NETHERLANDS  . The See also:

• GEOGRAPHICAL

geographical features of the countries formerly known collectively as the Netherlands or See also:

• LOW, SETH (1850- )
• LOW, WILL HICOK (1853- )

Low Countries are, dealt with under the See also:

• MODERN

modern See also:

• ENGLISH

English names of See also:

• HOLLAND
• HOLLAND, CHARLES (1733–1769)
• HOLLAND, COUNTY AND PROVINCE OF
• HOLLAND, HENRY FOX, 1ST BARON (1705–1774)
• HOLLAND, HENRY RICH, 1ST EARL OF (1S9o-,649)
• HOLLAND, HENRY RICHARD VASSALL FOX, 3RD
• HOLLAND, JOSIAH GILBERT (1819-1881)
• HOLLAND, PHILEMON (1552-1637)
• HOLLAND, RICHARD, or RICHARD DE HOLANDE (fl. 1450)
• HOLLAND, SIR HENRY, BART

HOLLAND and See also:

• BELGIUM
• BELGIUM (Fr. Belgique; Flem. Belgic)

BELGIUM . Here we are concerned only with their earlier See also:

• HISTORY

history, which is put for convenience under this heading in See also:

• ORDER
• ORDER (through Fr. ordre, for earlier ordene, from Lat. ordo, ordinis, rank, service, arrangement; the ultimate source is generally taken to be the root seen in Lat. oriri, rise, arise, begin; cf. " origin ")
• ORDER, HOLY

order to See also:

• SEPARATE

separate the See also:

• ACCOUNT
• ACCOUNT (through O. Fr. acont, Late Lat. comptum, cornputare, to calculate)

account of the See also:

• PERIOD
• PERIOD (Gr. irepioSos, a going or way round, circuit, aepi, round, and &Sis, way, road)

period when they formed practically a single See also:

• AREA

area for See also:

• HISTORICAL

historical purposes from that of the See also:

• TIME (0. Eng. Lima, cf. Icel. timi, Swed. timme, hour, Dan. time; from the root also seen in " tide," properly the time of between the flow and ebb of the sea, cf. O. Eng. getidan, to happen, " even-tide," &c.; it is not directly related to Lat. tempus)
• TIME, MEASUREMENT OF
• TIME, STANDARD

time when Holland and Belgium became distinct administrative See also:

• UNITS, DIMENSIONS OF
• UNITS, PHYSICAL

units . The See also:

• SOURCES

sources of our knowledge of the See also:

• COUNTRY (from the Mid. Eng. contre or contrie, and O. Fr. cuntree; Late Lat. contrata, showing the derivation from contra, opposite, over against, thus the tract of land which fronts the sight, cf. Ger. Gegend, neighbourhood)

country down to the 8th See also:

• CENTURY (from Lat. centuria, a division of a hundred men)

century are See also:

• CAESAR, GAIUS JULIUS (102—44 B.c.)
• CAESAR, SIR JULIUS (1557-1558-1636)

Caesar's De See also:

• BELLO, ANDRES (1781–1865)

Bello Galileo, iv., the history of Velleius Paterculus, ii . 105, the See also:

• WORKS

works of See also:

• TACITUS, CORNELIUS (c. 55-120)
• TACITUS, MARCUS CLAUDIUS

Tacitus, the Historia See also:

• EAR (common Teut.; O.E. are, Ger. Ohr, Du. oor, akin to Lat. auris, Gr. ovs)

Ear See also:

• BIN

bin-ants . Francorum (i.-iii.) of See also:

• GREGORY
• GREGORY (Gregorius)
• GREGORY (Grigorii) GRIGORIEVICH ORLOV, COUNT (1734-1783)
• GREGORY, EDWARD JOHN (1850-19o9)
• GREGORY, OLINTHUS GILBERT (1774—1841)
• GREGORY, ST (c. 213-C. 270)
• GREGORY, ST, OF NAZIANZUS (329–389)
• GREGORY, ST, OF NYSSA (c.331—c. 396)
• GREGORY, ST, OF TOURS (538-594)

Gregory of See also:

• TOURS

Tours, the Fredegar's Chronica (for the last two of which see D . Bouquet's Recueil de historiens See also:

• DES

des Gaules et de la See also:

• FRANCE
• FRANCE, ANATOLE (1844– )

France, 1738-1.876) . The Netherlands first became known to the See also:

• ROMANS
• ROMANS, EPISTLE TO THE

Romans through the See also:

• CAMPAIGNS

campaigns of See also:

• JULIUS

Julius Caesar . He found the country peopled partly by. tribes of Gallo-See also:

• CELTIC

Celtic, partly by tribes of Germanic stock, the See also:

• RIVER

river See also:

• RHINE (Lat. Rhenus, Ger. Rhein, Fr. Rhin, Dutch Rhyn, or Rijn)

Rhine forming roughly the See also:

• LINE

line of demarcation between the races . Several of the tribes along the borderland, however, were undoubtedly of mixed See also:

• BLOOD

blood . The Gallo-Celtic tribes See also:

• BORE

bore the See also:

• GENERAL
• GENERAL (Lat. generalis, of or relating to a genus, kind or class)

general appellation of See also:

• BELGAE

Belgae, and among these the Nervii, inhabiting the See also:

• DISTRICT

district between the See also:

• SCHELDT (Fr. Escaut, Flem. Schelde)

Scheldt and the Sambre were at the date of Caesar's invasion, 57 B.C., the most warlike and important . To the See also:

• NORTH
• NORTH, BARONS
• NORTH, MARIANNE (1830—1890)
• NORTH, ROGER (1653-1734)
• NORTH, SIR THOMAS (1535?-16o1?)

north of the See also:

• MEUSE
• MEUSE (Flem. Maes, Du. Maas)

Meuse, and more especially in the low-lying ground enclosed between the Waal and the Rhine (insula Batavorum) lived the Batavi, a See also:

• CLAN (Gaelic clann, O. Ir. cland, connected with Lat. planta, shoot or scion, the ancient Gaelic or Goidelic substituting k for p)

clan of the See also:

• GREAT

great Germanic tribe, the See also:

• CHATTI

Chatti .

Beyond these were found the See also:

• FRISIANS (Lat. Frisii; in Med. Lat. Frisones, Frisiones, Fresones; in their own tongue Frsasa, FrPsen)

Frisians (q.v.), a See also:

• PEOPLE

people of See also:

• GERMAN
• GERMAN, DUTCH AND SCANDINAVIAN

German origin, who gave their name to the territory between the Rhine and the See also:

• EMS

Ems . Of the other tribes the best known are the Caninefates, Chauci, Usipetes, Sicambri, Eburones, Menapii, Morini and Aduatici . Julius Caesar, after a severe struggle with the Nervii and their confederates, was successful in bringing the Belgic tribes into subjection to See also:

• ROME
• ROME (Roma)

Rome . Under See also:

• AUGUSTUS (a name 1 derived from Lat. augeo, increase, i.e. venerable, majestic, Gr. Ee0avr6s)

Augustus, 15 B.e., the conquered territory was formed into an imperial See also:

• PROVINCE
• PROVINCE (Lat. provincia; perhaps a contraction of providentia)

province, Gallia Belgica, and the frontier line, the Rhine, was strongly held by a See also:

• SERIES (a Latin word from serere, to join)

series of fortified camps . With regard to the region north of the Rhine we first obtain See also:

• INFORMATION (from Lat. informare, to give shape or form to, to represent, describe)

information from the accounts of the campaigns of See also:

• NERO (37-68)

Nero, See also:

• CLAUDIUS
• CLAUDIUS [TIBERIUS CLAUDIUS DRUSUS NERO GERMANICUS]
• CLAUDIUS, MARCUS AURELIUS
• CLAUDIUS, MATTHIAS (174o-1815)

Claudius, See also:

• DRUSUS, MARCUS LIVIUS
• DRUSUS, NERO1 CLAUDIUS (38–9 B.C.)

Drusus and Tiberius . The Batavians were first brought under See also:

• ROMAN

Roman See also:

• RULE

rule in the governorship of Drusus, A.D . 13 . They were not incorporated in the See also:

• EMPIRE

empire, but were ranked as See also:

• ALLIES, THOMAS WILLIAM (1813-1903)

allies, socii or auxilia . Their See also:

• LAND

land became a recruiting ground for the Roman armies, and a See also:

• BASE

base for expeditions across the Rhine . The Batavians served with fidelity and distinction in all parts of the empire, and from the days of Augustus onwards formed a considerable See also:

• PART

part of the Praetorian guard . The Frisians struggled against Roman over-lordship somewhat longer, and it was not until A.D . 47 that they finally submitted to the victorious arms of Domitius See also:

• CORBULO, GNAEUS DOMITIUS (1st century A.D.)

Corbulo .

The Frisian auxiliaries were likewise regarded as excellent troops . In the confusion of the disputed See also:

• SUCCESSION (Lat. successio, from succedere, to follow after)

succession to the imperial See also:

• THRONE

throne after the See also:

• DEATH

death of Nero, the Batavians (A.D . 69-70) under the See also:

• INFLUENCE (Late Lat. influentia, from influere, to flow in)

influence of a great See also:

• LEADER, BENJAMIN WILLIAMS (1831– )

leader, known only by his Roman name, Claudius See also:

• CIVILIS, CLAUDIUS

Civilis, See also:

• ROSE
• ROSE (Rosa)
• ROSE, GEORGE (1744-1818)
• ROSE, HUGH JAMES (1795—1838)
• ROSE, WILLIAM STEWART (1775-1843)

rose in revolt . Civilis The revolt of Civltls. had seen much service in the Roman armies, and was a See also:

• MAN
• MAN, ISLE OF (anc. Mona)

man of statesmanlike ability . In revenge for his own imprisonment, and the death of his See also:

• BROTHER

brother by order of Nero, he took See also:

• ADVANTAGE

advantage of the disorder in the empire not only to stir up his See also:

• FELLOW

fellow-countrymen to take up arms for See also:

• INDEPENDENCE
• INDEPENDENCE, DECLARATION OF
• INDEPENDENCE, WAR OF

independence, but to persuade a large number of German and Belgic tribes to join forces with them . A narrative of the revolt is given in detail by Tacitus . At first success attended Civilis and the Romans were driven out of the greater part of the Belgic province . Even the great fortress of Castra Vetera (Xanten) was starved into submission and the See also:

• GARRISON
• GARRISON, WILLIAM LLOYD (1805-1879)

garrison massacred . But dissensions arose between the German and Celtic elements of Civilis's following . The Romans, under an able general, See also:

• CEREALIS (CERIALIS), PETILLIUS (1st century A.D.)

Cerealis, took advantage of this, and Civilis, beaten in fight, retired to the See also:

• ISLAND (O.E. ieg =isle, +land')

island of the Batavians . But both sides were exhausted, and it was arranged that Cerealis and Civilis should meet on a broken See also:

• BRIDGE

bridge over the Nabalia (Yssel) to discuss terms of See also:

• PEACE
• PEACE, BREACH OF THE

peace . At this point the narrative of Tacitus breaks off, but it would appear that easy conditions were offered, for the Batavians returned to their position of socii, and were henceforth faithful in their steady See also:

• ALLEGIANCE (Mid. Eng. ligeaunce; med. Lat. ligeantia, &c.; the al- was probably added through confusion with another legal term, allegeance, an allegation; the Fr. allegeance comes from the English; the word is formed from " liege," of which the derivatio

allegiance to Rome .

The insula Batavorum, lined with forts, became for a See also:

• LONG, GEORGE (1800-1879)
• LONG, JOHN DAVIS (1838– )

long period the See also:

• BULWARK (a word probably of Scandinavian origin, from bol or bole, a tree-trunk, and werk, work, in Ger. Bollwerk, which has also been derived from an old German bolen, to throw, and so a machine for throwing missiles)

bulwark of the empire against the inroads of the Germans from the north . Of this period scarcely any See also:

• RECORD (Lat. recordari, to recall to mind, from cor, heart or mind)

record remains, but when at the end of the 3rd century the See also:

• FRANKS
• FRANKS, SIR AUGUSTUS WOLLASTON (1826-1897)

Franks (q.v.) began to swarm over the Rhine into the Roman lands, the names of the old tribes had disappeared . The peoples within the frontier had been transformed into Romanized See also:

• PRO

pro- vincials; outside, the various tribes had become merged in the See also:

• COMMON

common appellation of Frisians . The See also:

• BRANCH (from the Fr. branche, late Lat. branca, an animal's paw)

branch of the Franks—who were a confederacy, not a people—which gradually over-spread Gallia Belgica, bore the name of the Salian Franks . Nominally they were taken under the See also:

• PROTECTION

protection of the empire, in reality they were its masters and defenders . In the days of their great See also:

• KING
• KING (O. Eng. cyning, abbreviated into cyng, cing; cf. O. H. G. chun- kuning, chun- kunig, M.H.G. kiinic, kiinec, kiinc, Mod. Ger. Konig, O. Norse konungr, kongr, Swed. konung, kung)
• KING [OF OCKHAM], PETER KING, 1ST BARON (1669-1734)
• KING, CHARLES WILLIAM (1818-1888)
• KING, CLARENCE (1842–1901)
• KING, EDWARD (1612–1637)
• KING, EDWARD (1829–1910)
• KING, HENRY (1591-1669)
• KING, RUFUS (1755–1827)
• KING, THOMAS (1730–1805)
• KING, WILLIAM (1650-1729)
• KING, WILLIAM (1663–1712)

king Hlodwig or See also:

• CLOVIS [Chlodovech] (c. 466-511)

Clovis (481-511) they were in See also:

• POSSESSION
• POSSESSION (Lat. possessio, possidere, to possess)

possession of the whole of the See also:

• SOUTHERN

southern and central Netherlands . The See also:

• STRIP

strip of See also:

• COAST (from Lat. costa, a rib, side)

coast from the mouth of the Scheldt to that of the Ems remained, however, in the hands of the See also:

• FREE

free Frisians (q.v.), in See also:

• ALLIANCE

alliance with whom against the Franks were the See also:

• SAXONS

Saxons (q.v.), who, pressing forward from the See also:

• EAST
• EAST, ALFRED (1849- )

east, had occupied a portion of the districts known later as See also:

• GELDERLAND (Guelders)
• GELDERLAND, GELDERS

Gelderland, Overyssel and See also:

• DRENTE

Drente . Saxon was at this period the common See also:

• TITLE (0. Fr. title, mod. titre, from Lat. titulus)

title of all the north German tribes; there was but little difference between Frisians and Saxons either in See also:

• RACE

race or See also:

• LANGUAGE (adapted from the Fr. langage, from langue, tongue, Lat. lingua)

language, and they were closely See also:

• UNITED

united for some four centuries in common resistance to the encroachments of the Frankish See also:

• POWER [WILLIAM GRATTAN] TYRONE (1797-1841)

power . The See also:

• CONVERSION (Lat. conversio, from convertere, to turn or ,change)

conversion of Clovis and his See also:

• RUDE, FRANCOIS (1784–1855)

rude followers to See also:

• CHRISTIANITY

Christianity tended gradually to civilize the Franks, and to facilitate the See also:

• FUSION

fusion which soon took See also:

• PLACE (through Fr. from Lat. platea, street; Gr. IrAar6s, wide)

place between them and the Gallo-Roman See also:

• POPULATION (Lat. populus, people; populare, to populate)

population . It tended also to accentuate spread of the enmity to the Franks of the See also:

• HEATHEN

heathen Frisians and See also:

• ANTI, or CAMPA

anti Saxons . In the See also:

• SOUTH
• SOUTH, ROBERT (1634–1716)

south (of the Netherlands) Christianity was spread by the labours of devoted missionaries, foremost amongst whom were St Amandus, St Bavon and St Eligius, and bishoprics were set up at See also:

• CAMBRAI

Cambrai, See also:

• TOURNAI (Flemish Doornik)

Tournai, See also:

• ARRAS

Arras, Therouanne and See also:

• LIEGE
• LIEGE (Walloon, Lige, Flemish, Luik, Ger. Lilltich)

Liege . In the north progress was much slower, and Their relations with the Romans .

The Franks . though a See also:

• CHURCH
• CHURCH (according to most authorities derived from the Gr. Kvpcaxov [&wµa], " the Lord's [house]," and common to many Teutonic, Slavonic and other languages under various forms—Scottish kirk, Ger. Kirche, Swed. kirka, Dan. kirke, Russ. tserkov, Buig. cerk
• CHURCH, FREDERICK EDWIN (1826-1900)
• CHURCH, GEORGE EARL (1835–1910)
• CHURCH, RICHARD WILLIAM (1815–189o)
• CHURCH, SIR RICHARD (1784–1873)

church was erected at See also:

• UTRECHT
• UTRECHT, TREATY OF

Utrecht by Dagobert I. about A.D . 630, it was destroyed by the Frisians, who remained obstinately heathen . The first successful See also:

• ATTEMPT (Lat. adtemptare, attentare, to try)

attempt to convert them was made, under the powerful protection of See also:

• PIPPIN, or PEPIN

Pippin of Heristal, by Willebrord, a Northumbrian See also:

• MONK (O.Eng. munuc; this with the Teutonic forms, e.g. Du. monnik, Ger. Witch, and the Romanic, e.g. Fr. moine, Ital. monacho and Span. monje, are from the Lat. monachus, adaptedfrom Gr. µovaXos, one living alone, a solitary; Own, alone)
• MONK (or MONCK), GEORGE
• MONK, JAMES HENRY (1784-1856)
• MONK, MARIA (c. 1817—1850)

monk, who became, A.D . 695, the first See also:

• BISHOP (A.S. bisceop, from Lat. episcopus, Gr. irio-Korros, " overlooker " or " overseer ")
• BISHOP, ISABELLA (1832-1904)
• BISHOP, SIR HENRY ROWLEY (1786-1855)

bishop of Utrecht (see UTRECHT) . His labours were continued with even more striking results by another English-man, Winfred, better known as St See also:

• BONIFACE (Bonifacius)
• BONIFACE, SAINT (680-754)

Boniface, the Apostle of the Germans, who suffered martyrdom at Dokkum in A.D . 754 at the hands of some heathen Frisians . The See also:

• COMPLETE

complete conversion was, however, in the end due rather to the arms of the Carolingian See also:

• KINGS, FIRST AND SECOND BOOKS OF

kings than to the unaided efforts of the missionaries . Towards the end of the century, See also:

• CHARLEMAGNE [CHARLES THE GREAT] (c. 742-814)
• CHARLEMAGNE, JEAN ARMAND (1753–1838)

Charlemagne, himself a Netherlander by descent and ancestral possessions, after a severe struggle, thoroughly subdued the Frisians and Saxons, and compelled them to embrace Christianity . In the triple See also:

• PARTITION

partition of the Carolingian empire at See also:

• VERDUN

Verdun in 843, the central portion was assigned to the See also:

• EMPEROR (Fr. empereur, from the Lat. imperator)

emperor Lothaire, separating the kingdoms of East See also:

• FRANCIA (c. 1450-1517)
• FRANCIA, JOSE GASPAR RODRIGUEZ (c. 1757-1840)

Francia (the later The duchy See also:

• GERMANY
• GERMANY (Ger. Deutschland)

Germany) from See also:

• WEST
• WEST, BENJAMIN (1738-1820)
• WEST, NICHOLAS (1461-1533)

West Francia (the later France). of See also:

• LOWER

Lower This See also:

• MIDDLE

middle See also:

• KINGDOM

kingdom formed a long strip stretching See also:

• LORRAINE

Lorraine. across See also:

• EUROPE

Europe from the North See also:

• SEA (in O. Eng. sae, a common Teutonic word; cf. Ger. See, Dutch Zee, &c.; the ultimate source is uncertain)
• SEA, COMMAND OF THE

Sea to See also:

• NAPLES
• NAPLES (Ital. Napoli, and Lat. Neapolis)
• NAPLES, KINGDOM OF

Naples, and embraced the whole of the later Netherlands with the exception of the portion on the See also:

• LEFT

left See also:

• BANK

bank of the Scheldt, which river was made the boundary of West Francia . On the death of the emperor, his son Lothaire II. received the See also:

• NORTHERN

northern part of his See also:

• FATHER

father's domain, known as Lotharii or Hlutharii Regnum, corrupted later into Lotharingia or Lorraine . Lothaire had no See also:

• HEIR (Lat. heres, from a root meaning to grasp, seen in heres or erus, master of a house, Gr. xeip, hand, Sans. hat ana, hand)

heir, and in 87o by the treaty of Meerssen his territory was divided between the kings of East and West Francia .

In 879 East Francia acquired the whole; from 912 to 924 it formed part of West Francia . Finally in 924 Lorraine passed in the reign of See also:

• HENRY
• HENRY (1129-1195)
• HENRY (c. 1108-1139)
• HENRY (c. 1174–1216)
• HENRY (Fr. Henri; Span. Enrique; Ger. Heinrich; Mid. H. Ger. Heinrich and Heimrich; O.H.G. Haimi- or Heimirih, i.e. " prince, or chief of the house," from O.H.G. heim, the Eng. home, and rih, Goth. reiks; compare Lat. rex " king "—" rich," therefore " mig
• HENRY, EDWARD LAMSON (1841– )
• HENRY, JAMES (1798-1876)
• HENRY, JOSEPH (1797-1878)
• HENRY, MATTHEW (1662-1714)
• HENRY, PATRICK (1736–1799)
• HENRY, PRINCE OF BATTENBERG (1858-1896)
• HENRY, ROBERT (1718-1790)
• HENRY, VICTOR (1850– )
• HENRY, WILLIAM (1795-1836)

Henry the See also:

• FOWLER, CHARLES (1792-1867)
• FOWLER, EDWARD (1632-1714)
• FOWLER, JOHN (1826-1864)
• FOWLER, SIR JOHN (1817-1898)
• FOWLER, WILLIAM (c. 156o-1614)

Fowler under German (East Frankish) overlordship . Henry's son, See also:

• OTTO

Otto the Great, owing to the disordered See also:

• STATE
• STATE, GREAT OFFICERS OF

state of the country, placed it in 953 in the hands of his able brother, See also:

• BRUNO (BRUN, BRUNS) OF QUERFURT, SAINT (c. 975-1009)
• BRUNO, GIORDANO (c. 1548-1600)
• BRUNO, or BRUN (925–965)
• BRUNO, SAINT

Bruno, See also:

• ARCHBISHOP (Lat. archiepiscopus, from Gr. apxceatorcoros)

archbishop of See also:

• COLOGNE (Ger. Koln, or officially, since 1900, Coln)

Cologne, for pacification . Bruno, who kept for himself the title of See also:

• ARCHDUKE (Lat. archidux, Ger. Erzherzog)

archduke, divided the territory into the two duchies of Uppel and Lower Lorraine . See also:

• GODFREY, SIR EDMUND BERRY (1621-1678)

Godfrey of Verdun was invested by him with the See also:

• GOVERNMENT
• GOVERNMENT (0. Fr. governement, mod. gouvernement, O. Fr. governer, mod. gouverner, from Lat. gubernare, to steer a ship, guide, rule; cf. Gr. xv(3epvav)

government of Lower Lorraine (Nieder-Lothringen) . The history of the Netherlands from this time forward—with the exception of See also:

• FLANDERS (Flem. Vlaanderen)

Flanders, which continued to be a See also:

• FIEF

fief of the See also:

• FRENCH
• FRENCH, DANIEL CHESTER (1850– )
• FRENCH, NICHOLAS (1604-1678)

French kings—is the history of the various feudal states into which the duchy of Lower Lorraine was gradually broken up . It is a See also:

• MELANCHOLY (Gr. µe)tayXotia, from µEtas, black, and Xotii, bile)

melancholy history, telling of the invasion of the North-men, and of the dynastic struggles between the See also:

• PETTY, SIR WILLIAM (1623-1687)

petty feudal Growth sovereigns who carved out counties and lordships of the for themselves during the dark centuries which feudal followed the fall of the Carolingian empire . It was a states. time of oppression and See also:

• CRUELTY (through the O. Fr. crualte, mod. cruaute, from the Lat. crudelitas)

cruelty, and of See also:

• WAR
• WAR (O. Eng. werre, Fr. guerre, of Teutonic origin; cf. O.H.G. werran, to confound)

war and devastation, during which the country remained chiefly swamp and tangled woodland, with little communication See also:

• SAVE, or SAVA (Ger. Sau; Hungarian Szdva; Lat. Savus)

save up and down the See also:

• RIVERS
• RIVERS, ANTHONY WOODVILLE, or WYDEVILLE, 2ND EARL (c. 1442—1483)
• RIVERS, EARL
• RIVERS, RICHARD SAVAGE, 4TH EARL (c. 1660—1712)

rivers and along the old Roman roads . Its remoteness from the See also:

• CONTROL (Fr. contrdle, older form contre rolle, from Med. Lat. contra-rotulus, a counter roll or copy of a document used to check the original; there is no instance in English of the use of " control " in this, its literal, meaning)

control of the authority of the German and French kings, together with its inaccessibility, gave See also:

• SPECIAL

special facilities in Lower Lorraine to the growth of a number of practically See also:

• INDEPENDENT

independent feudal states forming a See also:

• GROUP

group or See also:

• SYSTEM

system apart . See also:

• CHIEF (from Fr. chef, head, Lat. caput)

Chief among these states were the duchy of See also:

• BRABANT
• BRABANT, NORTH

Brabant, the counties of Flanders, Hainault, Holland, Gelderland, See also:

• LIMBURG
• LIMBURG, or LIMEOURG

Limburg and See also:

• LUXEMBURG
• LUXEMBURG, FRANCOIS HENRI DE MONTMORENCYBOUTEVILLE, DUKE

Luxemburg, and the bishoprics of Utrecht and Liege . For their separate See also:

• LOCAL

local histories and their dynasties, their See also:

• WARS

wars and See also:

• POLITICAL

political relations with one another and with neighbouring countries, reference must be made to the separate articles FLANDERS, HOLLAND, BRABANT, GELDERLAND, LIMBURG, LUXEMBURG, UTRECHT, LIEGE . During the 9th and loth centuries the Netherlands suffered cruelly from the attacks of the Northmen, who ravaged the The -n- shores and at times penetrated far inland .

In 834 vasions Utrecht and Dorestad were sacked, and a few years of the later all Holland and See also:

• FRIESLAND, or VRIESLAND

Friesland was in their hands . Northmsn . See also:

• YEAR

Year after year the raids went on under a succession of leaders—Heriold, Roruk, Rolf, Godfrey—and far and wide there was pillaging, burning, See also:

• MURDER

murder and See also:

• SLAVERY

slavery . In 873 Rolf seized Walcheren, and became the See also:

• SCOURGE (Ital. scoriada, from Lat. excoriare, to flay, corium, skin)

scourge of the surrounding districts . In 88o the invaders took See also:

• NIJMWEGEN, NIMEGUEN, NYMEGEN

Nijmwegen, erected a permanent See also:

• CAMP (from Lat. campus, field)

camp at Elsloo and pushed on to the Rhine . Liege, See also:

• AIX

Aix-la-Chapelle, Cologne and See also:

• BONN

Bonn See also:

• FELL
• FELL, JOHN (1625-1686)

fell into their hands . The emperor, See also:

• CHARLES
• CHARLES (1270-1325)
• CHARLES (1421-1461)
• CHARLES (1525-1574)
• CHARLES (c. 1319-1364)
• CHARLES (Fr. Charles; Span. Carlos; Ital. Carlo; Ger. Karl; derived from O.H.G. Charal,latinized as Carolus, meaning originally " man ": cf. Mod.Ger., Kerl," fellow," A.S. ceorl, Mod. Eng. " churl ")
• CHARLES (KARL EITEL ZEPHYRIN LUDWIG; in Rum. CAROL)
• CHARLES [KARL ALEXANDER] (1712-1780)
• CHARLES, ELIZABETH (1828-1896)
• CHARLES, JACQUES ALEXANDRE CESAR (1746-1823)
• CHARLES, THOMAS (1755-1814)

Charles the See also:

• FAT (O.E. fdett; the word is common to Teutonic languages, cf. Dutch vet, Ger. Fett, &c., and may be ultimately related to Greek Irian, and =apos, and Sanskrit pivan)

Fat, was roused to collect a large See also:

• ARMY
• ARMY (from Fr. armee, Lat. armata)

army, with which he surrounded the See also:

• MAIN (from the Aryan root which appears in " may " and " might," and Lat. magnus, great)
• MAIN (Lat. Moenus)

main See also:

• BODY

body of the Northmen under their leader Godfrey in the camp at Elsloo . But Charles preferred negotiation and See also:

• BRIBERY (from the O. Fr. briberie, begging or vagrancy, bribe, Mid. Lat. briba, signifying a piece of bread given to beggars; the Eng. " bribe " has passed through the meanings of alms, blackmail and extortion, to gifts received or given in order to influ

bribery to fighting . Godfrey received a large sum of See also:

• MONEY

money, was confirmed in the possession of See also:

• FRIES
• FRIES, ELIAS MAGNUS (1794–1878)
• FRIES, JOHN (c. 1764-1825)

Fries-land, and on being converted to Christianity in 882, received in See also:

• MARRIAGE

marriage Gisela, daughter of Lothaire II . Three years later, however, Godfrey was murdered, and although the raids of the Northmen did not entirely cease for upwards of another century, no further attempt was made to establish a permanent See also:

• DYNASTY (Gr. &vvaareta, sovereignty, the position of a hevnori7r, lord, ruler, from SuvaaBay to be able, Suvaµas, power)

dynasty in the land . At the See also:

• CLOSE
• CLOSE (from Lat. clausum, shut)
• CLOSE, MAXWELL HENRY (1822-1903)

close of the lrth century the system of feudal states had been firmly established in the Netherlands under See also:

• STABLE

stable dynasties hereditary or episcopal, and, despite the The continual wars between them, See also:

• CIVILIZATION

civilization had begun to See also:

• CRUSADES

crusades. develop, orderly government to be carried on, and the general See also:

• CONDITION (Lat. condicio, from condicere, to agree upon, arrange; not connected with conditio, from condere, conditum, to put together)

condition of the people to be less hopeless and miserable . It was at this time that the See also:

• VOICE (Fr. voix, from Lat. vox)

voice of See also:

• PETER
• PETER (Lat. Petrus from Gr. irfpos, a rock, Ital. Pietro, Piero, Pier, Fr. Pierre, Span. Pedro, Ger. Peter, Russ. Petr)
• PETER (PEDRO)
• PETER, EPISTLES OF
• PETER, ST

Peter the See also:

• HERMIT

Hermit roused the whole of western Europe to See also:

• ENTHUSIASM

enthusiasm by his See also:

• PREACHING (Fr. preecher, from Lat. praedicare, to proclaim)

preaching of the first crusade .

Nowhere was the See also:

• CALL (from Anglo-Saxon ceallian, a common Teutonic word, cf. Dutch kallen, to talk or chatter)

call responded to with greater zeal than in the Netherlands, and nowhere had the spirit of See also:

• ADVENTURE (from Lat. res adventura, a thing about to happen)

adventure and the stimulus to enterprise, which was one of the chief fruits of the crusades, more permanent effects for See also:

• GOOD, JOHN MASON (1764-1827)

good . The foremost heroes of the first crusade were Netherlanders . Godfrey of See also:

• BOUILLON

Bouillon, the leader of the expedition and the first king of See also:

• JERUSALEM (Heb. ^S0-r, Yerushalaim, pronounced as a dual)
• JERUSALEM, SYNOD OF (1672)

Jerusalem, was See also:

• DUKE (corresponding to Fr. duc, Ital. duca, Ger. Herzog)

duke of Lower Lorraine, and the names of his See also:

• BROTHERS, RICHARD (1757-1824)

brothers See also:

• BALDWIN, JAMES MARK (1861– )
• BALDWIN, ROBERT (1804–1858)

Baldwin of See also:

• EDESSA
• EDESSA (mod. , Vodena)

Edessa and Eustace of See also:

• BOULOGNE, or BOULLONGNE

Boulogne, and of See also:

• COUNT (Lat. comes, gen. comitis, Fr. comte, Ital. conte, Span. conde)

Count See also:

• ROBERT
• ROBERT (1275—1343)
• ROBERT, HUBERT (1753-1808)
• ROBERT, LOUIS LEOPOLD (1794-1835)

Robert II. of Flanders are only less famous . The third crusade numbered among its chiefs See also:

• FLORIS, FRANS

Floris III. of Holland, See also:

• PHILIP
• PHILIP (Gr.'FiXtrsro , fond of horses, from dn)^eiv, to love, and limos, horse; Lat. Philip pus, whence e.g. M. H. Ger. Philippes, Dutch Filips, and, with dropping of the final s, It. Filippo, Fr. Philippe, Ger. Philipp, Sp. Felipe)
• PHILIP, JOHN (1775-1851)
• PHILIP, KING (c. 1639-1676)
• PHILIP, LANOGRAVE OF HESSE (1504-1567)

Philip of Flanders, Otto I. of Gelderland and Henry I. of Brabant . The so-called Latin crusade of 1203 placed the imperial See also:

• CROWN

crown of See also:

• CONSTANTINOPLE
• CONSTANTINOPLE, COUNCILS OF

Constantinople on the See also:

• HEAD (in 0. Eng. heafad; the word is common to Teutonic languages; cf. Dutch hoofd, Ger. Haupt, generally taken to be in origin connected with Lat. caput, Gr. KerbOvi7)
• HEAD, SIR EDMUND WALKER, BART
• HEAD, SIR FRANCIS BOND, BART

head of Baldwin of Flanders . At the See also:

• SIEGE (0. Fr. sege, siege, mod. siege, seat, ultimately from sedere, to sit, cf. Class. Lat. obsidium, a siege)

siege and See also:

• CAPTURE (from Lat. capere, to take; Fr. prise maritime; Ger. Wegnahme)

capture of See also:

• DAMIETTA

Damietta (1218) it was the contingent of North-Netherlanders (Hollanders and Frisians under Count See also:

• WILLIAM
• WILLIAM (1143-1214)
• WILLIAM (1227-1256)
• WILLIAM (1J33-1584)
• WILLIAM (A.S. Wilhelm, O. Norse Vilhidlmr; O. H. Ger. Willahelm, Willahalm, M. H. Ger. Willehelm, Willehalm, Mod.Ger. Wilhelm; Du. Willem; O. Fr. Villalme, Mod. Fr. Guillaume; from " will," Goth. vilja, and " helm," Goth. hilms, Old Norse hidlmr, meaning
• WILLIAM (c. 1130-C. 1190)
• WILLIAM, 13TH

William I. of Holland) who bore the brunt of the fighting and specially distinguished themselves . To the Netherlands, as to the See also:

• REST (O. Eng. rest, reste, bed, cognate with other Teutonic forms, e.g. Ger. Rast, Riiste, rest, and probably Gothic Rasta, league, i.e. resting or stopping place)

rest of western Europe, the result of the crusades was in the main advantageous . They See also:

• BROKE, or BROOKE, ARTHUR (d. 1563)
• BROKE, SIR PHILIP BOWES VERE, BART

broke down the intense narrowness of the See also:

• LIFE

life of those feudal times, enlarged men's conceptions and introduced new ideas into their minds . They first brought the products and arts of the Orient into western Europe; and in the Netherlands, by the impulse that they gave to See also:

• COMMERCE
• COMMERCE (Lat. commercium, from, cum, together, and rnerx, merchandise)

commerce, they were one of the See also:

• PRIMARY

primary causes of the rise of the chartered towns . Little is known about the Netherland towns before the 12th century . The earliest charters date from that period . No place was reckoned to be a See also:

• TOWN

town unless it had received a Rise of. See also:

• CHARTER (Lat. charta, carta, from Gr. Xap-rns, originally for papyrus, material for writing, thence transferred to paper and from this material to the document, in O. Eng. boc, book)

charter from its See also:

• SOVEREIGN

sovereign or its local See also:

• LORD
• LORD (O. Eng. hldford, i.e. hldfweard, the warder or keeper of bread, hlIf, loaf; the word is not represented in any other Teutonic language)
• LORD, JOHN (1810-1894)

lord .

The the cities charters were of the nature of a treaty between the in the Nether See also:

• CITY (through Fr. cite, from Lat. civitas)

city and its feudal lord, and they differed much in lands. See also:

• CHARACTER (Gr. xapareri7p, from xap&crew, to scratch)

character according to the importance of the place and the pressure it was able to put upon its sovereign . The extent of the rights which the charter conceded determined whether the town was a free town (vr'ije stadt—See also:

• VILLA

villa franca) or a See also:

• COMMUNE (Med. Lat. communia, Lat. communis, common)
• COMMUNE, MEDIEVAL

commune (gemeente—communia) . In the See also:

• CASE
• CASE, JOHN (d. 1600)

case of a commune the concessions included generally the right of See also:

• INHERITANCE

inheritance, See also:

• JUSTICE (Lat. justitia)

justice, See also:

• TAXATION
• TAXATION (from " tax," derived, through the French, from Lat. taxare, to appraise, which again is connected with the same root as tangere, to touch)

taxation, use of See also:

• WOOD, ANTHONY A2 (1632-1695)
• WOOD, JOHN GEORGE (1827—1889)
• WOOD, MRS HENRY [ELLEN] (1814—1887)
• WOOD, SEARLES VALENTINE (1798—188o)

wood, See also:

• WATER

water, &c . The lord's representative, entitled " See also:

• JUSTICIARY, HIGH COURT OF

justiciary " (se/tout) of " See also:

• BAILIFF

bailiff " (baljuw), presided over the See also:

• ADMINISTRATION (Lat. administrare, to serve)

administration of justice and took the command of the town levies in war . The gemeente—consisting only of those See also:

• BOUND, or BOUNDARY (from O. Fr. bonde, Med. Lat. bodena or butina, a frontier line)

bound by the communal See also:

• OATH (0. Eng. ddh)

oath for mutual help and See also:

• DEFENCE
• DEFENCE (Lat. defendere, to defend)

defence—elected their own magistrates . These See also:

• ELECTORS (Ger. Kurfursten, from Kilren, O.H.G. kiosan, choose, elect, and Furst, prince)

electors were often a small proportion of the whole body of inhabitants: sometimes a few influential families alone had the right, and it became hereditary . This governing See also:

• OLIGARCHY (Gr. oXiyot, few, apxil, rule)

oligarchy was known as " the See also:

• PATRICIANS (Lat. patricius, an adjectival form from pater, father; not, as some say, from pater and ciere, to call)

patricians." The magistrates bore the name of scabini (schepenen or echevins), and at their head was the seigneurial See also:

• OFFICIAL (Late Lat. QJicialis, for class. Lat. apparitor, from officium, office, duty)

official—the se/tout or baljuw . These schepenen appointed in their turn from the citizens to assist them a body of sworn councillors (gezworenen or :lure's), whose presidents, styled " burgomasters," had the supervision of the communal finances . Thus See also:

• GREW, NEHEMIAH (1641-1712)

grew up a number of municipalities—practically self-governing republics—semiindependent feudatories in the feudal state . The most powerful and flourishing of all were those of Flanders —See also:

• GHENT (Flem. Gent, Fr. Gand)

Ghent, See also:

• BRUGES (Flemish Brugge, a name signifying the bridge or place of bridges)

Bruges and See also:

• YPRES (Flemish Yperen)

Ypres . In the 13th century these towns The had become the seat of large See also:

• INDUSTRIAL

industrial populations Flemish (varying according to different estimates from roo,000 See also:

• CORN (a common Teutonic word; cf. Lat. granum, seed, grain)
• CORN (fromm Lat. corms, horn)

corn - to 200,000 inhabitants), employed upon the See also:

• WEAVING

weaving munes. of See also:

• CLOTH

cloth with its dependent See also:

• INDUSTRIES

industries, and closely bound up by See also:

• TRADE (O. Eng. trod, footstep, from tredan, to tread; in M. Eng. the forms teed, trod and trade appear, the last in the sense of a beaten track)
• TRADE, BOARD OF

trade interests with See also:

• ENGLAND
• ENGLAND, THE CHURCH OF

England, from whence they obtained the See also:

• WOOL, WORSTED AND WOOLLEN MANUFACTURES

wool for their looms . Bruges, at that time connected with the sea by the river Zwijn and with Sluis as its See also:

• PORT

port, was the central mart and See also:

• EXCHANGE

exchange of the See also:

• WORLD

world's commerce .

In these Flemish cities the See also:

• EARLY
• EARLY, JUBAL ANDERSON (1816-1894)

early oligarchic See also:

• FORM (Lat. forma)

form of municipal government speedily gave way to a democratic . The great See also:

• MASS (O.E. maesse; Fr. messe; Ger. Messe; Ital. messa; from eccl. Lat. missa)
• MASS, IN

mass of the townsmen organized in trade See also:

• GILDS, or GUILDS

gilds — weavers, fullers, dyers, smiths, See also:

• LEATHER (a word which appears in all Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Leder, Dutch leer or leder, Swed. leder, and in such Celtic forms as Welsh llader)
• LEATHER, ARTIFICIAL

leather-workers, brewers, butchers, bakers and others, of which by far the most powerful was that of the weavers—as soon as they became conscious of their strength rebelled against the exclusive privileges of the patricians and succeeded in ousting them from power . The patricians (hence called leliaerts) relied upon the support of the French crown, but the fatal See also:

• BATTLE

battle of Courtrai (1302), in which the handicraftsmen (clauwaerts) laid low the See also:

• CHIVALRY (O. Fr. chevalerie, from Late Lat. caballerius)

chivalry of France, secured the See also:

• TRIUMPH (triumphus)

triumph of the See also:

• DEMOCRACY (Gr. 3np.oKparia, from S)µos, the people, i.e. the commons, and Kparos, rule)

democracy . The power of the Flemish cities rose to its height during the ascendancy of Jacques See also:

• VAN

van See also:

• ARTEVELDE, JACOB VAN (c. 1290-1345)
• ARTEVELDE, PHILIP VAN (c. 1340-1382)

Artevelde (1285-1345), the famous See also:

• CITIZEN (a form corrupted in Eng., apparently by analogy with " denizen," from O. Fr. citeain, mod. Fr. citoyen)

citizen-statesman of Ghent, but after his downfall the mutual jealousies of the cities undermined their strength, and with the crushing defeat of Roosebeke (1382) in which Philip van Artevelde perished, the political greatness of the municipalities had entered upon its decline . In Brabant—See also:

• ANTWERP
• ANTWERP (Fr. Anvers)

Antwerp, See also:

• LOUVAIN (Flem. Leuven)

Louvain, See also:

• BRUSSELS (Fr. Bruxelles, Flem. Brussel)

Brussels, See also:

• MALINES (Flemish, Mechelen, called in the middle ages by the Latin name Mechlinia, whence the spelling Mechlin)

Malines(Mechlin)—and in the episcopal territory of Liege—Liege, Huy; See also:

• DINANT

Dinant- other there was a feebler repetition of the Flemish conditions . Nether- Flourishing communities were likewise to be found in land Hainault, See also:

• NAMUR
• NAMUR (Flemish, Namen)

Namur, Cambrai and the other southern munici- districts of the Netherlands, but nowhere else the pallties. vigorous independence of Ghent, Bruges and Ypres, nor the splendour of their civic life . In the north also the 13th century was See also:

• RICH, BARNABE (c. 1540-1617)
• RICH, CLAUDIUS JAMES (1787-1821)
• RICH, JOHN (1692-1761)
• RICH, PENELOPE, LADY (c. 1562–1607)
• RICH, RICHARD, 1ST BARON RICH (1490?-1567)

rich in municipal charters . See also:

• DORDRECHT (abbreviated Dordt, or Dort)

Dordrecht, See also:

• LEIDEN

Leiden, See also:

• HAARLEM

Haarlem, See also:

• DELFT

Delft, Vlaardigen, See also:

• ROTTERDAM

Rotterdam in Holland, and Middle-See also:

• BURG

burg and Zierikzee in See also:

• ZEELAND (or ZEALAND)

Zeeland, repeated with modifications the characteristics of the communes of Flanders and Brabant . But the growth and development of the northern communal See also:

• MOVEMENT

movement, though strong and See also:

• INSTINCT

instinct with life, was slower and less tempestuous than the Flemish . In the bishopric of Utrecht, in Gelderland and Friesland, the privileges accorded to Utrecht, See also:

• GRONINGEN

Groningen, See also:

• ZUTPHEN, or ZUTFEN

Zutphen, Stavoren, See also:

• LEEUWARDEN

Leeuwarden followed rather on the See also:

• MODEL (0. Fr. modelle, mod. modele; It. modello, pattern, mould; from Lat. modus, measure, standard)

model of those of the Rhenish " free cities " than of the Franco-Flemish commune . In the northern Netherlands generally up to the end of the 14th century the towns had no great political See also:

• WEIGHT

weight; their importance depended upon their river commerce and their markets . Thus at the close of the 14th century, despite the See also:

• CONSTANT, BENJAMIN (1845-1902)

constant wars between the feudal sovereigns who held sway in the Netherlands, the vigorous municipal life had fostered See also:

• INDUSTRY (Lat. industria, from indu-, a form of the pre, position in, and either stare, to stand, or struere, to pile up)

industry and commerce, and had caused Flanders in particular to become the richest possession in the world .

It was precisely at this time that Flanders, and gradually the other feudal states of the Netherlands, by marriage, See also:

• PURCHASE

purchase, treachery or force, fell under the dominion of the The See also:

• BUR, or BURR (apparently the same word as Danish borre, burdock, cf. Swed. kard-boore)

Bur- See also:

• HOUSE
• HOUSE (O. Eng. hiss, a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Dut. huis, Ger. Haus; in Gothic it is only found in gudhiss, a temple; it may be ultimately connected with the root of " hide," conceal)

house of See also:

• BURGUNDY

Burgundy . The See also:

• FOUNDATION (Lat. fundatio, from fundare, to found)

foundation of the Burgundian do inion. rule in the Netherlands was laid by the succession of Philip the Bold to the counties of Flanders and See also:

• ARTOIS

Artois in 1384 in right of his wife See also:

• MARGARET
• MARGARET (1283–1290)
• MARGARET (1353-1412)
• MARGARET (1489–1541)
• MARGARET, ST (c. 1045–1093)
• MARGARET, ST (SANCTA MARGARITA)

Margaret de Male . In 1404 Antony, Philip's second son (killed at See also:

• AGINCOURT (AZINCOURT)

Agincourt 1415), became duke of Brabant by See also:

• BEQUEST (from 0. Eng. becwethan, to declare or express in words; cf. " quoth ")

bequest of his great-aunt See also:

• JOAN

Joan . The consolidation of the Burgundian power was effected by Philip the Good, See also:

• GRANDSON (Ger. Grandsee)

grandson of Philip the Bold, in his long and successful reign of 48 years, 1419-1467 . He inherited Flanders and Artois, See also:

• PURCHASED

purchased the See also:

• COUNTY (through Norm. Fr. comae, cf. O. Fr. cunte, conk', Mod. Fr. comae, from Lat. comitatus, cf. Ital. comitato, Prov. comtat; see COUNT)

county of Namur (1427) and compelled his See also:

• COUSIN (Fr. cousin, Ital. cugino, Late Lat. cosinus, perhaps a popular and familiar abbreviation of consobrinus, which has the same sense in classical Latin)
• COUSIN, JEAN (1500-1590)
• COUSIN, VICTOR (1792–1867)

cousin Jacqueline,the heiress of Holland, Zeeland, Hainault and Friesland, to surrender her possessions to him, 1428 . On the death in 1430 of his cousin Philip, duke of Brabant, he took possession of Brabant and Limburg; the duchy of Luxemburg he acquired by purchase, 1443 . He made his See also:

• BASTARD (O. Fr. bastard, mod. bdtard = fits de bast, "pack-saddle child," from bast, saddle)

bastard son See also:

• DAVID
• DAVID (a Hebrew name meaning probably beloved 1)
• DAVID, FELICIEN (1810—1876)
• DAVID, GERARD [GHEERAERT DAVIT], (?=1523)
• DAVID, PIERRE JEAN (1789–1856)
• DAVID, ST (Dewi, Sant)

David bishop of Utrecht, and from 1456 onwards that see continued under Burgundian influence . Two other bastards were placed on the episcopal throne of Liege, an illegitimate brother on that of Cambrai . Philip did not live to see Gelderland and Liege pass definitively under his rule; it was reserved for his son, Charles the Bold, to crush the independence of Liege (1468) and to incorporate Gelderland in his dominions (1473)• This See also:

• EXTENSION (Lat. ex, out ; tendere, to stretch)

extension of dominion on the part of the See also:

• DUKES
• DUKES, LEOPOLD (1810-1891)

dukes of Burgundy implied the See also:

• ESTABLISHMENT (0. Fr. establissement, Fr. etablissement, late Norm. Fr. establishement, from O. Fr. establir, Fr. etablir, Lat. stabilire, to make stable)

establishment of a strong monarchical authority . They had united under their sway a number phlilp the of provinces with different histories and institutions Good . and speaking different See also:

• LANGUAGES

languages, and their aim was to centralize the government . The See also:

• NOBILITY

nobility and See also:

• CLERGY (M.E. clergie, O. Fr. clergie, from Low Lat. form clericia [Skean, by assimilation with O. Fr. clergie, Fr. clerge,from Low Lat. clericatus)
• CLE