and Nor. rond)

round the cattle See also:

• PEN (Lat. penna, a feather, pen)

pen . Of the other tribes where See also:

• PASTORAL (from Lat. pastor, a shepherd)

pastoral habits obtain to a greater or less extent, the See also:

• MASAI

Masai have a large percentage of Hamitic blood, the eastern and southern Bantu-speaking negroids are also of mixed descent, &c . The social conditions are usually See also:

• PRIMITIVE

primitive, especially among the negroes proper, being based on the See also:

• VILLAGE

village community ruled by a chief . Where the country is open, or where the forest is not so thick as to See also:

• PRESENT

present any great obstacle to communication, it has often happened that a chief has extended his rule over several villages and has ultimately built up a See also:

• KINGDOM

kingdom administered by sub-chiefs of various grades, and has .even established a See also:

• COURT
• COURT (from the O. Fr. court, Late Lat. cortis, curtis, a popular form of class. Lat. cohors, gen. cohortis; the mod. Fr. form tour is due to the influence of the Lat. curia, the word used in medieval documents to translate " court " in the feudal sense)
• COURT, ANTOINE (1696-176o)

court with a See also:

• REGULAR

regular See also:

• HIERARCHY (Gr. iepos, holy, and apxe.v, to rule)

hierarchy of officials . See also:

• BENIN

Benin and See also:

• DAHOMEY (Fr. Dahome)

Dahomey are instances of this . But the region where this " See also:

• EMPIRE

empire-See also:

• BUILDING

building " has reached its greatest proportions lies to the south of the forest See also:

• BELT (a word common to Teutonic languages, the Old Ger. form being bale, from which the Lat. balteus probably derived)
• BELT, THOMAS (1832-1878)

belt in the territory of the Bantu negroids, where arose the states of Lunda, See also:

• CAZEMBE

Cazembe, &c .

The domestic See also:

• LIFE

life of the negro is based upon polygyny, and See also:

• MARRIAGE

marriage is almost always by See also:

• PURCHASE

purchase . So vital is polygyny to the native social See also:

• SYSTEM

system that the attempts made by missionaries to abolish See also:

• PLURALITY (0. Fr. pluralitd, Late Lat. pluralitas, plural number)

plurality of wives would, if successful (a contingency unthinkable under present conditions), result in the most serious social disorder . Not only would an enormous section of the population be deprived of all means of support, but the native wife would be infinitely harder worked; agriculture, the task of the See also:

• WOMEN

women, would be at a standstill; and See also:

• INFANTICIDE

infanticide would probably assume dangerous proportions . Descent in the negro See also:

• WORLD

world is on the whole more often reckoned through the See also:

• FEMALE

female, though many tribes with a patriarchal system are found . Traces of See also:

• TOTEMISM

totemism are found sporadically, but are rare.345 Of the highest importance socially are the See also:

• SECRET (Lat. secretum, hidden, concealed)

secret See also:

• SOCIETIES, LEARNED

societies, which are found in their highest development among the negroes of the west coast, and in a far less significant form among some of the Bantu negroids of the western forest See also:

• DISTRICT

district . In their highest form these societies transcend the tribal divisions, and the tie which binds the individual to the society takes See also:

• PRECEDENCE (from Lat. praecedere, to go before, precede)

precedence of all others . But the secret society cannot be called a definitely negro institution, since it is found in the west only . As an agriculturist the negro is principally a vegetarian, but this form of See also:

• DIET

diet is not the result of direct choice; See also:

• MEAT

meat is everywhere regarded as a great delicacy, and no opportunity of obtaining it is ever neglected, with one exception—that the cattle-keeping tribes rarely slaughter for See also:

• FOOD
• FOOD (like the verb " to feed," from a Teutonic root, whence O. Eng. foda; cf. " fodder "; connected with Gr. lrareicOae, to feed)

food, because cattle are a form of currency . See also:

• FISH (O. Eng. fist, a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Dutch visch, Ger. Fisch, Goth. fisks, cognate with the Lat. piscis)
• FISH, HAMILTON (1808-1893)

Fish is also an important See also:

• ARTICLE (from Lat. articulus, a joint)

article of diet in the neighbourhood of large See also:

• RIVERS
• RIVERS, ANTHONY WOODVILLE, or WYDEVILLE, 2ND EARL (c. 1442—1483)
• RIVERS, EARL
• RIVERS, RICHARD SAVAGE, 4TH EARL (c. 1660—1712)

rivers, especially the Nile and See also:

• CONGO

Congo . It is worthy of See also:

• NOTE
• NOTE (Lat. nota, mark, sign, from noscere, to know)

note that the two cultivated See also:

• PLANTS

plants which form the mainstay of native life, manioc in the west and centre and mealies in the south and east, are neither of See also:

• AFRICAN

African origin . See also:

• CANNIBALISM

Cannibalism is found in its simplest form in Africa . In that continent the See also:

• MAJORITY (Fr. majorite; Med. Lat. majoritas; Lat. major, greater)

majority of cannibal tribes eat human flesh because they like it, and not from any magical See also:

• MOTIVE (from Lat. movere, to move)

motive or from lack of other See also:

• ANIMAL
• ANIMAL (Lat. animalis, from anima, breath, soul)

animal food .

In fact it is noticeable that the tribes most addicted to this practice inhabit just those districts where See also:

• GAME

game is most plentiful . Among the true negroes it is confined mainly to the Welle and See also:

• UBANGI

Ubangi districts, though found sporadically (and due to magical motives) on the west coast, and among the Bantu negroids in the south-western See also:

• PART

part of Belgian Congo and- the See also:

• GABUN

Gabun . With regard to crafts the most important and typical is that of See also:

• IRON [symbol Fe, atomic weight 55.85 (0=16)]

iron smelting and working . No negro tribe has been found of which the culture is typical of the See also:

• STONE
• STONE (0. Eng. shin; the word is common to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Stein, Du. steen, Dan. and Swed. sten; the root is also seen in Gr. aria, pebble)
• STONE, CHARLES POMEROY (1824-1887)
• STONE, EDWARD JAMES (1831-1897)
• STONE, FRANK (1800-1859)
• STONE, GEORGE (1708—1764)
• STONE, LUCY [BLACKWELL] (1818-1893)
• STONE, MARCUS (184o— )
• STONE, NICHOLAS (1586-1647)

Stone See also:

• AGE (Fr. age, through late Lat. aetaticum, from aetas)

age; or, indeed, which makes any use of stone implements except to crush ore and See also:

• HAMMER, FRIEDRICH JULIUS (1810-1862)

hammer metal . Even these are rough pieces of stone of convenient See also:

• SIZE

size, not shaped in any way by chipping or grinding . Doubtless the richness of the African See also:

• SOIL

soil in metal ores rendered the Stone age in Africa a See also:

• PERIOD
• PERIOD (Gr. irepioSos, a going or way round, circuit, aepi, round, and &Sis, way, road)

period of very short duration (see AFRICA: Ethnology) . A good See also:

• DEAL

deal of aptitude is shown in the See also:

• FORGING

forging of iron, considering the primitive nature of the tools . Considerable skill in carving is also found in the west and among the Bantu negroids, especially of Belgian Congo south of the Congo . See also:

• WEAVING

Weaving is practised to a large extent in the west; the true native material being See also:

• PALM (Lat. palma, Gr. iraX6.jn )
• PALM, JOHANN PHILIPP (1768-1806)

palm-See also:

• LEAF (O. Eng. leaf, cf. Dutch loof, Ger. Laub, Swed. lof, &c.; possibly to be referred to the root seen in Gr. Ma-eta, to peel, strip)

leaf fibre . The cultivation of See also:

• COTTON
• COTTON (Fr. coton; from Arab. qutun)
• COTTON, CHARLES (163o–1687)
• COTTON, GEORGE EDWARD LYNCH (1813–1866)
• COTTON, JOHN (1585–1652)
• COTTON, SIR ROBERT BRUCE

cotton, which has become important in West Africa, deals with an See also:

• EXOTIC (Gr. EWTIK6s, foreign, from few, outside)

exotic material and has been subjected to foreign influences . Among the Bantu of the See also:

• KASAI, or CASSAI

Kasai district the See also:

• ART

art of weaving palm-See also:

• CLOTH

cloth reaches its highest level, and in the east cotton-weaving is again found . Pottery-making is almost universal, though nowhere has it reached a very advanced See also:

• STAGE (Fr. 6/age; from Lat. stare, to stand)

stage; the See also:

• WHEEL (0. Eng. hweol, hweohl, &c., cognate with Icel. hjol, Dan. hiul, the Indo-European root is seen in Sanskrit chakra, Gr. r in Aos, circle, whence " cycle ")
• WHEEL, BREAKING ON THE

wheel is unknown, though an appliance used on the lower Congo displays the principle in very rudimentary form .

The See also:

• PRODUCTION (Lat. productionem, from producere, to pro-duce)

production of See also:

• FIRE (in O. Eng. f j'r; the word is common to West German languages, cf. Dutch vuur, Ger. Feuer; the pre-Teutonic form is seen in Sanskrit pu, pavaka, and Gr. irup; the ultimate origin is usually taken to be a root meaning to purify, cf. Lat. purus)

fire by means of See also:

• FRICTION (from Lat. fricare, to rub)

friction was universal, the method known as " twirling " being in See also:

• VOGUE, EUGENE MELCHIOR, COMTE DE (1848- )

vogue, i.e. the rapid rotation between the palms of a piece of hard See also:

• WOOD, ANTHONY A2 (1632-1695)
• WOOD, JOHN GEORGE (1827—1889)
• WOOD, MRS HENRY [ELLEN] (1814—1887)
• WOOD, SEARLES VALENTINE (1798—188o)

wood upon a piece of soft wood . Trading is practised either by direct See also:

• BARTER (from Fr. barater, to truck, to exchange)

barter or through the See also:

• MEDIUM

medium of See also:

• RUDE, FRANCOIS (1784–1855)

rude forms of currency which vary according to locality . Value is reckoned among the tribes with pastoral tendencies in cattle and goats; among the eastern negroes by See also:

• HOE (through Fr. houe from O.H.G. houwd, mod. Ger. Haue; the root is seen in " hew," to cut, cleave; the word must be distinguished from " hoe," promontory, tongue of land, seen in place names, e.g. Morthoe, Luton Hoo, the Hoe at Plymouth, &c. ; this is t
• HOE, RICHARD MARCH (1812-1886)

hoe-and See also:

• SPEAR (O. Eng. spere, O. H. Ger. sper, mod. Ger. speer, &c., cf. Lat. sparrs; probably related to " spar, " a beam)

spear-See also:

• BLADES, WILLIAM (1824-1890)

blades and See also:

• SALT (a common Teutonic word, cf. Dutch zout, Ger. Salz, Scand. salt; cognate with Gr. &Xs, Lat. sal)
• SALT, SIR TITUS, BART

salt blocks; in the west by cowries, See also:

• BRASS
• BRASS (O. Eng. braes)

brass rods, and bronze armlets (manilas); in Belgian Congo variously by olivella shells, brass rods, salt, goats and fowls, See also:

• COPPER (symbol Cu, atomic weight 63.1, H=1, or 63.6, O = 16)

copper ingots and iron spear-blades, &c . As regards See also:

• RELIGION
• RELIGION, FOLKLORE, CUSTOM

religion, the question of environment is again important; in the western forests where communities are small the negro is a fetishist, though his See also:

• FETISHISM

fetishism is often combined more or less with nature See also:

• WORSHIP (i.e. " worth-ship," O. Eng. weor8scipe)

worship . Where communication is easier the nature worship becomes more systematic, and definite supernatural agencies are recognized, presiding over definite See also:

• SPHERES, MUSIC OF THE

spheres of human life.' Where feudal kingdoms have been formed, ancestor-worship begins to appear and often assumes See also:

• PARAMOUNT (Anglo-Fr. paramont, up above, par el mont, up or on top of the mountain)

paramount ' The three volumes by See also:

• COLONEL (derived either from Lat. column, Fr. colonne, column, or Lat. corona, a crown)

Colonel See also:

• ELLIS (originally SHARPE), ALEXANDER JOHN (1814-189o)
• ELLIS, GEORGE (1753-1815)
• ELLIS, ROBINSON (1834- )
• ELLIS, SIR HENRY (1777-1869)
• ELLIS, WILLIAM (1794 – 1872)

Ellis mentioned in the bibliography form an excellent study of the development of negro religion . importance . In fact this form of religion is typical of all the eastern and southern portion of the continent (see AFRICA: Ethnology) . With the negro, as with most primitive peoples, it is the See also:

• MALIGNANT (Lat. malignus, evil-disposed, from maligenus)

malignant See also:

• POWERS, HIRAM (1805-1873)

powers which receive See also:

• ATTENTION (from Lat. ad-tendo, await, expect; the condition of being " stretched " or " tense ")

attention from man, with a view to propitiation or See also:

• COERCION (from Lat. coercere, to restrain)
• COERCION, CONTRACT

coercion . Beneficent agencies require no attention, since, from their very nature, they must continue to do good . The negro attitude towards the super-natural is based frankly on fear; gratitude plays no part in it . A characteristic feature of the western culture See also:

• AREA

area, among both negro and Bantu negroid tribes, is the belief that any form of See also:

• DEATH

death except by violence must be due to evil magic exercised by, or through the agency of, some human individual; to discover the guilty party the See also:

• POISON

poison See also:

• ORDEAL (O.Eng. ordal, ordael, judgment)

ordeal is freely used . A similar form of ordeal is found in See also:

• BRITISH

British Central Africa to discover magicians, and the wholesale " smelling-out " of " witches," often practised for See also:

• POLITICAL

political reasons, is a well-known feature of the culture of the Zulu-Xosa tribes .

Everywhere magic, both sympathetic and imitative, is practised, both by the See also:

• ORDINARY (med. Lat. ordinarius, Fr. ordinaire)

ordinary individual and by professional magicians, and most medical treatment is based on this, although the magician is usually a herbalist of some skill . Where the rainfall is uncertain, the production of See also:

• RAIN (O.E. regn; the word is common to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Regen, Swed. and Dan. regn; it has been connected with Lat. rigare, to wet, Gr. 13pixeav)

rain by magical means is one of the chief duties of the magician, a See also:

• DUTY (from " due," that which is owing, O. Fr. deu, dil, past participle of devoir; Lat. debere, debitum; cf. " debt ")

duty which becomes paramount in the eastern plains among negroes and Bantu negroids alike . But the negroes and negroids have been considerably influenced by exotic religions, chiefly by Mahommedanism along the whole extent of country bordering the Sahara and in the east . See also:

• CHRISTIANITY

Christianity has made less progress, and the See also:

• REASON (Lat. ratio, through French raison)

reason is not far to seek . See also:

• ISLAM

Islam is See also:

• SIMPLE

simple, categorical and easily comprehended; it tends far less to upset the native social system, especially in the matter of polygyny, and at the same See also:

• TIME (0. Eng. Lima, cf. Icel. timi, Swed. timme, hour, Dan. time; from the root also seen in " tide," properly the time of between the flow and ebb of the sea, cf. O. Eng. getidan, to happen, " even-tide," &c.; it is not directly related to Lat. tempus)
• TIME, MEASUREMENT OF
• TIME, STANDARD

time discourages See also:

• INDULGENCE (Lat. indulgentia, indulgere, to grant, concede)

indulgence in strong drink . Moreover the number of native missionaries is considerable . Christianity has none of these advantages, but possesses two great drawbacks as far as the negro is concerned . It is not sufficiently categorical, but leaves too much to the individual, and it discountenances polygyny . The fact that it is divided into sects, more or less competitive among them-selves, is another disadvantage which can hardly be overrated . This See also:

• DIVISION (from Lat. dividere, to break up into parts, separate)

division has not, it is true, as yet had much See also:

• INFLUENCE (Late Lat. influentia, from influere, to flow in)

influence upon the evangelization of Africa, since the various See also:

• MISSIONS (Lat. missio, a sending)

missions have mostly restricted themselves each to a particular See also:

• SPHERE (Gr. vclsa?pa, a ball or globe)

sphere; still, it is a defect in Christianity, as compared with Islam, which will probably make itself felt in Africa as it has in See also:

• CHINA

China . As regards See also:

• LANGUAGE (adapted from the Fr. langage, from langue, tongue, Lat. lingua)

language, the Bantu negroids all speak dialects of one See also:

• TONGUE (O. Eng. lunge)

tongue (see BANTU See also:

• LANGUAGES

LANGUAGES) . Among the negroes the most extraordinary linguistic confusion prevails, See also:

• HALF

half a dozen neighbouring villages in a small area often speaking each a See also:

• SEPARATE

separate language .

All are of the agglutinating See also:

• ORDER
• ORDER (through Fr. ordre, for earlier ordene, from Lat. ordo, ordinis, rank, service, arrangement; the ultimate source is generally taken to be the root seen in Lat. oriri, rise, arise, begin; cf. " origin ")
• ORDER, HOLY

order . No absolutely indigenous form of script exists; though the See also:

• HAUSA

Hausa tongue has been reduced to See also:

• WRITING
• WRITING (the verbal noun of " to write," O. Eng. writan, to inscribe)

writing without See also:

• EUROPEAN

European assistance.' AurHoiuTIES.— . See also:

• DENIKER, JOSEPH (1852– )

Deniker, Races of Man (See also:

• LONDON

London, 1900) ; A . H . See also:

• KEANE, JOHN JOSEPH (1839– )

Keane, Ethnology (London, 1896); Man Past and Present (London, 1900) ; A . B . Ellis, The Tshi-speaking Peoples (1887) ; The See also:

• EWE

Ewe-speaking Peoples (189o); The Yoruba-speaking Peoples (1894); B . Ankermann, " Kulturkreise in Afrika," Zeit. f . Eth . (1905), p . 54 . See also AFRICA, § 3, Ethnology .

(T . A . J.) Negroes in the See also:

• UNITED

United States . After the See also:

• MIGRATION

migration of the European fair-skinned races in large See also:

• NUMBERS, BOOK OF
• NUMBERS, PARTITION OF

numbers to other parts of the See also:

• EARTH
• EARTH (a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Erde, Dutch aarde, Swed. and Dan. jord; outside Teutonic it appears only in the Gr. 'pq'e, on the ground; it has been connected by some etymologists with the Aryan root ar-, to plough, which is seen in
• EARTH, FIGURE OF
• EARTH, FIGURE OF THE

earth occupied by people of darker colour, the See also:

• ADJUSTMENT (from late Lat. ad juxtare, derived from juxta, near, but early confounded with a supposed derivation from justus, right)

adjustment of relations between the diverse races See also:

• DEVELOPED

developed a whole See also:

• SERIES (a Latin word from serere, to join)

series of problems almost unknown to the See also:

• ANCIENT
• ANCIENT (also spelt ANTIENT; derived, through the Fr. ancien, old, from the late Lat. antianum, from ante, before)

ancient world or to the life of See also:

• MODERN

modern See also:

• EUROPE

Europe . The wider the diversity of physique and especially of skin colour, the greater the danger of friction . The more serious the effort to secure See also:

• INDUSTRIAL

industrial and social co-operation under representative institutions, the graver have become the difficulties . They have been and are perhaps more acute in the United States than elsewhere, ' The Vai See also:

• ALPHABET (see also WRITING)

alphabet, " invented " by a native, Doalu Bukere, in the first half of the 19th century, owed its inspiration to European influence,'and of the characters ' many . . . are clumsy adaptations of See also:

• ROMAN

Roman letters or of conventional signs used by Europeans " (See also:

• SIR

Sir H . H . See also:

• JOHNSTON, ALBERT SIDNEY (1803–1862)
• JOHNSTON, ALEXANDER (1849-1888)
• JOHNSTON, ALEXANDER KEITH (1804-1871)
• JOHNSTON, ARTHUR (1587-1641)
• JOHNSTON, J
• JOHNSTON, JOSEPH EGGLESTON (1807-1891)
• JOHNSTON, SIR HENRY HAMILTON (1858- )

Johnston, See also:

• LIBERIA

Liberia, p . 1107 See also:

• FOIL

foil., London, 1906).because there the lightest and the darkest races have commingled, because of the theory on which the See also:

• GOVERNMENT
• GOVERNMENT (0. Fr. governement, mod. gouvernement, O. Fr. governer, mod. gouverner, from Lat. gubernare, to steer a ship, guide, rule; cf. Gr. xv(3epvav)

government of the country nominally rests, that each See also:

• FREEMAN
• FREEMAN, EDWARD AUGUSTUS (1823-1892)

freeman should be given an equal See also:

• CHANCE (through the O. Fr. cheance, from the Late Lat. cadentia, things happening, from cadere, to fall out, happen; cf. " case ")

chance to improve his industrial position and an equal See also:

• VOICE (Fr. voix, from Lat. vox)

voice in deciding political questions, and because of the almost irreconcilable differences in the public See also:

• OPINION (Lat. opinio, from opinari, to think)

opinion of the two great sections to only one of which do the problems come home as everyday matters . They were not solved by the See also:

• CIVIL

Civil See also:

• WAR
• WAR (O. Eng. werre, Fr. guerre, of Teutonic origin; cf. O.H.G. werran, to confound)

War and emancipation, but their nature was radically altered .

Neither the earlier system of See also:

• SLAVERY

slavery nor the governmental theory during the See also:

• RADICAL (Lat. radix, a root)

radical reconstruction period that race differences should be ignored has proved workable, and the trend is now towards some modus vivendi between these extremes . The only See also:

• DEFINITION (Lat. definitio, from de-finire, to set limits to, describe)

definition of negro having any statutory basis in the United States is that given in the legislation of many Southern states prohibiting intermarriage between a white See also:

• PERSON, OFFENCES AGAINST THE

person and " a person who has one-eighth or more of African blood." See also:

• CENSUS (from Lat. censere, to estimate or assess; connected by some with centum, i.e. a count by hundreds)

Census enumerators in their See also:

• COUNTS

counts of the See also:

• AMERICAN

American people since 1790 have distinguished the two See also:

• MAIN (from the Aryan root which appears in " may " and " might," and Lat. magnus, great)
• MAIN (Lat. Moenus)

main races of whites and negroes, but in so doing they have never been given a definition or criterion of race . Consequently they followed the See also:

• JUDGMENT

judgment of the community enumerated, which usually classes as negro all persons known or believed to have in their See also:

• VEINS

veins any ad-mixture of negro blood . It is probable that this line, the so-called " colour line," which is emphasized in regions where negroes are numerous by many legal, economic and social discriminations between the races, is See also:

• DRAWN

drawn with substantial accuracy . Far different has been the result of governmental efforts to draw another line within the group of negroes as thus defined, that between the negroes of pure African blood and those of mixed negro and white blood . This distinction has no legal significance, for negroes of pure blood and negroes of mixed blood are subject to the same provisions of See also:

• LAW
• LAW (0. Eng. lagu, M. Eng. lawe; from an old Teutonic root lag, " lie," what lies fixed or evenly; cf. Lat. lex, Fr. loi)
• LAW, JOHN (1671—1729)
• LAW, WILLIAM (1686-1761)

law, and at least for the whites it has little social or economic significance . An See also:

• ATTEMPT (Lat. adtemptare, attentare, to try)

attempt to draw it was made at each census betweeen 1850 and 1890 inclusive, and the results, so far as they were published, indicate that between one-See also:

• SIXTH

sixth and one-ninth of the negroes in the United States have some admixture of white blood . The figures were reached through thousands of census enumerators, nearly all of whom were white . Of See also:

• RECENT

recent years an effort has been made on the part of negro investigators to get an See also:

• ANSWER (derived from and, against, and the same root as swear)

answer to the same question by the careful study of communities selected as typical . The classification of about 39,000 coloured people, most of them in different parts of See also:

• GEORGIA

Georgia, with a study of the other available data and inferences from a somewhat wide observation, led Dr See also:

• DUBOIS
• DUBOIS, FRANCOIS CLEMENT THEODORE (1837– )
• DUBOIS, GUILLAUME (1656–1723)
• DUBOIS, JEAN ANTOINE (1765-1848)
• DUBOIS, PAUL (1829-1905)
• DUBOIS, PIERRE (c. 1250-c. 1312)

Dubois to the conclusion that " at least one-third of the negroes of the United States have recognizable traces of white blood." Perhaps we may believe with some confidence that the in-formation from white See also:

• SOURCES

sources understates, and that from negro sources overstates, the proportion, and that the true proportion of mulattoes in the United States is between one-sixth and one-third of all negroes . To infer that the true proportion in 185o, 186o, 1870 and 189o, the See also:

• DATES

dates to which the census figures relate, was much less than the true proportion in 1895 to 1900, to which the unofficial figures relate, is contrary to the See also:

• GENERAL
• GENERAL (Lat. generalis, of or relating to a genus, kind or class)

general trend of the evidence . As the law and the social opinion of the Southern whites make little or nothing of this distinction between negroes of pure blood and mulattoes, it is often regarded as less important than it really is .

The recognized leaders of the race are almost invariably persons of mixed blood, and the qualities which have made them leaders are derived certainly in part and perhaps mainly from their white ancestry . Wherever large numbers of full-blooded negroes and of persons of mixed central or north European and negro blood have lived in the same community for some generations, there is a strong and growing tendency to establish a social line between them . The difficulty of ascertaining the number of mulattoes in the United States and the tendency of the testimony to be modified by the opinion or See also:

• DESIRE

desire of the race from which it comes are typical . There is hardly any important aspect of the subject upon which the testimony of seemingly competent and impartial witnesses is not materially affected by the influence of the race the highest tenth is far better and far better off than formerly, and the lowest tenth is worse and perhaps also worse off than in slavery . Under such circumstances there are no adequate See also:

• OBJECTIVE, or OBJECT GLASS

objective tests of progress . The pessimist points to the alleged increase of idleness and See also:

• CRIME (Lat. crimen, accusation)

crime, the meliorist to a demonstrated decrease of illiteracy and to considerable accumulations of See also:

• PROPERTY

property . The large majority of competent students believe that the American negroes have progressed, materially and morally, since emancipation, that the central or See also:

• AVERAGE

average point is higher than in 1865, although such persons differ widely among themselves regarding the amount of that progress . It would be generally but not universally held, also, that the negroes in the United States progressed under slavery, that they were far better qualified for See also:

• INCORPORATION (from Lat. incorporare, to form into a body)

incorporation as a vital and' contributing See also:

• ELEMENT (Lat. elementum)

element of the country's See also:

• CIVILIZATION

civilization at the time of their emancipation than they were on arrival or than an equal number of their African kindred would have been . But probably the See also:

• RATE

rate of progress has been more rapid under freedom than it was under slavery . The evidence regarding the progress of the American negro may be grouped under the following heads: numbers, See also:

• BIRTH (a word common in various forms to Teutonic languages from the root of the verb " to bear ")

birth-rate, See also:

• HEALTH

health, See also:

• WEALTH

wealth, See also:

• EDUCATION

education, occupations, morals, to which the witnesses belong . Under these circumstances it seems necessary to assume that the testimony of the See also:

• OFFICIAL (Late Lat. QJicialis, for class. Lat. apparitor, from officium, office, duty)

official documents of the federal government is correct, unless clear evidence, See also:

• INTERNAL

internal or See also:

• EXTERNAL

external, refutes it . The following statements of fact rest mainly on those sources .

The number of negroes living in the (See also:

• CONTINENTAL

continental) United States in 1908 was about nine and three-See also:

• QUARTER (through Fr. from Lat. quartarius, fourth part)

quarter millions, and if those in See also:

• PORTO

Porto Rico and See also:

• CUBA (the aboriginal name)

Cuba be included it reached ten and two-thirds millions . This number is greater than the See also:

• TOTAL

total population of the United States was in 182o, and nearly as great as the population of See also:

• NORWAY
• NORWAY (Norge)

Norway, See also:

• SWEDEN
• SWEDEN [Sverige]
• SWEDEN, NORWAY AND

Sweden and See also:

• DENMARK
• DENMARK (Danmark)

Denmark . During the colonial period, and down to the changes initiated by the invention of the cotton See also:

• GIN

gin, negroes were distributed with some evenness along the See also:

• ATLANTIC

Atlantic coast . Between the date of that invention and the Civil War, and largely as a result of the changes the cotton gin set in See also:

• MOTION (Lat. motio, from movere, to move)
• MOTION, LAWS OF

motion, the tendency was to-wards a concentration of the negroes in the great cotton-growing area of the country . In 1700, for example, one-ninth of the population of the See also:

• COLONY (Lat. colonia, from colonus, a cultivator)

colony of New See also:

• YORK
• YORK (HOUSE OF)
• YORK, EDMUND OF LANGLEY, DUKE OF (1341-1402)
• YORK, EDWARD
• YORK, FREDERICK AUGUSTUS, DUKE OF (1763-1827)
• YORK, RICHARD, DUKE

York was negro; in 1900 only one-seventieth of the population of the empire See also:

• STATE
• STATE, GREAT OFFICERS OF

state belonged to that race . The division line between the See also:

• NORTHERN

Northern and Southern states adopted by the Census See also:

• OFFICE (from Lat. officium, " duty," " service," a shortened form of opifacium, from facere, " to do," and either the stem of opes, " wealth," " aid," or opus, " work ")