NEPAUL See also:

• NEPAUL NEPAL

NEPAL  or NIPAL, an See also:

• INDEPENDENT

independent See also:

• STATE
• STATE, GREAT OFFICERS OF

state, situated on the See also:

• NORTH
• NORTH, BARONS
• NORTH, MARIANNE (1830—1890)
• NORTH, ROGER (1653-1734)
• NORTH, SIR THOMAS (1535?-16o1?)

north-eastern frontier of See also:

• INDIA
• INDIA, FRENCH

India, lying between 8o° 15' and 88° 10' E., and 26° 20' and 3o° 10' N.; See also:

• AREA

area, 54,000 sq. m . Its extreme length is about 525 m., and its breadth varies from 90 to 14o m . It is bounded on the N. by See also:

• TIBET, or THIBET

Tibet; on the E. by See also:

• SIKKIM

Sikkim; on the S. by See also:

• BENGAL
• BENGAL, BAY OF

Bengal and the See also:

• UNITED

United Provinces; and on the W. by See also:

• KUMAON

Kumaon, from which it is separated by the See also:

• KALI (black)

Kali See also:

• RIVER

river . Its See also:

• POPULATION (Lat. populus, people; populare, to populate)

population is estimated by the natives at about 5,200,000, the See also:

• COMMON

common phrase used by the rulers in speaking of popular See also:

• OPINION (Lat. opinio, from opinari, to think)

opinion being, " but what will the Bawan (i.e. fifty-two) See also:

• LAKH (from the Sans. laksha, one hundred thousand)

Lakh say to this." See also:

• NEPAL, NEPAUL

Nepal consists physically of two distinct territories: (I) the See also:

• TARAI, or TERAI (i.e. " moist land ")

tarai, or See also:

• STRIP

strip of level, cultivated and See also:

• FOREST

forest See also:

• LAND

land lying along the See also:

• SOUTHERN

southern border; and (2) the See also:

• GREAT

great mountainous See also:

• TRACT (from Lat. tractare, to treat of a matter, through Provencal tractat and Ital. trattato)

tract stretching northwards to Tibet . Along the See also:

• NORTHERN

northern frontier stand many of the highest peaks of the Himalayan range, such as Dhaulagiri (26,837 ft.), Mutsiputra, Gaurishankar and Yasa (24,000), Gosain Than (26,313), See also:

• MOUNT, WILLIAM SIDNEY (1807-1868)

Mount See also:

• EVEREST, MOUNT
• EVEREST, SIR GEORGE (1790—1866)

Everest (29,002 according to the survey value), See also:

• KINCHINJUNGA, or KANCHANJANGA

Kinchinjunga (28,146), and numerous peaks varying from 20,000 to 24,000 ft . In clear See also:

• WEATHER (O. Eng. weder; the word is common to Teutonic languages; cf. Du. weder, Dan. veir, Icel. ve8r, and Ger. Wetter and Gewitter, storm; the root is wa- to blow, from which is derived " wind ")

weather this magnificent snowy range may be seen in an almost continuous See also:

• LINE

line from the See also:

• TOP (cf. Dan. top, Ger. Topf, also meaning pot)

top of some of the See also:

• LOWER

lower ranges near See also:

• KATMANDU (less correctly KHATMMANDU)

Katmandu . See also:

• SOUTH
• SOUTH, ROBERT (1634–1716)

South of these are numerous parallel lower ranges, varying from 16,000 to 6000 ft. in height, which are broken up at intervals by See also:

• CROSS

cross ranges, thus forming a See also:

• SERIES (a Latin word from serere, to join)

series of glens with a few See also:

• HILL
• HILL (0. Eng. hyll; cf. Low Ger. hull, Mid. Dutch hul, allied to Lat. celsus, high, collis, hill, &c.)
• HILL, A
• HILL, AARON (1685-175o)
• HILL, AMBROSE POWELL
• HILL, DANIEL HARVEY (1821-1889)
• HILL, DAVID BENNETT (1843–1910)
• HILL, GEORGE BIRKBECK NORMAN (1835-1903)
• HILL, JAMES J
• HILL, JOHN (c. 1716-1775)
• HILL, MATTHEW DAVENPORT (1792-1872)
• HILL, OCTAVIA (1838– )
• HILL, ROWLAND (1744–1833)
• HILL, SIR ROWLAND (1795-1879)

hill-girt valleys interspersed . These See also:

• MOUNTAIN (0. Fr. montaigne; popular Lat. montanea, an adjectival form from the classical mons, montis, whence Eng. " mount," a form usually used along with the name of an individual mountain, e.g. Mt Everest)
• MOUNTAIN, THE (La Montagne)

mountain ranges determine the course of the See also:

• RIVERS
• RIVERS, ANTHONY WOODVILLE, or WYDEVILLE, 2ND EARL (c. 1442—1483)
• RIVERS, EARL
• RIVERS, RICHARD SAVAGE, 4TH EARL (c. 1660—1712)

rivers, which are divided by the cross ranges into four See also:

• GROUPS
• GROUPS, THEORY

groups . The first of these extends from Kumaon eastward as far as Dhaulagiri, and consists of the affluents of the Kali (Sarda), Sarju, Kurnali, Eastern Sarju, and Rapti, all of which ultimately See also:

• FORM (Lat. forma)

form the See also:

• GOGRA, or GHAGRA

Gogra or Gogari, and flow into the See also:

• GANGES (GANGA)

Ganges . The second See also:

• GROUP

group, known to the Nepalese as the Sapt Gandaki, rises from the peaks between Dhaulagiri and Gosain Than, and unite at Trebeni See also:

• GHAT, or RHAT

Ghat to form the See also:

• GANDAK

Gandak . The third is a group of smaller rivers draining the great valley of Nepal, the valleys of Chitlong, Benepa, and Panoutl, and portions of the tarai around the Churiaghati range of hills . These are the various branches of the Bara Gandak, the lesser Rapti, the Bagmati and Kumla .

See also:

• EAST
• EAST, ALFRED (1849- )

East of this again is the See also:

• FOURTH

fourth group, known to the Nepalese as the Sapt Kosi, rising from the peaks between Gosain Than and Kinchinjunga, and uniting to form the Soon Kosi, which falls into the Ganges . There is thus a natural See also:

• DIVISION (from Lat. dividere, to break up into parts, separate)

division of the See also:

• COUNTRY (from the Mid. Eng. contre or contrie, and O. Fr. cuntree; Late Lat. contrata, showing the derivation from contra, opposite, over against, thus the tract of land which fronts the sight, cf. Ger. Gegend, neighbourhood)

country into four portions . The most western is the country of the Baisi (or twenty-two) rajas, and contains the towns of Jumla, Doti and Sulliana . The second is the country of the Chaubisi (or twenty-four) rajas, and contains the towns of Malebum, Palpa, See also:

• GURKHA (pronounced goorka; from Sans. gau, a cow, and raks, to protect)

Gurkha and Noakote . The third is the See also:

• DISTRICT

district containing Nepal proper, with the See also:

• CAPITAL (i.e. capital stock or fund)
• CAPITAL (Lat. caput, head)

capital and many large towns to be mentioned afterwards . The fourth is the eastern portion of Nepal, comprising the country of the Kiratis, and many small towns, such as Dhankota, Ilam and See also:

• BIJAPUR

Bijapur . Route into Nepal—The portion of Nepal, exclusive of the tarai, vultures and eagles, pheasants . (Gallophasis), chukor, hill partridges, which is open to Europeans is the valley of Nepal," containing the capital of the country, and a few adjacent smaller valleys . There is only one means of See also:

• ACCESS (Lat. accessus)

access open to Europeans, and this indeed is in See also:

• GENERAL
• GENERAL (Lat. generalis, of or relating to a genus, kind or class)

general resorted to by the natives, as the other routes to the capital are longer and far more difficult . The road runs nearly north from Segauli, passing through the tarai and sal forests, to Bhichhkhori; then through the beds of mountain streams, through a pass in the Churiyaghati range, and through another sal forest, to Hetoura; thence by a wide and See also:

• GOOD, JOHN MASON (1764-1827)

good road to Bhimphedi at the See also:

• FOOT

foot of the Sisaghari range of hills . So far the route is practicable for carts and baggage animals, but from this point the road is a See also:

• MERE
• MERE, ADALBERT (1838-1909)

mere rugged footpath over the Sisaghari Pass, through the Chitlong valley and over the Chandragiri range . The distance from Segauli to Katmandu is 90 M .

The valley in extreme length from east to See also:

• WEST
• WEST, BENJAMIN (1738-1820)
• WEST, NICHOLAS (1461-1533)

west is about 26 m., and in breadth from north to south about 15 . The surrounding hills vary in height from 600o to 9720 ft., the level of the valley itself being about 4500 ft. above the See also:

• SEA (in O. Eng. sae, a common Teutonic word; cf. Ger. See, Dutch Zee, &c.; the ultimate source is uncertain)
• SEA, COMMAND OF THE

sea . Tradition has it that Nepal was once a See also:

• LAKE
• LAKE, GERARD LAKE, 1ST VISCOUNT (1744-1808)

lake, and appearances are in favour of this view . It is crossed from east to west by a See also:

• LOW, SETH (1850- )
• LOW, WILL HICOK (1853- )

low See also:

• LIMESTONE

limestone range, through which the See also:

• WATERS, TERRITORIAL

waters have gradually forced a passage, and in like manner the collected rivers have escaped at the south-east corner of the valley . There are three See also:

• PRINCIPAL

principal streams, the Bagmati, Vishnumati, and Manohora, besides many small tributaries of these . All the rivers rise within the valley, except the Bagmati, which springs from the northern See also:

• SIDE
• SIDE (mod. Eski Adalia)

side of the Shiupuri See also:

• PEAK, THE

peak, and enters the valley through a See also:

• RAVINE

ravine at the north-east corner . They all unite and pass through a See also:

• LONG, GEORGE (1800-1879)
• LONG, JOHN DAVIS (1838– )

long narrow See also:

• GORGE

gorge in the limestone range, already mentioned, at Chobhar, and ultimately See also:

• ESCAPE (in mid. Eng. eschape or escape, from the O. Fr. eschapper, modern echapper, and escaper, low Lat. escapium, from ex, out of, and cappa, cape, cloak; cf. for the sense development the Gr. iichueoOat, literally to put off one's clothes, hence to sli

escape from the valley at Kotwaldar . See also:

• CLIMATE

Climate.—In and around the Nepal valley, as in India, the See also:

• YEAR

year may be divided into the See also:

• RAINY, ROBERT (1826-1906)

rainy, See also:

• COLD (in O. Eng. cald and ceald, a word coming ultimately from a root cognate with the Lat. gelu, gelidus, and common in the Teutonic languages, which usually have two distinct forms for the substantive and the adjective, cf. Ger. Kolte, kalt, Dutch koude

cold and hot seasons . The rains begin in See also:

• JUNE

June and last till See also:

• OCTOBER

October, but the fall is not so heavy or continuous as in the plains of Hindustan . The cold See also:

• SEASON (0. Fr. seson, seison, mod. saison, Lat. satio, sowing time, the spring, from serere, to sow; in Late Lat. the word is found with its present meaning, the spring being considered as particularly the season of the year)

season extends from the See also:

• MIDDLE

middle of October to the middle of See also:

• APRIL

April . During these months the climate is delicious . See also:

• HOAR, SAMUEL (1778-1856)

Hoar-See also:

• FROST (a common Teutonic word, cf. Dutch, vorst, Ger. Frost, from the common Teutonic verb meaning " to freeze," Dutch, vriezcn, Ger. frieren; the Indo-European root is seen in Lat. pruina, hoar-frost, cf. prurire, to itch, burn, pruna, burning coal, Sans
• FROST, WILLIAM EDWARD (1810–1877)

frost and thin See also:

• ICE (a word common to Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Eis)

ice are common in the mornings, and the thermometer sometimes falls as low as 25° Fahr., but the days are See also:

• BRIGHT, JOHN (1811-188g)
• BRIGHT, SIR CHARLES TILSTON

bright and warm .

From See also:

• CHRISTMAS (i.e. the Mass of Christ)

Christmas to the end of See also:

• FEBRUARY

February there are occasional showers of See also:

• RAIN (O.E. regn; the word is common to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Regen, Swed. and Dan. regn; it has been connected with Lat. rigare, to wet, Gr. 13pixeav)

rain; and See also:

• SNOW (in O. Eng. sndw; a common Indo-European word; cf. in Teutonic languages, Ger. Schnee, Du. sneeuw; in Slavonic snieg', Lith. snegas; Gr. vi4a, Lat. nix, nivis, whence the Romanic forms, Ital. neve, Fr. neige, &c.; Ir. and Gael. sneachd; the original

snow falls on the surrounding low ranges, but is very rarely seen in the valley itself . From April to the beginning of the rains is the hot 'season, but the thermometer seldom reaches 85° in the shade . The result of observations extending over many years gives an See also:

• AVERAGE

average mean temperature of 60° Fahr., and an See also:

• ANNUAL

annual rainfall of about 6o in . Violent thunderstorms are not uncommon, and occasionally severe earthquakes occur, as in 1833 and 1866 . See also:

• FLORA

Flora and See also:

• FAUNA

Fauna.—In a country possessing such a range of altitudes the flora and fauna are of course very varied . For descriptive purposes, Nepal may again be divided into three zones . These are—(1) the tarai and lower ranges of hills up to 4000 ft. in height; (2) the central ranges and high-lying valleys, up to lo,000 ft.; and (3) the alpine region, from io,000 to 29,000 ft. in height . These zones are not, however, sharply defined, as the climate varies according to the See also:

• LATITUDE (Lat. latitudo, latus, broad)

latitude, the height of intermediate ranges, and the See also:

• DEPTH

depth of the valleys; so that tropical See also:

• PLANTS

plants and animals are some-times found far in the interior, and the more northern See also:

• SPECIES

species descend along the loftier spurs into the southern zones . The low alluvial land of the tarai is well adapted for cultivation, and is, so to speak, the granary of Nepal; but owing to scantiness of population and other causes the greater portion of it consists of swamps, jungles and forests . Considerable stretches of land are, however, being reclaimed from year to year . The productions here are those of See also:

• BRITISH

British India--See also:

• COTTON
• COTTON (Fr. coton; from Arab. qutun)
• COTTON, CHARLES (163o–1687)
• COTTON, GEORGE EDWARD LYNCH (1813–1866)
• COTTON, JOHN (1585–1652)
• COTTON, SIR ROBERT BRUCE

cotton, See also:

• RICE (Greek 6p6 a, Latin oryza, French riz, Italian riso, Spanish arroz, derived from the Arabic)
• RICE, EDMUND IGNATIUS (1762-1844)
• RICE, JAMES (1843-1882)

rice, See also:

• WHEAT
• WHEAT (Triticum)

wheat, See also:

• PULSE

pulse, See also:

• SUGAR

sugar-See also:

• CANE

cane, See also:

• TOBACCO

tobacco, See also:

• OPIUM (Gr. amov, dim. from Orbs, juice)

opium, See also:

• INDIGO (earlier indico, from Lat. indicum, the Indian sub-stance or dye; the Sans. name was niti, from nila, dark blue, and this through Arab. al-nil, annil, gives " aniline ")

indigo, and the fruits and vegetables See also:

• FAMILIAR (through the Fr. familier, from Lat. familiaris, of or belonging to the familia, family)

familiar in the plains of India . The forests yield a magnificent See also:

• SUPPLY (through Fr. from Lat. supplere, to fill up)

supply of sal, sisu, and other valuable forest trees; and the jungles abound with acacias, mimosas, cotton See also:

• TREE (0. Eng. treo, treow, cf. Dan. tree, Swed. Odd, tree, trd, timber; allied forms are found in Russ. drevo, Gr. opus, oak, and 36pv, spear, Welsh derw, Irish darog, oak, and Skr. dare, wood)
• TREE, SIR HERBERT BEERBOHM (1853- )

tree (Bombax), dak (Butea frondosa), large bamboos, rattans, palms, and numerous ferns and See also:

• ORCHIDS

orchids .

On the Churiaghati range the common Pinus longifolia grows freely . See also:

• TEA (Chinese cha, Amoy dialect t€)

Tea can be grown at a height of from 2000 to 4000 ft . The middle See also:

• ZONE (Gr. 'WV77, a girdle, from 'wvvLvay to gird)

zone supplies rice, wheat, See also:

• MAIZE, or INDIAN CORN

maize, See also:

• BARLEY (Hordeum sativum)

barley, oats, See also:

• GINGER (Fr. gingembre, Ger. Ingwer)

ginger, See also:

• TURMERIC (from Fr. terre Write, turmeric, Lat. terra merita, deserved, i.e. excellent earth; Skeat suggests that it is a barbarous corruption, perhaps of Arabic karkam, kurkum, saffron or curcuma)

turmeric, chillies, potatoes, See also:

• CUCURBITACEAE

Cucurbitaceae, pineapples, and many varieties of See also:

• EUROPEAN

European fruits, vegetables and See also:

• FLOWERS, ARTIFICIAL

flowers . The forests contain tree rhododendrons, Pinus longifolia, oaks, See also:

• HORSE (a word common to Teutonic languages in such forms as hors, hros, ros; cf. the Ger. ross)

horse-chestnuts, walnuts, maples, hill bamboos, See also:

• WILD, JONATHAN (c. 1682-1725)

wild See also:

• CHERRY

cherry, See also:

• PEAR (Pyrus communis)

pear, See also:

• ALLIES, THOMAS WILLIAM (1813-1903)

allies of the tea plant, See also:

• PAPER
• PAPER (Fr. papier, from Lat. papyrus)

paper plants (See also:

• DAPHNE

Daphne), See also:

• ROSES, WARS OF THE

roses, and many other inhabitants of temperate climes, with various orchids, ferns and wild flowers . In the alpine zone exist Coniferae of many kinds, junipers, See also:

• YEW (Taxus baccata)

yew, See also:

• BOX
• BOX (Gr. irl or, Lat. buxus, box-wood; cf. 2r6Eir, a pyx)

box, hollies, See also:

• BIRCH
• BIRCH (Betula)
• BIRCH, SAMUEL (1813–1885)
• BIRCH, THOMAS (1705-1766)

birch, See also:

• DWARF (A.S. dweorg, D. dwerg, Icel. dvergr)

dwarf rhododendrons and the usual alpine flora . The wild animals follow a similar See also:

• DISTRIBUTION (Lat. distribuere, to deal out)

distribution, and the following typical species may be mentioned . In the lowest zone are found the See also:

• TIGER
• TIGER (Felis tigris)

tiger, See also:

• LEOPARD

leopard, See also:

• WOLF
• WOLF (Canis lupus)
• WOLF, FRIEDRICH AUGUST (1759-1824)
• WOLF, HUGO (1860-1903)
• WOLF, JOSEPH (1820-1899)

wolf, See also:

• HYENA

hyena and See also:

• JACKAL
• JACKAL (Turk. chakal)

jackal, the See also:

• ELEPHANT

elephant and See also:

• RHINOCEROS

rhinoceros, the See also:

• GAUR
• GAUR, or LAKHNAUTI

gaur (Gavaeus gaurus), See also:

• GAYAL

gayal (Gavaeus frontalis), wild See also:

• BUFFALO

buffalo or arna, many species of See also:

• DEER (O. E. rigor, dfor, a common Teutonic word, meaning a wild animal, cf. Ger. Tier, Du. dier, &c., probably from a root dhus-, to breathe)
• DEER, CHINESE

deer, and the See also:

• BLACK
• BLACK, ADAM (1784-1874)
• BLACK, JEREMIAH SULLIVAN (1810–1883)
• BLACK, WILLIAM (1841-1898)

black See also:

• BEAR
• BEAR, BLACK
• BEAR, BROWN
• BEAR, GRIZZLY
• BEAR, ISABELLINE
• BEAR, WHITE

bear (Ursus labiatus) . Among the birds are found the See also:

• PEA (Pisum)

pea-See also:

• FOWL (Dan. Fugl, Ger. Vogel)

fowl, francolins, wild See also:

• JUNGLE (Sans. jangala)

jungle fowl, and the smaller vultures, &c . In the middle zone there are the leopard, the Himalayan black bear (Ursus tibetanus), the wild See also:

• DOG

dog, See also:

• CATS, JACOB (1577-1660)

cats of many sorts, squirrels, See also:

• HARES

hares, porcupines, the See also:

• PANGOLIN

pangolin, and some species df deer and See also:

• ANTELOPE

antelope . Among the birds are the larger &c . In the alpine zone are found the true bear (Ursus isabellinus, or See also:

• BROWN
• BROWN, CHARLES BROCKDEN (1771-181o)
• BROWN, FORD MADOX (1821-1893)
• BROWN, FRANCIS (1849- )
• BROWN, GEORGE (1818-188o)
• BROWN, HENRY KIRKE (1814-1886)
• BROWN, JACOB (1775–1828)
• BROWN, JOHN (1715–1766)
• BROWN, JOHN (1722-1787)
• BROWN, JOHN (1735–1788)
• BROWN, JOHN (1784–1858)
• BROWN, JOHN (1800-1859)
• BROWN, JOHN (1810—1882)
• BROWN, JOHN GEORGE (1831— )
• BROWN, ROBERT (1773-1858)
• BROWN, SAMUEL MORISON (1817—1856)
• BROWN, SIR GEORGE (1790-1865)
• BROWN, SIR JOHN (1816-1896)
• BROWN, SIR WILLIAM, BART
• BROWN, THOMAS (1663-1704)
• BROWN, THOMAS (1778-1820)
• BROWN, THOMAS EDWARD (1830-1897)
• BROWN, WILLIAM LAURENCE (1755–1830)

brown bear), the See also:

• YAK

yak, See also:

• MUSK (Med. Lat. muscus, late Gr. µbvXos, possibly Pers. mushk, from Sansk. mushka, the scrotum)

musk deer, wild goats and See also:

• SHEEP
• SHEEP (from the Anglo-Saxon sceap, a word common in various forms to Teutonic languages; e.g. the German Schaf)

sheep, marmots, &c . Among the birds are the See also:

• EAGLE (Fr. aigle, from the Lat. aquila)

eagle-See also:

• VULTURE

vulture (Gypaetus), the See also:

• BLOOD

blood heasant (Ithaginis cruentus), snow See also:

• PHEASANT

pheasant (Tetraogallus hima-Fayensis), snow See also:

• PARTRIDGE (Du. Patrijs, Fr. perdrix, from Lat. perdix, apparently onomatopoeic from the call of the bird)
• PARTRIDGE, JOHN BERNARD (1861– )
• PARTRIDGE, WILLIAM ORDWAY (1861– )

partridge (Lerwa nivicola), the horned pheasant (Ceriornis saiyra), crested pheasant (Catrens wallichi) .

&c . Geese, ducks, waders of all sorts, and other migratory birds are found in abundance in the two lower zones . Minerals.—The lowest zone in some directions abounds in fossils; and deposits of See also:

• LIGNITE (Lat. lignum, wood)

lignite, and even of true See also:

• COAL

coal, are met with, the latter notably at a spot south of Palpa . The middle zone is See also:

• RICH, BARNABE (c. 1540-1617)
• RICH, CLAUDIUS JAMES (1787-1821)
• RICH, JOHN (1692-1761)
• RICH, PENELOPE, LADY (c. 1562–1607)
• RICH, RICHARD, 1ST BARON RICH (1490?-1567)

rich in limestone and See also:

• MARBLES

marbles, and abounds with minerals, such as See also:

• IRON [symbol Fe, atomic weight 55.85 (0=16)]

iron, See also:

• COPPER (symbol Cu, atomic weight 63.1, H=1, or 63.6, O = 16)

copper, See also:

• ZINC

zinc, See also:

• LEAD
• LEAD (pronounced iced)

lead and See also:

• SULPHUR

sulphur . Copper is found near the See also:

• SURFACE

surface in many places, and there are remains of mines both at Markhu and in the great valley of Nepal . See also:

• MINERAL

Mineral springs, both hot and cold, are numerous . Traces of See also:

• SILVER

silver, and also of See also:

• GOLD
• GOLD [symbol Au, atomic weight 195.7(H = 1),197.2(0 =16)]

gold, have been found in the alpine zone . See also:

• PEOPLE

People.—The races occupying Nepal are of mixed Mongol origin . To the north, inhabiting the higher mountains and valleys, dwell the Bhutias or Tibetans . To the west See also:

• LIE, JONAS LAURITZ EDEMIL (1833—1908)
• LIE, MARIUS SOPHUS (1842–1899)

lie the Gurungs and Magars . The Murmis, Gurkhalis and Newars occupy the central parts; and the Kiratis, See also:

• LIMBUS (Lat. for " edge," " fringe," e.g. of a garment)

Limbus and Lepchas occupy the eastern districts . There are also Brahmans and Chhatris in the hills .

Besides these there are many small tribes residing in the tarai and some other malarious districts, known as Kumhas, Tharus, Manjis, &c., but generally classed together by the Nepalese as Aoulias, or dwellers in the malarious or aoul districts . These are probable descendants of immigrants from the lower castes of See also:

• HINDUS

Hindus, occupying the borderlands of the tarai . Among the forests of the lower eastern region are also to be found some small See also:

• SAVAGE
• SAVAGE, MINOT JUDSON (1841– )
• SAVAGE, RICHARD (d. 1743)

savage tribes, known as Chepangs and Kusundas . All the races except the Aoulias are of a decidedly Mongolian See also:

• APPEARANCE (from Lat. apparere, to appear)

appearance, being generally See also:

• SHORT, FRANCIS JOB (1857– )

short and robust, and having See also:

• FLAT (a modification of O. Eng. flet, an obsolete word of Teutonic origin, meaning the ground beneath the feet)

flat faces, oblique eyes, yellow complexions, straight black See also:

• HAIR (a word common to Teutonic languages)

hair, and comparatively hairless faces . The Newars, according to the Vamcdvali or native See also:

• HISTORY

history, trace their descent from the races of southern India, but this is rendered more than doubtful by both their appearance and See also:

• LANGUAGE (adapted from the Fr. langage, from langue, tongue, Lat. lingua)

language . The Gurkhalis (Gurkhas or Ghurkhas) are descendants of the Brahmans and Rajputs who were driven out of Hindostan by the Moslems, and took See also:

• REFUGE

refuge in the western hilly lands, where they ultimately became dominant, and where they have become much mixed with the other races by intermarriage . Religions.—The Bhutias, Newars, Limbus, Keratis, and Lepchas are all Buddhists, but their See also:

• RELIGION
• RELIGION, FOLKLORE, CUSTOM

religion has become so mixed up with See also:

• HINDUISM

Hinduism that it is now hardly recognizable . The Newars have entirely abandoned the monastic institutions of See also:

• BUDDHISM

Buddhism, and have in great measure adopted the rules of See also:

• CASTE (through the Fr. from Span. and Port. casta, lineage, Lat. cast us, pure)

caste, though even these sit but lightly upon them . They See also:

• BURN, RICHARD (1709-1785)

burn their dead, eat the flesh of buffaloes, goats, sheep, ducks, and' fowls, and drink See also:

• BEER

beer and See also:

• SPIRITS

spirits . The Gurkhalis, Magars, and Gurungs are Hindus, but the last two are by no means strict in the observance of their religion, though there are some peculiarities which they carefully preserve . Thus, for instance, the Magars will eat pork but not buffalo's flesh, whereas the Gurungs eat the buffalo but not the hog . Priests.—Where temples are so numerous (there are 2733 shrines in the valley) priests naturally abound, both of the See also:

• HINDU

Hindu and Buddhist religions .

The festivals too are many in number, and in consequence holidays are incessant . The raj guru, or high See also:

• PRIEST (Ger. Priester, Fr. pretre)

priest, is an influential See also:

• PERSON, OFFENCES AGAINST THE

person in the state, a member of See also:

• COUNCIL (Lat. concilium, from cum, together, and the root cal, to call)

council, and has a large income from See also:

• GOVERNMENT
• GOVERNMENT (0. Fr. governement, mod. gouvernement, O. Fr. governer, mod. gouverner, from Lat. gubernare, to steer a ship, guide, rule; cf. Gr. xv(3epvav)

government lands as well as from the fines for offences against caste, &c . Many other priests, gurus and purohits, have lands assigned to them, and most of the temples have been richly endowed by their founders . Every See also:

• FAMILY

family of See also:

• RANK (O.Fr. rant or rent, mod. rang, generally connected with the O.E. and O.H.G. bring, a ring)

rank has a See also:

• SPECIAL

special priest, whose See also:

• OFFICE (from Lat. officium, " duty," " service," a shortened form of opifacium, from facere, " to do," and either the stem of opes, " wealth," " aid," or opus, " work ")

office is hereditary . Astrologers are also numerous, and their services are in See also:

• CONSTANT, BENJAMIN (1845-1902)

constant See also:

• REQUEST, LETTERS OF

request . One cannot build a See also:

• HOUSE
• HOUSE (O. Eng. hiss, a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Dut. huis, Ger. Haus; in Gothic it is only found in gudhiss, a temple; it may be ultimately connected with the root of " hide," conceal)

house, set out on a See also:

• JOURNEY (through O. Fr. jornee or journee, mod. Fr. journee, from med. Lat. diurnata, Lat. diurnus, of or belonging to dies, day)

journey, commence a See also:

• WAR
• WAR (O. Eng. werre, Fr. guerre, of Teutonic origin; cf. O.H.G. werran, to confound)

war, or even take a dose of physic, without having an auspicious moment selected for him . See also:

• LANGUAGES

Languages.—The various races have all See also:

• SEPARATE

separate languages, or at least dialects . The Gurkhalis and western tribes use See also:

• KHAN (from the Turki, hence Persian and Arabic Khan)

Khan (see PAHAItI), which, unlike the other dialects, is of See also:

• SANSKRIT

Sanskrit origin . The Newars have a distinct language and alphabets, for there are three known to their pandits, though only one is in use now . Their language, called Gubhajius, greatly resembles Tibetan, but is now interspersed with many Sanskrit words . The Bhutias use the Tibetan language and See also:

• ALPHABET (see also WRITING)

alphabet . See also:

• EDUCATION

Education.—There is a central educational institution at Katmandu with sixteen branches, or See also:

• SCHOOLS

schools, over the valley of Nepal .

This central institution has three departments, See also:

• ENGLISH

English, Sanskrit and See also:

• PERSIAN
• PERSIAN, SYRIAN, EGYPTIAN AND TURKISH

Persian—or more correctly perhaps See also:

• URDU

Urdu . Education is provided See also:

• FREE

free by the state, and is encouraged by grants of scholarships and prizes . Boys passing out well are sent at government expense to the various See also:

• UNIVERSITIES

universities of northern India to See also:

• COMPLETE

complete their education, and some have lately been sent to See also:

• JAPAN

Japan . The evil effects of higher education, as taught in the See also:

• INDIAN

Indian colleges, on the youth of Bengal, &c., has, however, given the Gurkha See also:

• DURBAR

durbar a distinct See also:

• SHOCK, or COLLAPSE

shock, and it seems not unlikely that education in Nepal may receive a set-back in consequence . Some of the upper classes speak English fluently, but the bulk of the labouring classes is quite illiterate . Katmandu is a perfect storehouse of See also:

• ANCIENT
• ANCIENT (also spelt ANTIENT; derived, through the Fr. ancien, old, from the late Lat. antianum, from ante, before)

ancient Sanskrit literature, and some of the See also:

• OLDEST

oldest See also:

• MSS

MSS. in that language as yet known to scholars have been found there . There is also a See also:

• FAIR

fair English library . Both are lodged in a good See also:

• BUILDING

building . Cakndar.—There are three principal eras in use in Nepal . The Samvat of See also:

• VIKRAMADITYA

Vikramaditya begins fifty-seven years before the See also:

• CHRISTIAN
• CHRISTIAN, WILLIAM (1608-1663)

Christian era, the See also:

• SAKA, or SHAKA

Saka era of Salivanhn begins seventy-eight years after the Christian era, and the Nepalese Samvat See also:

• DATES

dates from October A.D . 880 . The Sri-See also:

• HARSHA, or HARSHAVARDHANA (fl. A.D. 606-648)

Harsha and Kaligat eras are also sometimes used .

See also:

• DAY (O. Eng. dreg, Ger. Tag; according to the New English Dictionary, " in no way related to the Lat. dies")
• DAY, JOHN (1574-1640?)
• DAY, THOMAS (1748-1789)

Day is considered to begin when the tiles on a house can be counted, or when the hairs on the back of a See also:

• MAN
• MAN, ISLE OF (anc. Mona)

man's See also:

• HAND
• HAND (a word common to Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Hand, Goth. handus)
• HAND, FERDINAND GOTTHELF (1786-185r)

hand can be discerned against the See also:

• SKY (M. Eng. skie, cloud; O. Eng. skua, shade; connected with an Indo-European root sku, cover, whence " scum," Lat. obscurus, dark, &c.)

sky . Sixty bipalas = i pala ; 6o palas = i ghari or 24 minutes; 6o gharis=i day of 24 See also:

• HOURS, CANONICAL

hours . See also:

• HEALTH

Health.—All families of good position have at least one See also:

• BAND

band, or medical man, in constant attendance, and there are also many general practitioners . There is a large central See also:

• HOSPITAL (Lat. haspitalis, the adjective of hospes, host or guest)

hospital at Katmandu, and some thirteen other smaller hospitals are distributed over the country, with free beds, and See also:

• PROVISION (Lat. provisio)

provision for outdoor treatment . There is also a small hospital attached to the British Residency . The diseases most prevalent in the country are See also:

• RHEUMATISM (from Gr. /56µa, flux)

rheumatism, chronic See also:

• DYSPEPSIA (from the Gr. prefix Sur-, hard, ill, and 'irirreiv, to digest)

dyspepsia, skin diseases, syphilis, See also:

• GOITRE (from Lat. guttur, the throat; synonyms, Bronchocele, Derbyshire Neck)

goitre, smallpox, See also:

• CHOLERA (from the Gr. Xo)du, tile, and Map, to flow)

cholera and leprosy . In the rains a number of cases of mild intermittent See also:

• FEVER (Lat. febris, connected with fervere, to burn)

fever, See also:

• DIARRHOEA (from Gr. &Q, through, pfw, flow)

diarrhoea, and See also:

• DYSENTERY (from the Gr. prefix Ova-, in the sense of " bad," and Evmpov, the intestine)

dysentery are met with . Fever of a severe typhoid type is common in the crowded lanes and dirty villages . See also:

• VACCINATION (from Lat. vacca, a cow)

Vaccination is being gradually introduced into the country, and the general health of the inhabitants of the principal cities in the valley has greatly improved since the introduction of fresh See also:

• WATER

water, which has been brought in by pipes from mountain springs . Towns.—There are three large towns in the Nepal valley, Katmandu, the capital, said to contain approximately 50,000 inhabitants, See also:

• PATAN (_" city ")

Patan and See also:

• BHATGAON

Bhatgaon about 30,000 each . The houses are from two to four storeys in height, built of See also:

• BRICK (derived according to some etymologists from the Teutonic bricke, a disk or plate; but more authoritatively, through the French brique, originally a " broken piece," applied especially to bread, and so to clay, from the Teutonic brikan, to break)

brick and tiled . The windows and balconies are of See also:

• WOOD, ANTHONY A2 (1632-1695)
• WOOD, JOHN GEORGE (1827—1889)
• WOOD, MRS HENRY [ELLEN] (1814—1887)
• WOOD, SEARLES VALENTINE (1798—188o)

wood, and some are elaborately carved .

There are numerous handsome temples in all the towns, the See also:

• MAJORITY (Fr. majorite; Med. Lat. majoritas; Lat. major, greater)

majority of which are See also:

• PAGODA (Port. pagode, a word introduced in the 16th century by the early Portuguese adventurers in India, reproducing phonetically some native word, possibly Pers. but-kadah, a house for an idol, or some form of Sansk. bhagavat, divine, holy)

pagoda-shaped and built of brick, with See also:

• ROOFS

roofs of copper, which is sometimes gilt . The streets are narrow, and they, as well as the squares, are all paved with brick or See also:

• STONE
• STONE (0. Eng. shin; the word is common to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Stein, Du. steen, Dan. and Swed. sten; the root is also seen in Gr. aria, pebble)
• STONE, CHARLES POMEROY (1824-1887)
• STONE, EDWARD JAMES (1831-1897)
• STONE, FRANK (1800-1859)
• STONE, GEORGE (1708—1764)
• STONE, LUCY [BLACKWELL] (1818-1893)
• STONE, MARCUS (184o— )
• STONE, NICHOLAS (1586-1647)

stone . In front of the temples generally stand monoliths surmounted by figures of Garuda, or of the founder, made of See also:

• BRASS
• BRASS (O. Eng. braes)

brass gilt, or sometimes of black stone . Besides these three large towns, there are at least twenty smaller towns and numerous villages in the valley, all of which possess many temples . Some of these, as for instance those of Pashupati, Bodhnatha and Symbhunatha, are considered of great sanctity . Many thousands of pilgrims come at one festival to See also:

• WORSHIP (i.e. " worth-ship," O. Eng. weor8scipe)

worship at Pashupati, and it is there that the dying are brought to be immersed in the Bagmati, and the dead are burned on its See also:

• BANKS, GEORGE LINNAEUS (1821-1881)
• BANKS, NATHANIEL PRENTISS (1816–1894)
• BANKS, SIR JOSEPH
• BANKS, THOMAS (1735-1805)

banks . See also:

• AGRICULTURE
• AGRICULTURE (from Lat. ages, field, and colere, to cultivate)
• AGRICULTURE, BOARD OF

Agriculture . While the Gurkhalis are occupied in military affairs, the agriculture of the valley is carried on by the Newars . The See also:

• SOIL

soil is varied in See also:

• CHARACTER (Gr. xapareri7p, from xap&crew, to scratch)

character, from See also:

• LIGHT

light micaceous See also:

• SAND
• SAND, GEORGE (1804-1876)

sand to dense ferruginous See also:

• CLAY (from O. Eng. claeg, a word common in various forms to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Klei)
• CLAY, CASSIUS MARCELLUS (1810-1903)
• CLAY, CHARLES (1801–1893)
• CLAY, FREDERIC (1838–1889)
• CLAY, HENRY (1777–1852)

clay . The whole valley is cultivated and irrigated where practicable, and the slopes of the hills are carefully terraced, so that there is little grazing ground, and few sheep or See also:

• CATTLE (Norman Fr. catel, from Late Lat. capitale, wealth or property, a word applied in the feudal system to movable property and particularly to live stock, and surviving in its wider meaning as " chattel " or " chattle ")

cattle are kept There are some milch cows and buffaloes, which are either See also:

• STALL (0. Eng. steall, stael, cf. Du. stal, Ger. and Swed. Stall, a common Teutonic word for a place, station, place for standing in; the root is the Indo-European std–, to stand, seen also in Latin stabulum, Greek vraO bs, and in stallion, an entire hors

stall-fed or grazed in the jungles at the foot of the hills . Animals for See also:

• CONSUMPTION (Lat. consumere)

consumption and See also:

• SACRIFICE (from Lat. sacrificium; sacer, holy, and facere, to make)

sacrifice are all imported, and are consumed as fast as they are brought in . In the cold season the Bhutias bring large flocks of sheep and goats laden with bags of See also:

• BORAX (sodium pyroborate or sodium biborate)

borax, See also:

• SALT (a common Teutonic word, cf. Dutch zout, Ger. Salz, Scand. salt; cognate with Gr. &Xs, Lat. sal)
• SALT, SIR TITUS, BART

salt and See also:

• SALTPETRE (from the Lat. sal, salt, Petra, a rock)

saltpetre .

These are sold for consumption, except a few that are retained to carry back the bags . These droves are generally accompanied by ponies and some of the large Tibetan See also:

• DOGS, ISLE OF

dogs; the latter are powerful, fierce, shaggy animals, about the See also:

• SIZE

size of a small Newfound-land dog . Poultry are kept and used by the Newars, especially ducks, the eggs of which are in great demand even among the orthodox Hindus . The crops grown in the valley consist of rice, both the transplanted and the dry-sown or ghaiya varieties, wheat, pulse, murwah, maize, See also:

• BUCKWHEAT

buckwheat, chillies, radishes, See also:

• MUSTARD

mustard, See also:

• GARLIC (O. Eng. gdrledc, i.e. " spear-leek "; Gr. oKbpolov; Lat. allium; Ital. aglio; Fr. ail; Ger. Knoblauch)

garlic, onions, ginger, turmeric, sugar-cane, potatoes, ground nuts, many species of cucumbers and pumpkins, &c . Nothing but articles of See also:

• FOOD
• FOOD (like the verb " to feed," from a Teutonic root, whence O. Eng. foda; cf. " fodder "; connected with Gr. lrareicOae, to feed)

food are allowed to be grown in the valley; hence its capabilities for producing tea, cotton and tobacco are unknown . All of these, however, are grown in other parts of the country, both in the hills and the tarai . Large cardamoms are extensively grown in the eastern hills, and form an important See also:

• ARTICLE (from Lat. articulus, a joint)

article of export . The See also:

• HEMP (in O. Eng. henep, cf. Dutch hennep, Ger. Hanf , cognate with Gr. Kavval3er, Lat. cannabis)

hemp plant (Cannabis indices) grows wild, and is used both for manufacturing purposes and for producing the resinous See also:

• EXTRACT (from Lat. extrahere, to draw out)

extract and other intoxicating products which are exported . Plants producing dyes, such as See also:

• MADDER

madder or man it, are grown in some places; and drugs, such as chirata, are collected and exported . The better class of soils yields a return of about Rs . 18o per khait, and the poorest about Rs . 90 per khait .

From some of the finer soils as many asthree crops of various sorts are obtained annually . The land-See also:

• MEASURES

measures in use are different in different parts of the country . Thus, in the eastern tarai a bigha measures 9oX90 yds . English, while in the western tarai it is only 15)05 yds . In the hills the unit of land measurement is called ropni, which is about twice the size of a western tarai bigha,—and twenty-five ropnis make one khait . This measurement applies only to rice lands . Other land measurements for the valley are as follows: One Nepali bigha is 90 yds . X 90 yds . British . (A British Indian bigha is 40 yds . X 40 yds. and 3 Nepali bighas equal about 5 acres.) Sixteen ropnis equal i Nepali bigha . Land Taxes.—The tarai lands pay from two to nine rupees (British) per Nepali bigha according to quality of land .

In the hills taxes are charged on the plough, thus: one plough pays 13 annas; one See also:

• BULLOCK, WILLIAM (c. 1657-c. 1740)

bullock without plough about so annas; one See also:

• SPADE

spade 61 annas . These taxes are termed See also:

• HAL

Hal, Patay and Kodaley . See also:

• HORTICULTURE
• HORTICULTURE (Lat. hortus, a garden)

Horticulture.—The Newars are also fond of horticulture . Many European fruits, flowers and vegetables have been introduced and grow freely . The country is famous for its oranges and See also:

• PINE (Lat. Pinus, Gr. srlrur)

pine-apples . Flowers are grown and sold for religious purposes, and even wild flowers are brought into the See also:

• MARKET (Lat. mercatus, trade or place of trade)

market and much used by the Newar See also:

• WOMEN

women in adorning their hair, as well as for offerings at the shrines . Many wild fruits are collected and sold in the markets . Apples and See also:

• PEARS

pears, of English stock, thrive well; apricots and plums are good; peaches and grapes grow freely and are of large size, but they seldom ripen before the rains begin, when they rot . See also:

• TRADE (O. Eng. trod, footstep, from tredan, to tread; in M. Eng. the forms teed, trod and trade appear, the last in the sense of a beaten track)
• TRADE, BOARD OF

Trade.—All the trade and manufactures of the country are in the hands of the Newars, and a few Kashmiris and natives of Hindustan . The trade in European goods is chiefly carried on by the latter, whilst the Newars See also:

• DEAL

deal in See also:

• CORN (a common Teutonic word; cf. Lat. granum, seed, grain)
• CORN (fromm Lat. corms, horn)

corn, oil, salt, tobacco and articles of domestic manufacture . The trade with India is carried on at numerous marts along the frontier, at each of which a customs station is established, and the taxes are collected by a thikadar or See also:

• FARMER, RICHARD (1735–1787)

farmer . The Newars also carry on the trade with Tibet, through a See also:

• COLONY (Lat. colonia, from colonus, a cultivator)

colony which has been for many years established at See also:

• LHASA (LIIASSA, LASSA, " God's ground ")

Lhasa, but this trade has been a shrinking See also:

• ITEM (a Latin adverb meaning " also," " likewise ")

item since the opening of the Lhasa-See also:

• DARJEELING

Darjeeling route .

There are two principal routes to Tibet . One of these runs north-east .from Katmandu to the frontier-station of Kati or Nilam, See also:

• CROSSING

crossing the Himalayan range at a height of 14,0oo ft.; the other passes out of the valley at the north-west corner, and runs at first upwards along the See also:

• MAIN (from the Aryan root which appears in " may " and " might," and Lat. magnus, great)
• MAIN (Lat. Moenus)

main See also:

• BRANCH (from the Fr. branche, late Lat. branca, an animal's paw)

branch of the Gandak, crossing the Himalayas, near Kerung, at a height of 9000 ft . All goods on these routes are carried on men's backs, except the salt, &c., carried in bags by the Bhutia sheep and goats . The principal imports from Hindustan are raw cotton, cotton goods, woollen goods, silks and velvets, hardware, See also:

• CUTLERY (Fr. coutellerie, from the Lat. cultellus, a little knife)

cutlery, beads, jewels, See also:

• CORAL

coral, See also:

• SADDLERY

saddlery, shoes, guns, See also:

• GUNPOWDER

gunpowder, glassware, See also:

• VERMILION

vermilion, indigo, See also:

• LAC

lac, tea, betel-See also:

• NUT
• NUT (0. Eng. knutu, cf. Dutch noot, Ger. Nuss; allied with Gael. cno; it is not of the same form as Lat. nux)

nut, spices, paper, sugar, tobacco, See also:

• OILS (adopted from the Fr. oile, mod. huile, Lat. oleum, olive oil)

oils, See also:

• SHEET

sheet copper, goats, cattle, buffaloes; and from Tibet, musk, medicines, yaks' tails, tea, woollen See also:

• CLOTH

cloth, blankets, borax, salt, saltpetre, paper-plant, See also:

• HONEY (Chin. me ; Sansk. madhu, mead, honey; cf. A.S. medo, medu, mead; Gr. p Xt, in which 0 or b is changed into X; Lat. mel ; Fr. miel ; A.S. hung ; Ger. Honig)

honey, See also:

• WAX

wax, sheep, goats, yaks, ponies, silver, gold . The exports to Hindustan include wax, paper-plant, See also:

• MUSIC

music, yaks' tails, medicines, cardamoms, borax, sulphate of copper, brass pots, iron pots, ponies, elephants, See also:

• HAWKS, FRANCIS LISTER (1798-1866)

hawks, hides and horns (buffalo), rice, See also:

• GHEE (Hindostani ghi)

ghee, oil seeds, red chillies, madder, See also:

• COBALT (symbol Co, atomic weight 59)

cobalt, potatoes, See also:

• ORANGE
• ORANGE (Citrus Aurantium)
• ORANGE, HOUSE OF

orange's: and to Tibet, broad cloth, raw cotton, cotton goods, tobacco, sugar, opium, coral, jewels, pearls, spices, betel-nut, copper pots, iron pots and hardware . The Nepalese are utterly regardless of See also:

• STATISTICS

statistics, but See also:

• RECENT

recent estimates value the exports and imports to and from the British provinces at 3 million See also:

• STERLING
• STERLING, ANTOINETTE (d. 1904)
• STERLING, JOHN (1806-1844)

sterling annually . Duties are levied on exports and imports, which will be noticed under the See also:

• HEAD (in 0. Eng. heafad; the word is common to Teutonic languages; cf. Dutch hoofd, Ger. Haupt, generally taken to be in origin connected with Lat. caput, Gr. KerbOvi7)
• HEAD, SIR EDMUND WALKER, BART
• HEAD, SIR FRANCIS BOND, BART

head of See also:

• REVENUE
• REVENUE (0. Fr. revenu, from revenir, to return)

revenue . Manufactures.—The Newars are skilful workmen . Their bricks are excellent, and so also is their pottery, for which certain towns are famous, such as Themi and Noakote . As carpenters they excel, though the use of the large saw is still unknown, and planks are cut with See also:

• CHISEL (from the O. Fr. cisel, modern ciseau, Late Lat. cisellum, a cutting tool, from caedere, to cut)

chisel and See also:

• MALLET (or MALLOCH), DAVID (?17o5–1765)
• MALLET, PAUL HENRI (173o–18o7)

mallet . Some of the wood carvings on the temples and large houses are most See also:

• ARTISTIC

artistic in See also:

• DESIGN (Fr. desiin, drawing; Lat. designare, to mark out)

design and bold in See also:

• EXECUTION (from Lat. ex-sequor, exsecutus, follow or carry out)

execution, though unfortunately they are sometimes of a most obscene character . The manufactures are few, consisting chiefly of coarse cotton cloths, paper made of the inner bark of the paper-plants (Daphne), bells, brass and iron utensils, weapons, and ornaments of gold and silver .

Coinage.—At one See also:

• TIME (0. Eng. Lima, cf. Icel. timi, Swed. timme, hour, Dan. time; from the root also seen in " tide," properly the time of between the flow and ebb of the sea, cf. O. Eng. getidan, to happen, " even-tide," &c.; it i