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NEWSPAPERS
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The word " newspaper," as now employed, covers so wide a See also:
See also:Juvenal speaks of a Roman See also:lady passing her See also:morning in See also:reading the paper, so that it appears that private copies were in See also:vogue
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In See also:China the Peking Gazelle, as foreigners See also:call it, containing imperial rescripts and official news, has appeared regularly ever since the days of the Tang See also:dynasty (A.D
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618-905)
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Even older than it, as is alleged, is the monthly Peking News (Tsing-Pao)—now in See also:appearance an See also:octavo See also:book of 24 pages in a yellow See also:cover—which, according to M
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Huart, See also:French See also:Consul at See also:Canton, was founded early in the 6th See also:century
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But it is not of any real moment to do more than refer to such publications as these, which have little in See also:common with the ideas of Western See also:civilization
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The -" newspaper " in its modern acceptation can only be properly dated from the See also:time when in Western See also:Europe the invention of printing made a multiplication of copies a commercial possibility in any satisfactory sense
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On the point of terminology, Mr J
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B
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W
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See also:Williams, in his History of English Journalism to the See also:Foundation of the Gazette (1908), the first scholarly account of the early See also:evolution of the Press in See also:England, describes the See also:Oxford Gazette of 1665 (the See also:original of the See also:London Gazette) as the first English " newspaper " in the precise sense, i.e. a " paper " of news;' for it was a See also:half-sheet in See also:folio, two pages, and not a " pamphlet " as previous periodicals of news had been
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A pamphlet (q.v.) was one or more
1 For the earliest known use of the See also:term " newspaper " he cites a See also:letter in 1670 to See also:
But it is hardly necessary to insist here on the distinction between a " news book " and a " newspaper," interesting as it is to See also:note that the English inclusion of newspapers among " books " for the purpose of the See also:law of See also:copyright is strictly justified by the original nomenclature
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The " newsbook " made what is for modern purposes the essential advance upon either the written " newsletter " or the isolated printed announcement of some event, in being both printed and also issued in a See also:series at regular and continuous intervals
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Yet both these forms of publication were in the See also:direct ancestry of the newspaper
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The See also:writing of " letters of news " or "letters of intelligence" was a regular profession before the printed newspaper was introduced, and lasted as such for some time afterwards, having indeed the See also:advantage of being outside the See also:necessity of obtaining a See also:licence, which hampered the printed publication; and the profession of " scrivener " naturally suggested that of the later type of journalist
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Of what used, again, to be called a " relation," i.e. a statement of an isolated piece of news, there are various printed examples as early as during the latter part of the 15th century
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For instance, an official manifesto of See also:Archbishop See also:Dietrich of See also:Cologne was printed at See also:Mainz in 1462
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A French pamphlet giving an account of the surrender of See also:Granada to See also: The effect of the Cologne Mercurius Gallobelgicus (1594) on English purveyors of " relations " is dealt with below (under See also:United See also:Kingdom); but this was rather a book than a newspaper . The earliest plainly periodical publication containing " news of the See also:day " was, how-ever, the See also:German Frankfurter See also:Journal, a weekly started by Egenolph Emmel in 1615 . The See also:Antwerp Nieuwe Tijdinghen followed in 1616; and in 1622 the history of English newspapers begins with the Weekly Newes published in London by See also:Archer and See also:Bourne . From this point we are on firmer ground, and the evolution of the modern Press in the different countries, as traced below, can be continuously followed . It is See also:worth noting that a See also:link in the history of journalism with the Roman Acta Diurna is provided by the Venetian See also:government written gazelti (from which comes our " gazette ") of the 16th century, official bulletins or leaflets dealing with public affairs, which were avowedly based on the ancient Roman See also:model . See also:Italy indeed originated not only the See also:title " gazette " (probably derived from the Gr. ya4"a, i.e. See also:treasury of news), but also that of " coranto " (Fr. courant; also early anglicized as " current," i.e. a " See also:running " relation), both of which are See also:familiar in the history of the English and See also:foreign Press . The See also:art and business of journalism, as now understood—taking " journalism " here in the sense of the See also:production of the literary contents of a newspaper, and not the production and See also:distribution of the printed sheet itself—is a /omur.na/-See also:combination of the mere recording or reporting of news and of its presentation in such a way, and with such comment, as to See also:influence the minds of readers in some particular direction . The history of the " leading See also:article " as a See also:great See also:factor in the shaping of public See also:opinion begins with See also:Swift, See also:Defoe, See also:Bolingbroke and Pulteney, in the many English newspapers, from the See also:Review and the Examiner to the Craftsman, by which was waged the keen political strife of the years 1704-1740 . There is no See also:counter-part to it in See also:France until the Revolution of 1789, nor in Germany until 1796 or 1798 . It was a Frenchman who wrote—" Suffer yourself to be blamed, imprisoned, condemned; suffer yourself even to be hanged; but publish your opinions . It is not a right; it is a See also:duty." It was in England that the course so pithily described was actually taken, in the See also:face of See also:fine, imprisonment and See also:pillory, at a time when in France the public had to depend upon foreign See also:journals illicitly circulated, when its own See also:chief writers resorted to clandestine presses, to paltry disguises, and to very poor subterfuges to See also:escape the responsibilities of avowed authorship, and when in Germany there was no political publicity worthy to be named . When the Mercure de France (1672), after a See also:long See also:period of mediocrity, came into the hands of men of large intellectual See also:faculty, they had the most cogent reasons for exerting their See also:powers upon topics of literature rather than upon themes of politics . True political journalism dates in France only from the French Revolution (see, for instance, See also:MALLET D11 See also:PAN), and it then had a very brief existence . It occupied a cluster of writers, some of whom See also:left an enduring See also:mark upon French literature . A term of high aspiration was followed quickly by a much longer term of frantic licence and of literary See also:infamy . Then came the long See also:rule of a despotic censorship; and cycles of licence followed by cycles of repression . In 187o indeed the democratic government at See also:Bordeaux issued against journals of high aims and of unspotted integrity, but opposed to its pretensions, edicts as arbitrary as the worst acts in that See also:kind of See also:Napoleon I., and unparalleled in the whole course of the government of Napoleon III . In all the other countries of Europe political journalism, in any characteristic sense, was the creation of the 19th century—somewhat earlier in the century in See also:northern Europe, somewhat later in See also:southern . The Ordinarie Post-Tidende of See also:Stockholm dates indeed from 1643, but until See also:recent times it was a mere news letter . See also:Denmark had no sort of journal worth remark until the foundation in 1749 of the Berlingske Tidende, and that too attained to no political See also:rank . The Gazette (Viedomosti) of St See also:Petersburg—the See also:patriarch of See also:Russian newspapers—dating from the 16th of See also:December 1702, is a government See also:organ, and nearly synchronizes with the See also:Boston News-Letter (1704), the first. successful See also:attempt at a newspaper in the British colonies in See also:America . Journalism in Italy begins with the Diario di See also:Roma in 1716, but in politics the See also:Italian press remained a nullity for all See also:practical purposes until nearly the See also:middle of the 19th century, when the newspapers of See also:Sardinia, at the impulse of See also:Cavour, began to foreshadow the approach of the influential Italian press of a later day . In See also:Spain no rudiments of a newspaper press can be found until the 18th century; the Gaceta de See also:Madrid started about 1726 . As See also:late as in 1826 an inquisitive See also:American traveller recorded his inability to See also:lay his hands, during his See also:Peninsular tour, upon more than two See also:Spanish newspapers . While originally the newspaper depended entirely on its own reporters and correspondents for news, and still largely does so, the widening of the field of modern journalism is largely due to collective enterprise, by which outside organizations known as " news agencies " send a common service of news to all papers which arrange to take it . The first of the great See also:collecting and distributing news agencies, See also:Reuter's Agency, was founded by See also:Julius Reuter, a Prussian government-messenger, who was impressed by the common interest roused by the revolutionary movements of 1848 . In 1849 he established a news-transmitting agency in See also:Paris, with all the appliances that were then available . Between See also:Brussels and See also:Aix-la-Chapelle he formed a See also:pigeon-service, connecting it with Paris and with See also:Berlin by See also:telegraph . As the wires extended, he quickly followed them with agency-offices in many parts of the continent . He then went to London, where his progress was for a moment held in check . Mr See also:Walter of The Times listened very courteously to his proposals, but (on that first occasion) ended their interview by saying, " We generally find that we can do our own business better than anybody else can." He went to the office of the Morning Advertiser, which had then the next largest circulation to that XIx . 18of The Times, and had better success . He entered into an agreement with that and afterwards with other London journals, including The Times, and also with many commercial corporations and firms . The newspapers, of course, continued to employ their own organizations and to extend them, but they found great advantage in the use of Reuter's telegrams as supplementary . Within a few years the business is said to have yielded the founder some £25,000 a See also:year, and in 1865 it was transferred to a limited See also:company . In later years this type of news-agency operating all over the See also:world was repeated by others, and also by agencies operating mainly or exclusively only in one See also:country . It is no longer possible nowadays to confine the meaning of " journalism " merely to the See also:work of those who write for the Press . Properly it may be said to include the whole intellectual work comprised in the production of a newspaper; and although the designation of " journalist " is generally applied only to editors and to writers, and would not be extended at all to the purely See also:mechanical See also:staff—the compositors, foundry-men and machinists—nor even to the See also:proof-readers, whose See also:sphere is analogous rather to the sub-editorial than to the mechanical departments, the modern tendency has nevertheless been, not only to install mere reporting (q.v.) in a See also:place of high importance, but to give increased See also:weight in journalism to those who occupy what may be called the " managerial " offices, the business See also:side of making a paper pay having itself See also:developed into an art on its own account . To be a great " journalist " was once, but is hardly now, the same as being a great " publicist." The publicist proper is he who delivers his views on public affairs in the Press; but the excellence of his articles may nevertheless be consistent with the journal being a disastrous failure, and his reputation as a journalist is then but poor . The great journalist is he who makes the paper with which he is connected a success; and in days of competition the elements necessary for obtaining and keeping a hold on the public are so diverse, and the factors bearing on the See also:financial success, the business side, of the paper are so many, that the organization of victory frequently depends on other considerations than those of its See also:intrinsic literary excellence or sagacity of opinion, even if it cannot be wholly See also:independent of these . The modern newspaper, moreover, depends for its financial success no longer primarily on its receipts from circulation, but on its receipts from advertisements; and though these can only ultimately be secured on the basis of circulation (the number of See also:people who buy and read the paper), the See also:establishment of the paper as the organ of a large See also:body of readers for whose See also:custom it is desirable to advertise often involves other capacities than those of the great publicist; and even in so far as the circulation depends on the attractiveness of its " news," the direction given to the See also:supply of news may be managerial rather than editorial . Thus, in the See also:division of labour, the editorial functions, formerly supreme and all-embracing, because the excellence of the contents of the paper made its success, have gradually, by a fissiparous See also:process, yielded some of their authority to the managerial functions, and these have grown into an in-dependence which—since editorial possibilities ultimately depend on financial resources—has given increased importance in journalism to the business side . It must suffice here to say therefore that the work of journalism may be broadly divided into its editorial and managerial sides . And apart from exceptional cases of a working proprietor who is both editor and manager, or of a managing-editor, or of a great manager who exercises editorial functions, or a great editor who exercises managerial functions, the ordinary course is to keep them fairly distinct . The managerial side involves the business work of a paper, including the obtaining of advertisements and all the operations directly connected with producing it and making it pay as a commercial enterprise . The editorial side is engaged—however much managerial exigencies may dictate its policy—in providing the " reading See also:matter " which forms its contents, other than such as is of the nature of advertising . The editorial staff includes editors and assistant-editors, sub-editors (in Great See also:Britain a term usually restricted in daily journalism to those engaged in the " news " oeparements) . See also:leader-writers, critics,'reporters (more narrowly considered part of the " sub-editorial " staff), &c . The actual owner of the paper, the proprietor, may or may not take part in either side, but in law his authority is delegated to those who produce it . The older ideas of journalistic management survive in making the editor, publisher and printer, but curiously not the " manager," liable in a See also:writ for libel, contempt of See also:court, &c:, together with the proprietor in English law . But no satisfactory legal definition of " editor," still less of " manager," is possible, since their positions and powers vary according to circumstances . So far as the general relations of the staff of a paper with its proprietor are concerned, we may briefly note that engagements are contracts for See also:personal service; they will not therefore be specifically enforced, and the remedy for injury is dismissal or See also:action for See also:damages; and they must be in writing and stamped, to be See also:evidence in law, if for a year or longer . The editor is the See also:agent of the proprietor, and binds him for acts within the See also:scope of editorial authority (which includes, the insertion of any matter in the paper) . Being an agent he can have no See also:power as against the proprietor, but unreasonable interference on the latter's part may entitle an editor to an action for See also:breach of See also:contract or for damage to his professional reputation: while See also:gross misconduct on the part of an editor might similarly entitle the proprietor to damages . Letters, See also:manuscripts, &c., come into the editor's hands as agent for his proprietor, and are the latter's See also:property . Uninvited contributors send him articles at their own See also:risk, but the sending to them of a type-set proof has been held to be evidence of See also:acceptance . Apart from See also:special terms, the editor is entitled to " edit " such articles, i.e. use them wholly or in part, or alter them; he has a See also:free hand to do so in the See also:case of See also:anonymous articles; in the case of signed articles it is clearly his duty to keep them free from libel or illegality, but the right to edit is limited in so far as his alterations might attribute to the writer anything which would give the latter a claim for damages . Though the highest See also:function of an editor is embodied in the See also:etymology of the word (a " bringer forth " or producer), as one who acts as the literary See also:midwife in the literary setting forth of ideas, it is probably his use of the proverbial See also:blue-See also:pencil, altering or deleting, which is generally associated with the word "to edit." Each aspect, however, of editorial work has its own importance—the organization and See also:inspiration on-the one hand, the moulding into shape on the other . And " See also:good " editing is necessarily relative, depending to a certain extent on the See also:character of the paper which it is intended to produce . See PRESS LAWS, LIBEL, COPYRIGHT, &c.; and generally, for law, See also:Fisher and See also:Strachan, Law of the Press (2nd ed., 1898) . The history of the Newspaper Press is told for various countries of importance under their respective sections below . The practical development of the 'modern newspaper is indeed due to a See also:union of causes, largely mechanical, that may well be termed marvellous . A See also:machine (see PRINTING) that, from a See also:web of paper 3 or 4 M. long, can, in one See also:hour, See also:print, See also:fold, cut and deliver many thousand perfected broadsheets, is, however, not so great a marvel as is the organizing skill which collects See also:information by conversation, post or telegraph, from all over the world, and then distributes these communications in cheap printed copies regularly every day to an enormous public, sifted, arranged and commented upon, in the course of a few See also:hours . But for a high ideal of public responsibility and duty, conjoined with high culture and with great " staying-power," in the editorial rooms, all these marvels of ingenuity—which now combine to develop public opinion on great public interests, and to See also:guide it—would be nothing better than a vast mechanism for making See also:money out of See also:man's natural aptitude to spend his time either in telling or in See also:hearing some new thing . A newspaper, after all, is essentially a business, conducted by its proprietors for gain . That the commercial See also:motive is a danger to honest journals is obvious, were it not indeed that here as elsewhere honesty is in the long run the best commercial policy . The example of American journalism has so greatly affected the developments in England and other countries since about 1890, that it is important to realize the conditions under which, in the United States, the newer type of journalism arose.' In substance very much the same causes produced very much the same effects, though at a slower See also:rate, in England; but British conservatism operated here as elsewhere . Several circumstances combined in the last See also:quarter of the 19th century to Promote The account which follows is reproduced from Mr Whitelaw See also:Reid's article in the loth edition of the Ency . Brit.great changes in the See also:condition and character of American newspapers . (I) Paper was enormously cheapened . Before and during the See also:Civil See also:War it cost large New See also:York newspapers at times 22 cents per lb for even a poor quality . In 1864 it cost 16 cents in See also:February, and ran up a cent every See also:month till in See also:mid-summer it touched 21 and 22 cents . As late as 1873 it was still sold at from 12 to 13 cents . As new materials were found and machinery was improved, the See also:price slowly declined . When the manufacture from See also:wood-pulp was made commercially successful, the profits tempted great investments of new See also:capital; bigger See also:mills were built, competition became keen, and new inventions cheapened the various processes . Thus in New York in 1875 the See also:average price for the year for See also:fair " news " paper was 8.53 cents per lb; in 1880, 6.92; in 1885, 5.16; and in 1890, 3'38 . At last, about 1897, large contracts for a good average quality, delivered at the press-See also:room, were made in New York at as See also:low a figure as 1.5 cents per lb . Subsequently advances in raw materials, one or two dry seasons which curtailed the See also:water-power, and combinations resulting from over-competition, caused some reaction . Yet it could still be said in 1900 that prudent publishers could buy for $I as much paper as would have cost them $3 twenty years earlier, or $Io about 1875 . (2) Printing machinery for great newspaper offices was transformed . Instead of the old See also:cylinder presses fed by hand, with the product then folded and counted by hand, See also:machines came into common use to print, fold, cut, See also:paste and See also:count and deliver in bundles, ready either for the See also:carrier or the See also:mail, at rates of See also:speed formerly not dreamed of . The See also:size of the paper could 'be increased or diminished at will, as late news might require, within an hour of the time when it must be in the hands of its readers . Instead of cutting down other news to make room for something late and important, more pages were added, and this steadily increased the tendency to larger papers . Devices were also found for printing the same sheet in different See also:colours at the same rate of speed; and in this way startling headlines were made more startling in red See also:ink, or a piece of news for which special See also:attention was desired was made so glaring that no one could help seeing it . (3) Hand-setting (for great newspapers) was practically abolished . Instead of the slow gathering of single types by hand See also:separate lines were now produced and See also:cast by machines, capable when pushed to their utmost capacity of doing each the work of five average compositors . Thus between 1880 and 1900 there were reductions in the cost—(1) of the raw material for the manufacture of newspapers from two-thirds to three-fourths; (2) of printing, at least as much; and (3) of See also:composition, at least one-half, while the facilities in each See also:department for a greater product within a given time were enormously increased . The obvious business tendency of these changes was either a reduction in price or an increase of size, or both . See also:Electricity became the only news-carrier . New ocean cables See also:broke down the high rates charged at the outset . The American news appetite, growing by what it fed on, soon demanded far See also:fuller cablegrams of See also:European news; and the See also:wars in which Great Britain and the United States were involved accelerated the See also:movement . The establishment of a strong telegraph company, capable of efficient competition with the one which practically controlled the inland service in 1880, likewise cheapened domestic news by telegraph and increased its See also:volume . The companies presently recognized their interest in encouraging See also:rival news associations, and so getting See also:double work for the wires, while promoting the establishment of new papers . See also:Wild competition between news agencies was thus encouraged (even in the cases of some already known to be bankrupt) to the. extent of credits of a quarter or half a million dollars on telegraphic tolls . The rapid spread of long-distance See also:telephone lines further contributed to this tendency to make the whole continent a whispering See also:gallery for the press . Every great paper had both telegraph and telephone wires run directly into its newsroom . See also:Photography and See also:etching were added to the office equipment . Various " process " methods were found, by which the popular See also:desire for a picture to make the news clearer could be gratified . Drawings were reproduced successfully in stereotype' plates for The influence of American journal-ism . the fastest rotary presses . The field of political See also:caricature had heretofore belonged exclusively to the weekly papers, but the great dailies now seized upon it, and commanded the service of the cleverest caricaturists . Newspapers found a way to put the " half-See also:tone " etching of a photograph, such as had heretofore been printed only on slow See also:flat presses, bodily into the stereotype See also:plate for the great quadruple and octuple presses; and there-after portraits and photographs of important See also:groups on notable occasions began to appear, embodied in the See also:text describing the occurrences, a few hours after the See also:camera had been turned on them, in papers printed at the rate of See also:thirty and See also:forty thousand an hour . In this development of illustrated daily journalism America rapidly went far beyond other countries . News agencies multiplied and gave chdaper service . The New York Associated Press had been the chief agency for the whole country . It admitted new customers with great caution, and its refusal to admit was almost prohibitory, while its withdrawal of news from established papers was practically fatal . It was owned by the leading New York journals . Their disagreements led to the success of a rival, the United Press . The New York Associated Press finally dissolved, most of the New York members became connected with the United Press, and many of their Western and Southern clients organized the Associated Press of See also:Illinois, more nearly on a mutual See also:plan . The United Press finally failed, and most of its New York members went into the Associated Press of Illinois, which in turn was forced into plans for reorganization by decisions of Illinois courts against its rules for confining its services to its own members . One result of these successive changes was to en-courage new papers by making it easy for them to secure a comprehensive news service, and thus to threaten the value of the old papers . Another was the struggle to increase the volume of the service, leading to reports of multitudes of occurrences formerly left without See also:notice in the great news centres, and ex-tension of agencies into the remotest hamlets, and less scrupulous care in the See also:consideration and preparation of the reports filed at many points for transmission . News syndicates for special purposes also developed, as well as small news associations, sometimes with a service sufficient for the wants of many papers . The almost official authenticity which the public formerly attributed to an Associated Press despatch measurably declined; and the dailies found more difficulty in sifting and deciding upon the news that came to them, and incurred more individual responsibility for what they printed . The great See also:accumulation of private fortunes also changed the newspapers . Millionaires came to think it advantageous to own newspapers, openly or secretly, which could be conducted without reference to direct profits, for the See also:sake primarily of political, social or business considerations . To secure large circulations for such enterprises they were willing to sell the paper for long periods at much below the cost of manufacture, and to spend money for news and writers more lavishly than the legitimate business of established journals would allow . Great business corporations seeking for favourable or fearing adverse legislation sometimes made See also:secret newspaper investments for the same purpose . These various new conditions, affecting the newspaper press of the United States with ever-increasing force, gradually changed the average character of the papers and their effect upon their readers . A large circulation became the only evidence of success and the only way to make the sale of a newspaper below cost ultimately a source of profit . A disposition to See also:lower the character in See also:order to catch the largest See also:audience naturally followed . Criminal news was reported more fully than formerly, with more piquant details . Competitors outdid each other in the effort to treat all news with unprecedented See also:sensationalism . The lowest possible price was regarded as essential to the largest possible circulation, and so i1 favourite price even for large newspapers became one cent to the public, and consequently only half a cent to the publishers, whose business was practically all at wholesale with dealers and news companies . The feeling that the most must be given for the money prompted also thegreat increase in size, only made possible by the reductions in paper, composition, presswork, &c., already noted . Yet mere quantity and mere sensation after a time palled on the jaded appetite, and the spice of intense See also:personality became necessary . As most people like to see their names in print, and can See also:bear See also:criticism of their neighbours with composure, these two chords of human nature were incessantly played upon . The See also:principal feature in the development of modern news-papers is the importance attached to obtaining, and prominently displaying, " news " of all sorts, and incidentally ctrarscthere has been a considerable See also:change of view as to what terstks sort of news should be given prominence . See also:Sport and of modern See also:finance are treated at greater length and more popu- newslarly; and, partly owing to the largely increased papers. number of papers and consequent greater competition, partly to a desire to See also:appeal to the larger public, which is now able to read and ready to buy reading-matter, there has been a tendency to follow the tastes of the vast number of people who can read at all rather than of those to whom reading means a very high See also:standard of literary and intellectual enjoyment . This has involved a more popular form of presenting news, not only in a less literary See also:style and by the presentation of " tit-bits " of information with an appeal to cruder sentiments, but also in a more liberal use of headlines and of similar devices for catching the See also:eye of the reader . " Personal journalism," i.e. paragraphs about the private See also:life or personal appearance of individuals—either men or See also:women—of note or notoriety in society or public affairs, has become far more marked; and in this respect, as in many others, encouragement has been given to a spirit of inquisitiveness, and also to a widespread inclination either to flatter or be oneself flattered, the latter desire being indeed conspicuously prevalent in these "democratic days" even among the classes which once affected to despise such publicity . The modern impulse, culminating in England in the last See also:decade of the 19th century in what was then called the "New Journalism," was a direct product of American conditions and ways of life, but in Great Britain it was also the result of the democratic movement produced by the See also:Education Act of 187o and the Reform Act of 1885; and it affected more or less all countries which came within the influence of free institutions . The most generally adopted American innovation (for, though not known before even in England, it was practically a new thing as carried out in American newspapers) was the " inter-view " (the See also:report in See also:dialogue form of a conversation with some prominent See also:person, whose views were thus elicited by a reporter), which during the early 'nineties was taken up in varying degrees by English newspapers; it was "cheap copy "—the word " copy " covering in journalistic See also:slang any matter in the shape of an article—and could easily be made both informing and interesting; and " interviewing " caused a large increase in the journalistic profession, notably among women . The rage for the " interview " again declined in vogue outside American journalism in proportion as people of importance became less ready to talk for publication—or for nothing . From the highest class of paper downwards, however, real news—and especially early news—has been more and more sought after, and all the force of organization both within individual newspaper offices and outside them in the shape of news agencies, has been applied to the purpose of obtaining early news and See also:publishing it as quickly as possible . In this matter the Press has certainly been helped most materially not only by the advance in telegraphic facilities (see REPORTING) but by all the other new rapid methods of production in Type-setting (see See also:TYPOGRAPHY) and Press-work (see PRINTING) which have been the feature of the modern period . The vastly increased amount of telegraphic work now done has perhaps not been all pure gain to the best sort of journalism . It has to some extent weakened the effect of the considered article, and led to hasty conclusions and precipitate publication, with results that sometimes cannot be compensated for by any later See also:contradiction or modification . In some cases a reaction ensued . Take for instance the case of war See also:correspondence . The See also:prestige of the " war correspondent " became at one time enormous, and his evolution from the days of H . Crabb See also:Robinson, who wrote to The Times from Spain in 1807-1809, has been traced by busy pens with all the precision of a special interest in history . Certainly nothing finer in active English journalism was ever done than in W . H . See also:Russell's letters to The Times from the See also:Crimea, or the work of See also:Archibald See also:Forbes and others in the Franco-Prussian War; but more recently, although first-rate abilities have been forthcoming, the news agencies, often favoured by the military Press See also:censor, have generally been ahead of the " specials," and the individual work that might have been done for isolated papers has been much hampered by restrictions . This is due partly to the increased competition, partly to military See also:jealousy and officialism, partly to the vital importance of secrecy in modern warfare: but the result has been to a considerable extent to reduce the value of the " war correspondent " as compared with what was done in the Press in the days of Russell and Forbes . A letter arriving See also:weeks after the telegraphic account, however meagre, is largely shorn of its interest . Given a brilliant foreign correspondent, the form of letters sent See also:home from abroad on general subjects is still, no doubt, very effective . But the telegram is necessarily the backbone of the news service of the daily paper . The Press, be it added, is frequently able to acquaint the public with what is going on while a government itself is still uninformed . The work of officials and statesmen is admittedly increased and sometimes embarrassed by the new See also:strain imposed upon them in consequence, but the public are on the whole well served by their emancipation from the obscurity of purely official intelligence and by the See also:obligation of straightforward dealing imposed upon governments, which in their nature are See also:apt to be secretive . Connected with the increased attention given to news is the greater vogue of the newspaper " See also:poster " or contents-See also:bill, which is exhibited in the streets . The poster has acquired commercial importance for indicating the See also:possession of some special news without revealing its whole nature, and the tendency has been to have fewer lines and fewer words in larger type, in order to catch the eye more impressively . Rotary machines for printing these posters enable them to be turned out with greater rapidity; and in the case especially of evening papers it is possible at any time during the afternoon, should important news arrive, to issue a new poster and thus secure a large See also:street sale by the insertion of a few words only in the " stop press " or " fudge " without the necessity of changes in the plates . The catch-See also:penny style of the poster has transferred itself also to the newspaper itself, in the shape of the " scare " headlines . And there has been a tendency for the news to be so " displayed " in the headlines as to make any further reading unnecessary . Apart from the publication of " news " and reports, and occasional original articles of a descriptive and See also:miscellaneous character, the chief function of a newspaper is criticism, whether of politics or other topics of the moment, or of the See also:drama, art, See also:music, books, sport or finance . As regards sport, the comments of the various newspapers are mainly descriptive; but a prominent feature in the United Kingdom has been the attention paid to " tipping " probable winners on the See also:Turf, and the insertion of betting news . The publication of the " odds " some time before a See also:race, and of starting-prices, undoubtedly helped to See also:foster the increase of this form of gambling, as was pointed out in the report of the Select See also:Committee on Gambling in England in 1902, but the efforts to induce the English newspapers to keep such matter out of their columns have not had much success . The Daily News (London) in 1902 started on a new proprietorship under Mr Cadbury with a declared policy of not referring to See also:horse-racing or betting; but when its principal proprietors in 1909 became largely concerned also in the See also:Star and Morning Leader, they were apparently content to retain the " tipster " elements which bulked large in them, and this inconsistency aroused considerable comment . The sporting interest (i.e. the desire to know results of racing and See also:cricket, &c.) largely inflates the circulation of most of the London and provincial See also:halfpenny evening papers . Between about 1870 and i88o the English newspapers began to pay increased attention to literary and See also:artistic criticism; and gradually the daily Press, which formerly applied itself mainly to recording news, and to political, social and financial subjects, became a formidable rival in this sphere to the weekly reviews and the monthly and quarterly magazines . Books are "re-viewed " in the Press partly for literary reasons, partly as a quid See also:pro quo for publishers' advertisements; and the desire for " something to quote," irrespectively of the responsible nature of the criticism, became in the early 'nineties a See also:mania with publishers, who in general appear to have considered that their sales depended upon their catching a public which would be satisfied by seeing in the See also:advertisement that such and such a book was pronounced by such and such a paper to be " indispensable to any See also:gentleman's library." Unfortunately the enormous output of books made it impossible for editors to have them all reviewed, and equally impossible for them to be certain of discriminating properly between those which were really worth reviewing or not . The result has been that the work of book-reviewing in the newspapers is often hastily and poorly or very spasmodically done . But there have been some See also:honourable exceptions . The " Literary Supplement " (since 1901) to The Times is the most ambitious attempt made by any daily paper to See also:deal seriously with literature . The Daily See also:Chronicle started a " literary See also:page " in 1891, and it was imitated in varying degrees by other English papers . The Scotsman and some other provincial papers have also for some time devoted much space to excellent literary criticism . The " literary supplement " has also been developed to excellent effect in some journals in the United States, such as the New York Times, where this feature was indeed originally started . As a form of serious criticism, however, the review has, in the general newspapers of later years, taken a lower place than must be desirable, partly owing to the cause named, partly to a tendency among reviewers either to indiscriminate praise or to irresponsible irrelevance, partly to a suspicion of " See also:log-See also:rolling "; and to a large extent it has become the practice merely to treat the appearance of new books as so much news, to be chronicled, with or without extracts, according as the subject makes good " copy," like any other event of the day . The modern tendency, resulting from the enormous amount of newspaper production, has been to make journalism less literary and at the same time literature more journalistic . Either as reviewers, leader-writers or editors, many of the principal " men of letters " have worked for longer or shorter periods as writers for some newspaper or other, and much of the published literature of the time has appeared originally in the columns of the newspapers, in the form of essays, poems, short stories or novels (in serial form) . Publication in this shape has many advantages for an author besides that of additional remuneration; it offers an opportunity for a new writer to try his wings, and it See also:helps to introduce him at once to a large public . Moreover, the newspapers read by the educated classes profit by the See also:superior class of journalist represented by writers of a literary turn . But the increased popularity of the news-paper, and the See also:close tie between it and the literary world, have on the whole impressed a journalistic See also:stamp upon much of the literature of the day . However popular at the moment a writer may be, the infection with journalistic methods—while rightly employed by journalists, as such, in dealing with contemporary events and for strictly contemporary purposes—is apt to be responsible for something wanting in his work, the loss of which deprives him of the permanent literary or scientific rank to which he might otherwise aspire . The new point of departure for the more popular style of English journalism (apart from the influence of American See also:models) is really to be found in the publication of See also:Sir See also:George (then Mr) Newnes's Tit-Bits in 1881 . This penny weekly paper, with its appeal to the masses, who liked to read snippets of information brightly put together, showed what enormous profits were to be made by this style of enterprise; and the multiplication of journals of this description—notably Mr See also:Alfred Harmsworth's (See also:Lord Northcliffe's) Answers (1888) and Mr C . See also:Arthur See also:Pearson's Pearson's Weekly (189o)—had a further influence on public See also:taste; so that even the classes above that which primarily enjoyed these publications were affected in the same direction . A new note was thus introduced into English daily journalism in England .
Whereas before 1885 the chief feature in London journalism, outside The Times and other great morning papers, had been the literary brilliance of the Saturday Review and its evening paper analogues, the See also:Pall Mall and St See also: The See also:liberty of the Press enables every sort of view, right or wrong, to be discussed in this prominent form, and thus every aspect of a question is brought out in public, to be accepted or rejected according to the weight of evidence and of See also:argument . The same end is assisted by the devotion of so much space to " lett~r~ to the editor." It is sometimes said that in England the London rimes owes its position largely to the fact that if any individual grievance is See also:felt it is generally ventilated by a letter to The Times . Whatever may be the organization of the ' It must be remembered that the style of public speeches has also altered . Nobody thinks of quoting the See also:classics nowadays in the See also:House of See also:Commons . A more business-like form of speech is adopted in public life, and the Press reflects this change . Press for reporting the news of the day, the resources of no newspaper staff are great enough to cover an See also:area of information as large as that represented by its readers; and the value of the outlet for opinion and information afforded by the correspondence columns cannot be overstated . Most people probably read more papers than is compatible with a healthy See also:mental digestion, but the Press, as such, has to-day an enormous—and none the less real because subtle—influence; and this is largely due to the reputation maintained by its higher representatives . While, individually, the great papers wield considerable influence, due partly to real sagacity and authority, partly to the psychological effect produced by mere print or by reiterated statement, collectively the Press now represents the Public, and expresses popular opinicn more directly than any representative See also:assembly . The multiplication of " Press-cutting agencies," and of such essentially " newsy " publications as Who's Who (the English form of which originated with Mr See also:Douglas Sladen in 1897) and similar See also:biographical reference books—all tending to increase. the publicity of modern life—has contributed materially to the pervading influence of journalism in everyday life and the See also:constant dependence of society in most of its manifestations on the activity of the " See also:Fourth See also:Estate." (H . Cu.) From the introduction of low rates for telegraphy and from the increase of mechanical methods of production, and of the desire to read and the growth of advertising (see ADVERTISEMENT), the modern low-priced newspaper has resulted . But it is by no means a recent development merely . In France, See also:Theophrastus See also:Renaudot's Gazette de Paris (1631) was started at the price of six centimes . In England we find the first mention of inexpensive news-sheets towards the close of the 17th century, when a number of half-penny and See also:farthing Posts sprang into existence, and appeared at more or less irregular intervals . These consisted of small leaflets, containing a few items of news—sometimes accompanied by advertisements—and were commonly sold in the streets by See also:hawkers . The rise in cost was really due to artificial causes . The increase of these newspapers, and especially the growing practice of inserting advertisements, led the legislature to See also:con-template a stamp tax of a penny per sheet on all news publications . As a protest, a curious pamphlet—of which a copy is preserved in the British Museum—was issued in 1701, and it sheds an interesting See also:light upon this early phase of cheap journal-ism . The pamphlet is entitled Reasons humbly offered to the See also:Parliament on behalf of several persons concerned in the paper-making, printing and publishing of the halfpenny newspapers . It states that five See also:master printers were engaged in the See also:trade, which used 20,000 reams of paper per annum . The journals are described in the following terms: " The said newspapers have been always a whole sheet and a half, and sold for one halfpenny to the poorer sort of people, who are purchasers of it by See also:reason of its cheapness, to divert themselves, and also to allure herewith their See also:young See also:children and entice them to reading; and should a duty of three halfpence be laid on these mean news-papers (which, by reason of the coarseness of the paper, the generality of gentlemen are above conversing with), it would utterly extinguish and suppress the same:" The pamphlet goes on to say that hundreds of families, including a considerable number of See also:blind people, were supported by selling the half-penny journals in the streets . In 1712 a tax of a halfpenny per sheet was imposed, and the cheap newspapers at once ceased to exist . This tax on the press was increased from time to time, till in 1815 it stood at fourpence per sheet . The usual price of newspapers was then sevenpence a copy . From these facts it seems highly probable that, had not the stamp tax been imposed, the halfpenny paper would soon have become the normal type, and would have continued so to this day . In 1724 a committee of the House of Commons sat to consider the action of certain printers who were evading the stamp tax by publishing cheap newspapers under the See also:guise of pamphlets . They found that there were then two Halfpenny Posts published in London, one by Read of Whitefriars. and the Peke of news-papers . other by See also:Parker of See also:Salisbury Street . There were also three weekly papers issued at a halfpenny a copy . The tax, after several reductions, was finally repealed on 15th See also:June 1855, and a See also:rush of cheap papers immediately followed . A penny became the usual price for London daily papers, with the exception of The Times, and halfpenny papers soon became common . The growth of the cheap newspaper has since been practically a simultaneous one throughout the civilized world . This has been notably the case in the United States, France and Great Britain . The general tendency in newspaper production, as in all other branches of industry, has in recent times been towards the lowering of prices while maintaining excellence of quality, experience having proved the advantage of large sales with a small margin of profit over a limited circulation with a higher rate of profit . The development—and indeed the possibility—of the cheap daily paper was due to a number of causes operating together during the latter half of the 19th century . Among these, the first place must undoubtedly be given to the cheapening of paper, through the introduction of wood pulp and the perfecting of the machinery used in the manufacture . From 1875 to 1885 paper cheapened rapidly, and it has been estimated that the introduction of wood pulp trebled the circulation of news-papers in England . Keen competition in the paper trade also did much to lower prices . At the same time the See also:prime cost of newspaper production was increased by the introduction of improved machinery into the printing office . The growth of advertisements must also be taken into account in considering the evolution of the halfpenny journal . The income from this source alone made it possible to embark upon journalistic enter-prises which would otherwise have been simply to court disaster . The popular journal of the See also:present day does not, however, owe its existence and success merely to questions of diminished cost and improved methods of production . A change has come over the public mind . The modern reader likes his news in a brief, handy form, so that he can see at a glance the See also:main facts without the task of reading through wordy articles . This is especially the case with the man of business, who desires to master the news of the past twenty-four hours as he travels to his office in the morning . It is to economize time rather than money that the modern reader would often prefer a halfpenny paper; while the man of leisure, who likes to peruse leading articles and full descriptive accounts, finds what he needs in the more highly priced journals . The halfpenny paper in England has not had to contend with the opposition that the penny newspaper met from its threepenny contemporaries in the 'fifties and 'sixties . This is largely due to the fact that in most cases the contributors, paper, printing and general arrangement of the cheaper journal do not leave much room for criticism . Mr G .
A
.
See also:Sala once complained that the reporters of the older papers objected to work side by side with him when he represented the first penny London daily (the Daily Telegraph), through fear of losing See also:caste, but this does not now apply, for in the United Kingdom, France and the United States the cheap journals, owing to their vast circulation, are able to offer the best rates of remuneration, and can thus command the services of some of the best men in all the various departments of journalism
.
(N.)
Another aspect of the newspaper which may here be considered is the introduction of pictorial illustrations (see also ILLUSTRA-
T1oN)
.
The earliest attempts at popular See also:illustration pap rrsarea of news events took the form in England of " broad-
sides." One See also:broadside dated 1587 recounted the Valiant Exploits of Sir See also:Francis See also:Drake; another dated 1607 gave an account of A wonderful See also:flood in See also:Somersetshire and See also:Norfolk
.
The series of See also:murder broadsides which lasted almost to our own time commenced in 1613 with one that gave an account of the murder of Mr See also:
Perhaps the most interesting illustration of the next four years was that contained in a See also:tract intended to evoke sympathy for the con-' quered and captured See also: Mr Bright died at the See also:age of thirty, and his interest to the public was that he weighed 422 stones . There were a number of magazines besides the Gentleman's that came out about this time and continued well into the next century . In the Thespian Magazine for 1793, for example, there is an illustration of a new See also:theatre at See also:Birmingham . Then there were the English Magazine, the See also:Macaroni Magazine, the Monstrous Magazine . Every one of these contained illustrations on See also:copper, more or less topical . William See also:Clement, the proprietor of the Observer, the first number of which was published in 1791, was the first real See also:pioneer of illustrated journalism, although his ideals See also:fell short in this particular, that he was never prepared to face the illustration of news systematically; he only attempted to illustrate events when there was a great crisis in public affairs . In 1818 See also:Abraham See also:Thornton, who was tried for murder, appealed to the See also:wager of See also:battle, which after long arguments before See also:judges was proved to be still in accordance with See also:statute law, and he escaped See also:hanging in consequence . Thornton's portrait appeared in the Observer . Clement owned for some time See also:Bell's Life and the Morning Chronicle . All his journals contained occasional topical illustrations . The Observer's illustration of the house where the See also:Cato Street conspirators met is really sufficiently elaborate for a journal of to-day, and in 1820 it gave its readers " A Faithful See also:Reproduction of the Interior of the House of Lords as prepared for the Trial of Her Most Gracious See also:Majesty Queen See also:Caroline." In 1821 it published an interior of the House of Commons with the members in. their places . The Observer of 22nd July 1821—the See also:Coronation number—contained four engravings . Of the George IV . Coronation number Mr Clement f sold 6o,000 copies, but even that was nothing to the popularity that this journal secured by its illustrations of the once famous murder of Mr Weare and the trial of the murderer Thurtell . The Observer in 1838 gave a picture of the Coronation of Queen See also:Victoria . In 1841 there was a See also:fire at the See also:Tower of London, when the armoury was destroyed . The Observer published three illustrations of the fire; it further published an emblematic See also:engraving on the See also:birth of the prince of See also:Wales, and issued a large page engraving of the christening ceremony in the following See also:January . Thus it had in it all the elements of pictorial journalism as we know it to-day . The weekly Illustrated London News was, however, the first illustrated newspaper by virtue of its regularity . It was the first illustrated paper, because all the illustrations to which we have referred as appearing in the Observer and other publications were irregular . They came at intervals; they were quite sub-See also:ordinate to the letterpress of the paper; they were given only occasionally in times of excitement, with a view to promoting some little extra sale . That they did not really achieve the result hoped for to any great extent may be gauged by the fact that from 1842 to 1847 the Observer published scarcely any illustrations at all, and in the meantime the Illustrated London News had taken an assured place as a journal devoted mainly to the illustration of news week by week . That is why its first publication marked an See also:epoch in journalism . The casual illustration of other journals still went on: the Weekly Chronicle, for example, still published a number of pictures; the Sunday nines, also a very old paper, illustrated in these early days many topical subjects .
In 1834, indeed, it pictured the ruins of the House of Commons, when that See also:building was burned down
.
A paper started in 1837 called the Magnet gave illustrations, one of them of the removal from St See also:Helena and delivery of the remains of the See also:emperor Napoleon to the prince de See also:Joinville in 184o
.
The first number of the Illustrated London News appeared on 14th May 1842
.
Its founder was See also:Herbert See also:Ingram (r8i1-i86o), who was See also:born in Boston, Lincolnshire, and started life amid the most humble surroundings, what education he ever received having been secured at the free school of his native See also:town
.
Apprenticed at fourteen to a printer in See also:Hull, he later settled in See also:Nottingham as a printer and newsagent in a small way
.
It was during his career as a newsvendor at Nottingham that he was seized with the belief that it was possible to produce a paper entirely devoted to illustration of news
.
In the first number of the Illustrated London News, however, there was not a single picture that was See also:drawn from actual sight, the factor which is the most essential See also:element of the illustrated journalism of to-day
.
Sir See also: It was in 1890 that the application of photography to illustrated journalism began in England, and by 1910 it had grown to enormous dimensions, but the first newspaper photographs (mainly portraits) had to be engraved on wood, although the use of half-tone came in well-nigh simultaneously . Up to 18go illustrated journalism was in the hands of the artists, and the artists were in the hands of the wood engravers, who reproduced their work sometimes effectively—often inefficiently . But in the course of twenty years the wood engraver had been utterly superseded so far as illustrated journalism was concerned . The further developments of journalism seemed likely to be entirely in the direction of coloured reproductions, See also:block-making and machinery for facilitating their production having made particularly rapid strides . (C . K . S.) It is almost impossible by any statistical detail to give an See also:idea of the advances made by the newspaper press as a whole; Com but an outline of the general results for 1828, 1866 and ttve 1882, together with a fourth, as given in the loth edition ttstics . of this See also:encyclopaedia for 1900, may have its utility . The earliest See also:summary is that of Adrien See also:Balbi . It was published in the Revue encyclopedique for 1828 (vol. i. pp . 593-603), along with much matter of more than merely statistical interest . The numbers of newspapers published in different countries at that date are given as follows: France, 490; United Kingdom, 483; See also:Austria, about 8o; See also:Prussia, 288; rest of the Germanic See also:Confederation, 305; Nether-lands, 15o; Spain, 16; See also:Portugal and the See also:Azores, 17; Denmark, See also:Sweden and See also:Norway, 161; See also:Russia and See also:Poland, 84 .
The respective proportions of journals to populations were—for Prussia I to 41,500, German states I to 45,300, United Kingdom I to 46,000, France i to 64,000, See also:Switzerland r to 66,00o, Austria I to 400,000, Russia I to 565,000
.
Europe had in all 2142 newspapers, America 978, See also:Asia 27, See also:Africa 12 and See also:Oceania 9; See also:total 3168
.
Of these, 1378 were published in English-speaking countries (800 of them in the United States), having a See also:population of 154 millions, and 1790 in other countries, with a population of 583 millions
.
The second summary (1886) is that given by See also:Eugene Hatin in an appendix to his valuable Bibliotheque de la presse periodique
.
His enumeration of newspapers is as follows: France, 164o; United Kingdom, 126o; Prussia, 700; Italy, 500; Austria-See also:Hungary, 365; Switzerland, 300; See also:Belgium, 275; See also: Europe I 2403 10,730 Asia 154 337 , Afrisiaca . . . . 25 125 . N . America 1136 9,656 S . America 208 427 See also:Australasia 94 471 Total . . 4 _ 4020 21,746 The following summary for 1900, given in the loth edition of the Ency . Brit., and compiled by G . F . Barwick and See also:Dorset See also:Eccles, of the British Museum, included everything in the nature of a news-paper, as distinct from periodicals . Totals of Newspapers, 1900 . Great Britain and Ire- Belgium . Holland . See also:Luxemburg Russia . Italy .. Spain .. Portugal Switzerland See also:Greece . See also:Rumania . See also:Servia . land .. United States France Germany Austria Hungary Sweden Denmark . See also:Iceland and Faroe Islands Norway 171 213 145 3 132 . 2,902 .15,904 . 2,400 .
3,278 393
290 312 I2 28o 25I 338
600 47 47
24
2
.
BRITISH NEWSPAPERS
United Kingdom.'
The first regular English journalists may be identified with
the writers of manuscript " news-letters," originally the depend-
ants of great men, each employed in keeping his own master
or See also:patron well-informed, during his See also:absence from court, of all
that happened there
.
The duty See also:grew at length into a calling
.
The writer had his periodical subscription See also:list, and instead of
writing a single letter wrote as many letters as he had customers
.
Then one more enterprising than the rest established an " in-
telligence office," with a staff of clerks, such as See also:Ben See also:Jonson's
Cymbal depicts from the life in The See also:Staple of News, acted in
1625, which is the best-known dramatic notice of the news-sheets
.
" This is the See also:outer room where my clerks sit,
And keep their sides, the See also:register in the midst; The examiner, he sits private there within;
And here I have my several rolls and files
Of news by the See also:alphabet, and all put up
Under their heads."
Of the earlier news-letters good examples may be seen in the
Paston Letters, and in the See also:Sydney Papers
.
Of those of later
date specimens will be found in Knowler's Letters and
Despatches of Strafford, and other well-known books
.
Still later examples may be seen amongst the papers
collected by the historian Thomas See also:Carte, preserved in
the Bodleian Library at Oxford
.
Of these, several series were
addressed to the first duke of See also:Ormond, partly by correspondents
in England and See also:Ireland, partly by correspondents in Paris; others
were addressed to successive earls of See also:Huntingdon; others, again,
to various members of the See also:Wharton See also:family
.
And similar valuable
collections are to be seen in the library of the British Museum, and
in the Record Office in London
.
In See also:Edinburgh the See also:Advocates'
Library possesses a series of the 16th century, written by See also:Richard
Scudamore to Sir See also: The distinction between the news- letter and the newspaper is pointed out in the preceding See also:section . It was at one time believed that the earliest regular English newspaper was an- English Mercurie of 1588, to which George See also:Chalmers, the political writer and antiquarian, referred Early in his Life of See also:Ruddiman (1794) as being (with others of papers. the same date) in the British Museum . The falsehood of this supposition, which was long accepted on Chalmers's authority, was, however, pointed out by Thomas See also:Watts, of the British Museum, in 1839, in a volume with the title Letter to See also:Antonio See also:Panizzi on the Reputed earliest printed Newspaper, and again in 185o, in an article in the Gentleman's Magazine (n.s. xxxiii . 485-491) . The documents in question are (I) a MS. unnumbered issue of the English Mercurie, dated " See also:Whitehall, July 26th, 1588 "; (2) a printed copy, No . 50, of ' In the following account of early British newspapers certain portions of the article by E . See also:Edwards in the 9th ed. of the Ency . Brit. have been incorporated.[BRITISH July 23, 1588; (3) a printed copy of No . 51; (4) a printed copy of No . 54, of See also:November 24, 1588; (5) and three other MS. copies . These were included in a collection bequeathed to the Museum of Dr See also:Birch (1766), and are incontestably 18th-century forgeries . The See also:handwriting of the See also:spurious See also:MSS. was identified by a letter among Dr Birch's correspondence as that of Philip See also:Yorke, afterwards 2nd Lord See also:Hardwicke, and there were trifling corrections in Dr Birch's handwriting, showing that he was a party with Yorke, the author, to the mystification . No information is forthcoming as to the See also:object of it, but it is worth mentioning that Yorke and his See also:brother also published a See also:clever jeu d'esprit called The Athenian Letters, purporting to be a transcript from a Spanish See also:translation of letters written by a See also:Persian agent during the Peloponnesian War; so that it may be inferred that this sort of thing recommended itself to Yorke, and not necessarily for any deception . Various English pamphlets, as well as French, Italian and German, occur in the 16th century with such titles as Newes from Spaine, and the like . In the early years of the 17th century they became very numerous; the Charles See also:Burney collection in the British Museum is particularly valuable for this early period, the newsbooks and newspapers in it commencing with a " relation " of 1603 . In 1614 we find See also:Burton (the author of the See also:Anatomy of See also:Melancholy) pointing a See also:sarcasm against the non-reading habits of " the See also:major part " by adding, " if they read a book at any time . . . 'tis an English chronicle, Sir Huon of Bordeaux, Amadis de See also:Gaul, &c., a See also:play-book, or some pamphlet of news." But up to 1641, owing to the fact that to print domestic news was barred by the royal See also:prerogative, the English periodicals which are to be considered as strictly the forerunners of the regular newspaper were only See also:translations or adaptations of foreign periodicals containing news of what was going on abroad . There is in the British Museum a Mercurius Gallobelgicus; Sive rerum in Gallia et Belgio potissimum, Hispania quoque, Italia, Anglia, Germania, Polonia, Vicinisque Locis ab See also:anno 1588 usque ad Martium anni praesentis 1594 gestarum, nuncius . Opusculum in See also:Sex libris qui totidem annos complectuntur, divisum auctore D . M . Jansonio Doccomensi Frisio . Editio altera . Coloniae Agrippinae .
Apud Godefridum Kempensem
.
Anno MDXCI V
.
This production of Janson's at Cologne is a fairly thick octavo book, giving a Latin chronicle of events from 1587 to 1594, and is really a sort of See also:annual register
.
It was continued down to 1635
.
The Mercurius Gallobelgicus is chiefly interesting because, by circulating in England, it started the idea of a periodical supplying foreign news, and apparently became to English contemporaries a type of the newfangled news-summaries.' In 1614 there was published in London a little square book ',45 pp.), by See also:Robert See also:Booth, A Relation of all matters passed ... since See also: 2 Ibid. iv . 23 . 552 See also:Bulgaria .. See also:Montenegro . See also:Turkey See also:Persia See also:Syria . See also:India . See also:Ceylon China .. See also:Siam . . . Straits Settlements . See also:Cochin China . . See also:Japan . See also:East Indies . See also:South Africa See also:West Africa . Central Africa, &c . . See also:Egypt .. See also:Canada .. 15 2 22 3 6 boo IO 40 5 I2 4 150 39 I09 IO 76 2I 742 Central and West Indies South American Republics Australasia New South Wales . 227 See also:Queensland . . . 109 South See also:Australia . 44 Victoria 310 West Australia . 18 See also:Tasmania . 18 New See also:Zealand Otago . . 28 See also:Wellington . . 29 See also:Auckland . . 17 Hawkes See also:Bay . It See also:Canterbury 23 Sundry . . . 36 129 340 31,026 Total . Early news-letters . news- 4 Literary Anecdotes, iv . 38 . The Stationers' Registers contain an entry on May 18th of A See also:Currant of generall newes . Dated in 14th May last; no copy of this issue is preserved, but what is presumably the next number is to be found in the Burney collection . It is entitled " The 23rd of May—The Weekely Newes from Italy, Germany, &c., London, printed by J . D. for See also:Nicholas Bourne and Thomas Archer." On many subsequent numbers the name of Nathaniel See also:Butter appears in connexion sometimes with Bourne and some-times with Archer; so that there was probably an eventual See also:partnership in the new undertaking . Archer is known as a publisher of " relations " since 1603; he died in 1634 . Butter had published Newes from Spaine in 1611, and he continued to be a publisher of news until 1641, if not later,' and died in 1664 . For details of the history of the development of the news-book down to 164r, and thence to the starting of the London Gazette in 1665, reference should be made to Mr J . B . Williams's History of English Journalism (1908), already referred to . Mr Williams, by his study of the materials preserved in the British Museum in the Burney and See also:Thomason 2 collections, has considerably modified many of the previously accepted views as to the See also:affiliation and authorship of these early English periodicals . The leading facts can only be summarized here . The Weekely Newes (1622), though the first English " Coranto," had no regular title connecting one number with the rest; it was simply the news of the week, and so described . The first periodical with a title was a Mercurius See also:Britannicus published by Archer (1625; the earliest copy in existence being No . 16, See also:April 7th), which probably lasted till the end of 1627 . But the activity of the Coranto-makers was checked by the Star Chamber See also:edict in 1632 against the printing of news from foreign parts .
The next step in the evolution of the newspaper was due to the abolition of the Star Chamber in 1641, and the consequent freeing of the Press; and at last we come to the English periodical with domestic news
.
In November 1641 begins The See also:Head of severall proceedings in the present parliament (outside title) or Diurnal Occurrences (inside title), the latter being the title under which it was soon known as a weekly; and on See also:Jan
.
31st 1642 appeared A Perfect Diurnal of the Passages in Parliament
.
These were printed for William See also:Cooke, and were written apparently by See also:Samuel Pecke, " the first of the patriarchs of English domestic journalism " (Williams)
.
It is unnecessary here to mention every domestic journal which played its part in the verbal warfare in the Great See also:Rebellion
.
The weekly Diurnals were soon copied by other booksellers
.
At first they were naturally on the side of the parliament
.
In January 1643, however, appeared at Oxford the first Royalist diurnal, named Mercurius Aulicus (continued till See also:September 1645, and soon succeeded by Mercurius Academicus), which struck a higher literary note; its chief writer was Sir John See also:Birkenhead
.
Mercurius Civicus, the first regularly illustrated periodical in London, was started by the parliamentarian Richard Collings on May lith, 1643 (continued to December 1646); Collings had also started earlier in the year the Kingdome's Weekly Intelligencer, which lasted till October 1649
.
In September 1643 appeared another Puritan opponent of M
.
Aulicus in the Mercurius Britanicus (sic) of See also:Captain Thomas See also:Audley, which temporarily ceased publication on September 9th, 1644, only to be revived on September 3oth by Marchamont (or See also:Marchmont) Nedham, a writer who plays a prominent part in the journalism of this period, and to be continued till May 18th 1646
.
In January 1647 was started the Perfect Occurrences by Henry See also: Sc . 2) obviously refers (written in 1625) : " It shall be the See also:ghost of some lying stationer . A spirit shall look as if butter would not melt in his mouth; a new Mercurius Gallo-Belgicus." The See also:quotation also illustrates the contemporary regard paid to the Mercurius Gallobelgicus . 2 George Thomason (d . 1666) was a London bookseller who in 1641 began collecting contemporary pamphlets, &c . His collection was ultimately bought by George III. and presented to the British Museum in 1762 . A See also:catalogue was completed in 1908, with introduction by Dr G . K . See also:Fortescue . There is also a catalogue of early English newspapers in the Bibliotheca Lindesiana, Collections and Notes No . 5, of Lord See also:Crawford (r9or).on the See also:parliamentary side but is important as having originated the introduction of advertisements into the news-books . Later in the year a number of new Royalist Mercuries came into the field from which Aulicus and Academicus had now withdrawn: the first was Mercuricus Melancholicus (until 1649), and the most important were Mercurius Pragmaticus (See also:Sept . 1647 to May 1650) and Mercuricus Elencticus (Nov . 1647 to Nov . 1649) . M . Pragmaticus was not, as has been stated, originated by Marchamont Nedham (who about this time turned his coat and became Royalist), but in 1648-1649 he was its writer until he again turned parliamentarian; " history," says Mr Williams, " has no personage so shamelessly cynical as Marchamont Nedham, with his powerful pen and his political convictions ever ready to be enlisted on the side of the highest See also:bidder; he even wrote for Charles II. in later years." Against the unlicensed Royalist Mercuries in London, where the people were on the king's side, the parliament waged active war, but some of them managed to come out, although writer after writer was imprisoned, until the middle of 1650 . Meanwhile from October 1649 to June 1650, by a new act of parliament, the licensed press itself was entirely suppressed, and in 1649 two official journals were issued, A Brief Relation (up to October 1650) and Severall Proceedings in Parliament (till September 1655), a third licensed periodical, A Perfect Diurnall (till September 1655), being added later in the year, and a fourth, Mercurius Politicus (of which See also:Milton was the editor for a year or so and Marchamont Nedham one of the principal writers), starting on June 13th, 1650 (continuing till April 12th, 166o) . After the middle of 165o there was a revival of some of the older licensed news-books; but the Weekly Intelligence of the See also:Commonwealth (July 165o to September 1655), by R . Collings, was the only important newcomer up to September 1655, when See also:Cromwell suppressed all such publications with the exception of Mercurius Politicus and the Publick Intelligencer (October 1655 to April 1660), both being official and conducted by Marchamont Nedham . Till Cromwell's See also:death (Sept . 3rd . 1658) Nedham reigned alone in the press, but with the Rump he fell into disgrace, and in 1659 a rival appeared in Henry Muddiman (a great writer also of " news-letters "), whose Parliamentary Intelligencer, renamed the Kingdom's Intelligencer (till See also:August 1663), was supported by General Monck . Nedham's journalistic career came finally to an end (he died in 1678) at the hand of Monck's See also:council of state in April 1660 .
The following announcement was published in the Parliamentary Intelligencer: " Whereas Marchmont Nedham, the author of the weekly news-books called Mercurius Politicus and the Publique Intelligencer is, by order of the council of state, discharged from writing or publishing any publique intelligence; the reader is desired to take notice that, by order of the said council, See also:Giles Dury and Henry Muddiman are authorized henceforth to write and publish the said intelligence, the one upon the See also:Thursday and the other upon the Monday, which they do intend to set out under the titles of the Parliamentary Intelligencer and of Mercurius Publicus." This arrangement with Muddiman lasted till 1663, when he was supplanted by Sir See also:Roger L'Estrange, who was appointed " surveyor of the Press." On him was conferred by royal See also: With the publication of the 24th number (Monday, February 5th, 1665-1666 O.S.) the Oxford Gazette became the London Gazette . After the 25th number Muddiman, who saw that he was not safe in Williamson's hands, seceded . Williamson had the general See also:control of the Gazette, and for a considerable time Charles Perrot, a member of See also:Oriel See also:College, was the acting editor.' L'Estrange was soon driven out of the field, being solaced, on his personal appeal to the king, with a charge of boo a year on the news-books (henceforth " taken into the secretaries' office ") and a further £200 out of secret service money for his place as surveyor of the press . Muddiman, meanwhile, attached himself to the other secretary of state, Sir W . Morice, and he was authorized to issue an opposition official paper, which appeared as Current Intelligence (June 4-Aug . 20, 1666); and though the Great Fire, which burnt out all the London printers, resulted in the reappearance, after a week's See also:interval, of the Gazette alone, Muddiman's unrivalled organization of news-letters remained; and they continued, till his death in 1692, to be the more popular source of information . The Gazette, however, now remained for some time the only " newspaper " in the strict sense already mentioned . For several years it was regularly translated into French by one Moranville . During the See also:Stuart reigns generally its contents were very meagre, although in the reign of See also:Anne some improvement is already visible . More than a century after the establishment of the Gazette, we find Secretary Lord See also:Weymouth addressing a circular' to the several secretaries of See also:legation and the British consuls abroad, in which he says, " The writer of the Gazette has represented that the reputation of that paper is greatly lessened, and the sale diminished, from the small portion of foreign news with which it is supplied." He desires that each of them will send regularly all such articles of foreign intelligence as may appear proper for that paper, " taking particular care—as the Gazette is the only paper of authority printed in this country—never to send anything concerning the authenticity of which there is the smallest doubt." From such humble beginnings has arisen the great repertory of State Papers, now so valuable to the writers and to the students of English history .. The London Gazette has appeared twice a week (on Tuesday and See also:Friday) in a continuous series ever since 8 The editorship is a government See also:appointment . i This help seems to have been given at the See also:request of the secretary of state, Lord Arlington (then Sir H . Bennet), in 1663; State Papers, Domestic, Charles II., lxxix . 112, 113 . 2 State Papers, Domestic, Charles II., exxxiv . 103 (Rolls House) . Ibid . 117 . In 1664 he had halved them, so that this really only means he had now restored the original size . 5 State Papers, Domestic, Charles II., cxxxv . 24 . ' See also:Anthony Wood, Athenae Oxonienses, " Perrot." See also:Calendar of Home-Office Papers, 1766-1769, p . 483 (1879). s A See also:complete set is now of extreme rarity . We come now to the Revolution . The very day after the departure of James II. was marked by the appearance of three newspapers—The Universal Intelligence, the English Courant and the London Courant . Within a few days more these were followed by the London Mercury, the See also:Orange Gazette, the London Intelligence, the Harlem Currant and others . The Licensing Act, which was in force at the date of the Revolution, expired in 1692, but was continued for a year, after which it finally ceased . On the appearance of a See also:paragraph in the Flying Post of 1st April 1697, which appeared to the House of Commons to attack the See also:credit of the See also:Exchequer Bills, leave was given to bring in a bill " to prevent writing, printing or publishing of any news without licence "; but the bill was thrown out in an early See also:stage of its progress . That Flying Post which gave occasion to this attempt was also noticeable for a new method of printing, which it thus announced to its customers—" If any gentleman has a mind to oblige his country friend or correspondent with this account of public affairs, he can have it for twopence . . . on a sheet of fine paper, half of which being left See also:blank, he may thereon write his own affairs, or the material news of the day." In 1696 Edward See also:Lloyd—the virtual. founder of the famous " Lloyd's " of See also:commerce—started a thrice-a-week paper, Lloyd's News, which had but a brief existence in its first shape, but was the precursor of the Lloyd's List of the present day . No . 76 of the original paper contained a paragraph referring to the House of Lords, for the appearance of which a public See also:apology must, the publisher was told, be made . He preferred to discontinue his publication (February 1697) . Nearly thirty years afterwards he in part revived it, under the title of Lloyd's List—published at first weekly, afterwards twice a week.' This dates from 1726 . It is now published daily . It was in the reign of Queen Anne that the English newspaper press first became really eminent for the amount of intellectual power and of versatile See also:talent which was employed upon it . It was also in that reign that the press was first fettered by the newspaper stamp . The See also:accession of Anne was quickly followed by the appearance of the first successful London daily newspaper, the Daily Courant (1rth of March 1702-1703) . Seven years earlier, in 1695, the Postboy had been started as a daily paper (actually the first in London), but only four numbers appeared . The Courant was published and edited by the learned printer Samuel Buckley, who explained to the public that " the author has taken care to be duly furnished with all that comes from abroad, in any See also:language .... At the beginning of each article he will quote the foreign paper from which it is taken, that the public, seeing from what country a piece of news comes, with the allowance of that government, may be better able to See also:judge of the credibility and fairness of the relation . _ Nor will he take upon himself to give any comments, . . . supposing other people to have sense enough to make reflexions for themselves." Then came, in rapid See also:succession, a crowd of new competitors for public favour, of less frequent publication . The first number of one of these, the Country Gentleman's Courant (1706), was given away gratuitously, and made a special claim to public favour on the ground that " here the reader is not only diverted with a faithful register of the most remarkable and momentary [i.e. momentous] transactions at home and abroad, . . but also with a See also:geographical description of the most material places mentioned in every article of news, whereby he is freed the trouble of looking into maps." On the 19th of February 1704, whilst still imprisoned in Newgate for a political offence, Defoe (q.v.) began his famous paper, the Review . At the outset it was published weekly, afterwards twice, and at length three times Reviews Review . a week . It continued substantially in its first form until July 29, 1712; and a complete set is of extreme rarity .
From the first page to the last it is characterized by the manly
' See also:Frederick See also: These repetitions, indeed, See also:waste time, but they do not shorten it . The most eager peruser of news is tired before he has completed his labour; and many a man who enters the See also:coffee-house in his nightgown and slippers is called away to his See also:shop or his See also:dinner before he has well considered the state of Europe." Five years before (i.e. in 1753) the aggregate number of copies of news-papers annually sold in England, on an average of three years, amounted to 7,411,757 . In 1760 it had risen to 9,464,790, and in 1767 to 11,300,980 . In 1776 the number of newspapers published in London alone had increased to fifty-three . When Johnson wrote his sarcastic strictures on the newspapers that were the contemporaries and, in a sense, the rivals of the Idler, the newswriters had fallen below the standard of an earlier day . A See also:generation before the newspaper was often much more of a political organ than of an See also:industrial venture . All of the many enterprises of Defoe in this field of journalism united indeed both characteristics . But if he was a keen tradesman, he was also a passionate politician . And not a few of his See also:fellow workers in that field were conspicuous as statesmen no less than as journalists . Even less than twenty years before the appearance of Johnson's remarks, men of the mental calibre of Henry See also:Fielding were still to be found amongst the editors and writers of newspapers . The task had fallen to a different class of men in 1750 . The history of newspapers during the long reign of George III. is a history of the struggle for freedom of speech in the face e+' repeated criminal prosecutions, in which individual writers and editors were defeated and severely punished, Press prosecu• while the Press itself derived new strength from the tons. protracted conflict, and turned ignominious penalties into See also:signal triumphs . From the days of Wilkes's See also:North Briton onwards (see WILKES, JOHN: it was started in 1761), every conspicuous newspaper See also:prosecution gave tenfold currency to the doctrines that were assailed . In the earlier part of this period men who were mere traders in politics—whose motives were obviously See also:base and their lives contemptible—became for a time powers in the state, able to brave king, legislature and law courts, by virtue of the See also:simple truth that a free people must have a free press . One of the See also:minor incidents of the North Briton excitement (Wilkes's prosecution in 1763) led indirectly to valuable results with reference to the much-vexed question of parliamentary reporting . During the discussions respecting the See also:Middlesex See also:election, See also:Almon, a bookseller, collected from members of the House of Commons some particulars of the debates, and published them in the London Evening Post . The success which attended these reports induced the proprietors of the St James's Chronicle to employ a reporter to collect notes 3 " Fourth Report of the Committee of Secrecy," &c., in See also:Hansard's Parliamentary History, xii . 814 . author utters and defends his opinions on public affairs against a See also:host of able and See also:bitter assailants . Some of the numbers were written during travel, some in Edinburgh . But the Review appeared regularly . When interrupted by the pressure of the Stamp Act (which came into force on the 1st of August 1712), the writer modified the form of his paper, and began a new series (August 2, 1712, to June 1t, 1713) . In those early and monthly supplements of his paper which he entitled " See also:Advice from the Scandalous See also:Club," and set apart for the discussion of questions of literature and See also:manners, and sometimes of topics of a graver kind, Defoe to some extent anticipated Richard See also:Steele's Taller (1709) and Steele and See also:Addison's Spectator (1711) . In 1705 he severed those supplements from his chief newspaper, and published them twice a week as the Little Review . But they soon ceased to appear . It may here be added that in May 1716 Defoe began a new monthly paper under an old title, Mercurius Politicus, . . . "by a See also:lover of old England." This journal continued to appear until September 1720 . The year 1710 was marked by the appearance of the Examiner, or Re-marks upon Papers and Occurrences (No . 1, August 3), of which thirteen numbers appeared by the co-operation of Bolingbroke, See also:Prior, See also:Freind and King before it was placed under the sole control of Swift . The Whig Examiner, avowedly intended " to censure the writings of others, and to give all persons a rehearing who had suffered under any unjust See also:sentence of the Examiner," followed on the 1st September, and the Medley three weeks afterwards . This increasing popularity and influence of the newspaper press could not fail to be distasteful to the government of the day . Prosecutions were multiplied, but with small stamp success . At length some busy projector See also:hit upon tax of 1712. the expedient of a newspaper tax . The paper which seems to contain the first germ of the plan is still preserved amongst the treasury papers . It is anonymous and undated, but probably belongs to the year 1711 . " There are published weekly," says the writer, " about 44,000 newspapers, viz . Daily Courant, London Post, English Post, London Gazette, Postman, Postboy, Flying Post, Review and Observator."1 The duty eventually imposed (1712) was a halfpenny on papers of half a sheet or less, and a penny on such as ranged from half a sheet to a single sheet (10 Anne, c. xix . § rot) . The first results of the tax cannot be more succinctly or more vividly described than in the following characteristic passage of Swift's Journal to Stella (August 7, 1712) : " Do you know that Grub Street is dead and. gone last week ? No more ghosts or murders now for love or money . I plied it close the last fortnight, and published at least seven papers of my own, besides some of other people's; but now every single half-sheet pays a halfpenny to the queen . The Observator is fallen; the Medleys are jumbled together with the Flying Post; the Examiner is deadly sick; the Spectator keeps up, and doubles its price—I know not how long it will hold . Have you seen the red stamp the papers are marked with ? Methinks the. stamping is worth a halfpenny." Swift's doubt as to the ability of the Spectator to hold out against the tax was justified by its discontinuance in December 1712, Steele starting the See also:Guardian in 1713, which only ran for six months . But the See also:impost which was thus fruitful in See also:mischief, by suppressing much good literature, wholly failed in keeping out See also:bad . Some of the worst journals that were already in existence kept their ground, and the number of such ere long increased.' An enumeration of the London papers of 1714 comprises the Daily Courant, the Examiner, the British See also:Merchant, the Lover, the Patriot, the See also:Monitor, the Flying Post, the Postboy, See also:Mercator, the Weekly Pacquet and See also:Dunton's Ghost . Another enumeration in 1733 includes the Daily Courant, the Craftsman, See also:Fog's Journal, Mist's Journal, the London Journal, the Free 1 " A Proposition to Increase the See also:Revenue of the Stamp-Office," Redington, Calendar of Treasury Papers, 7708-7774, p . 235 . The stamp-office dated from 1694, when the earliest duties on paper and See also:parchment were enacted . 2 See the Burney collection of newspapers in the British Museum; and Nichols, Literary Anecdotes of the Eighteenth Century, iv . 33-97 . in the See also:lobby and at the coffee-houses . This repeated infraction editor . At length the Morning Chronicle ended in the See also:Bankruptcy of the privilege of secret legislation led to the memorable proceed- ings of the House of Commons in 1771, with their fierce debates, angry resolutions and arbitrary imprisonments—all resulting, at length, in that tacit concession of publicity of discussion which in the main, with brief occasional exceptions, has ever since prevailed . Evening journalism in England started originally with supple-mental editions of the morning papers, giving the latest foreign war news . In July 1695, when William III. was evendon fighting France in the See also:Netherlands, a " Postscript to pass, the Pacquet-See also:boat from Holland to See also:Flanders was published with special advices from the seat of war; and from that time there were frequent afternoon issues of morning journals, giving war news . In August 1706 a " Six at See also:Night " evening paper was started in London . The first London evening paper of any importance, however, was the See also:Courier (1792), which during the latter part of the See also:Napoleonic War, with See also:Mackintosh, See also:Coleridge and See also:Wordsworth among its contributors, became one of the chief papers of the day . It was edited successively by See also:Daniel Stuart, William Mudford, See also:Eugenius See also:Roche, John See also:Galt, James Stuart and Laman See also:Blanchard . In 1827 a twenty-fourth See also:share in the paper sold for 5000 guineas, but it gradually declined and came to an end in 1842, when it was incorporated by the Globe (still existing) . The principal See also:metropolitan newspapers at different periods of George III.'s reign were the Public Advertiser, the Morning London Post, the Morning Chronicle, the Morning See also:Herald press to and finally The Times . Of these the Morning Post Qeorge and The Times, still existing, are dealt with later . Of in.'s the three which eventually ceased to exist, the first reign. was known in 1726 as the London Daily Post and General Advertiser . In 1738 the first part of this title was dropped, and in 1752 General Advertiser was altered into Public Advertiser, a name which the letters of See also:Junius made so famous . Many of these had appeared before the smallest perceptible effect was produced on the circulation of the paper; but when the " Letter to the King " came out (19th December 1769, almost a year from the beginning of the series) it caused an addition of 1750 copies to the ordinary impression . The effect of subsequent letters was variable; but when Junius ceased to write the monthly sale of the paper had risen to 83,950 . This was in December 1771 . Seven years earlier the monthly sale had been but 47,515 . It now became so valuable a property that shares in it were sold, according to John Nichols, " as regularly as those of the New See also:River Company." But the fortunes of the Advertiser declined almost as rapidly as they had risen . It continued to appear until 1798, and then expired, being amalgamated with the commercial paper called the Public See also:Ledger (dating from 1759) . Actions for libel were brought against the paper by See also:Edmund See also:Burke in 1784, and by William See also:Pitt in 1785, and in both suits damages were given . The Morning Chronicle was begun in 1769 . William See also:Woodfall was its printer, reporter and editor, and continued to conduct it until 1789 . James See also:Perry succeeded him as editor, and so continued, with an interval during which the editorship was in the hands of Mr Sergeant Spankie, until his death in 1821 . Perry's editorial -functions were occasionally discharged in Newgate in consequence of repeated prosecutions for political libel . In 1819 the daily sale reached nearly 4000 . It was sold in 1823 to Mr Clement, the See also:purchase-money amounting to £42,000 . Mr Clement held it for about eleven years, and then sold it to Sir John Easthope for £16,000 . It was then, and until 1843, edited by John See also:Black, who numbered amongst his staff See also:Albany See also:Fonblanque, Charles See also:Dickens and John See also:Payne See also:Collier, the circulation being about 6000 . The paper continued to be distinguished by much literary ability, but not by commercial prosperity . In 1849 (the circulation having fallen to 3000) it became the See also:joint property of the duke of See also:Newcastle, Mr W . E . See also:Gladstone and some of their political See also:friends; and by them, in 1854, it was sold to Mr Sergeant See also:Glover . From 1848 to 1854 Douglas See also:Cook (afterwards of the Saturday Review) was Court, after an existence of more than ninety years . The Morning Herald was founded and first edited by Henry Bate (Sir Henry Bate See also:Dudley) in 1781, and came to an end at the close of 1869; for some time it was a popular Tory paper, and from 1835 to 1845 had a circulation of about 6000 . The development of the Press was enormously assisted by the See also:gradual abolition of the " taxes on knowledge," and also by the introduction of a cheap postal system . In See also:Abortion 1756 an additional halfpenny was added to the tax ottnxes of 1712 . In 1765 and in 1773 various restrictive on know-regulations were imposed . In 1789 the three-halfpence ledge. was increased to twopence, in 1798 to twopence-halfpenny, in r8o4 to threepence-halfpenny, and in 1815 to fourpence, less a See also:discount of 20% . Penalties of all kinds were also increased, and obstructive regulations were multiplied . In the course of the struggle between this constantly enhanced See also:taxation and the irrepressible desire for cheap newspapers, more than seven See also:hundred prosecutions for publishing unstamped journals were instituted, and more than five hundred were imprisoned, sometimes for considerable periods . As the prosecutions multiplied, and the penalties became more serious, Poor Man's Guardians, Democrats, Destructives and their congeners multiplied also, and their revolutionary tendencies increased in a still greater ratio . See also:Blasphemy was added to See also:sedition . Penny and halfpenny journals were established which dealt exclusively with narratives of gross See also:vice and See also:crime, and which vied with each other in every kind of artifice to make vice and. crime attractive . Between the years 1831 and 1835 many scores of unstamped newspapers made their appearance . The political tone of most of them was fiercely revolutionary . Prosecution followed prosecution; but all failed to suppress the See also:obnoxious publications . To Bulwer See also:Lytton, the novelist and politician (See also:Baron Lytton), and subsequently to See also:Milner See also:Gibson and Richard See also:Cobden, is chiefly due the credit of grappling with this question in the House of Commons in a manner which secured first the reduction of the tax to a penny on the 15th of September 1836, and then its total abolition at last in 1855 . The measure for the final abolition of the stamp tax was substantially prepared by W . E . Gladstone during his chancellorship of the exchequer in 1854, but was carried by his successor in 1855 . The number of news-papers established from the early part of 1855, when the See also:repeal of the duty had become a certainty, and continuing in existence at the beginning of 1857, amounted to 107; 26 were metropolitan and 81 provincial . Of the latter, the See also:majority belonged to towns which possessed no newspaper whatever under the Stamp Acts, and the price of nearly one-third of them was but a penny . In some cases, however, a portion of these new cheap papers of 1857 was printed in London, usually with pictorial illustrations, and to this was added a See also:local supplement containing the news of the See also:district . Amongst the earliest results of the change in newspaper law made in 1855 was the establishment in See also:quick succession of a series of penny metropolitan local papers, chiefly suburban, of a kind very different from their unstamped forerunners . They spread rapidly, and attained considerable success, chiefly as advertising sheets, and as sometimes the organs, more often the critics, of the local vestries and other administrations . One of them, the See also:Clerkenwell News and . Daily Chronicle, so prospered in the commercial sense, being crowded with advertisements, that it sold for £30,000, and was then transformed into the London Daily Chronicle (28th May 1877) . Another conspicuous result of the legislation of 1855 was an enormous increase in the number and influence of what are known as " class papers " and professional and trade papers . The duties on paper itself were finally abolished in 1861 . " Taxes on knowledge " having thus been abolished, the later developments in newspaper history are mainly connected with the increase in number, due largely to the spread of education, the improvements in machinery and distribution and in collection of news, the constant See also:adaptation to the new demands of a wider public, and the progress in the art of advertising editorial duties on others, at first Sir William Hardman, and then as applied to the Press . The following sections on the more successively Mr A . K . See also:Moore, Mr Algernon Locker, Mr James See also:Nicol I Dunn (from 1897 to 1905; afterwards editor of the See also:Manchester important newspapers in London and the Provinces fill in the I Courier) and Mr See also:Fabian See also:Ware; under them the literary standard of remaining details of the history of the British Press, so far the paper was kept at a high level, and constant improvements were as they are substantially important or interesting . Much that introduced; and the staffincluded a number of well-known writers, is in its nature ephemeral or trivial is necessarily passed notably Mr See also:Spencer See also:Wilkinson (b . 1853), who in 1909 was appointed See also:professor of military history at Oxford . From 1897 till his death in 1905, at the age of thirty-two, Lord Glenesk's son, See also:Oliver Borthwick, had much to do with the managerial side . On Lord Glenesk's own death on the 24th November 1908, the proprietorship passed to the trustees of his only surviving See also:child, a daughter, who in 1893 had married the 7th Earl See also:Bathurst . The Times' is usually dated from the 1st of January 1788, but was really started by John Walter on the 1st of January 1785, under the title of The London Daily Universal Register, printed logographically . On its reaching its 94oth issue its name The was changed . The logographic or "word-printing" process Times." had been invented by a printer named Henry Johnson several years before, and found a warm See also:advocate in John Walter, who expounded its peculiarities at great length in No . 510 of his Daily Universal Register . In a later number he stated, very amusingly, his reasons for adopting the altered title, which the enterprise and ability of his successors (see WALTER, Jo11N) made world-famous . Within two years John Walter had his share in the Georgian persecutions of the press, by successive sentences to three fines and to three several imprisonments in Newgate, chiefly for having stated that the prince of Wales and the See also:dukes of York and See also:Clarence had so misconducted themselves " as to incur the just disapprobation of his Majesty . In 1803 the management was transferred (together with the join;, proprietorship of the journal) to his son, John Walter (2), by whom it was carried on with extraordinary See also:energy and consummate ability, and at the same time with marked independence . To Lord Sid-mouth's government he gave a general but independent support . That of Pitt he opposed, especially on the questions of the See also:Catamaran expedition and the malversations of Lord See also:Melville . This opposition was resented by depriving the See also:elder Walter of the printing for the customs department, by the withdrawal of government advertisements from The Times, and also, it is said, by the systematic detention at the outports of the foreign intelligence addressed to its editor . John Walter the Second, however, was strong and resolute enough to brave the government . He organized a better system of news transmission than had ever before existed . He introduced See also:steam-printing (1814) and repeatedly improved its mechanism (see PRINTING) ; and although modern machines may now seem to thrust into insignificance a press of which it was at first announced as a notable See also:triumph that " no less than 1100 sheets are impressed in one hour," yet the assertion was none the less true that The Times of 29th November 1814 " presented to the public the practical result of the by them; and in that year the management was entrusted to See also:Peter greatest improvement connected with printing since the See also:discovery Borthwick (1804-1852), a Scotsman who, after See also:graduation both at of the art itself." The effort to secure for The Times the best attain-Edinburgh and See also:Cambridge, had taken to politics in the Conservative interest and had sat in parliament for See also:Evesham from 1835 to 1838 and from 1841 to 1847, when he was almost ruined by fighting an election See also:petition in which he was unseated . Peter Borthwick took the task of reviving the paper seriously in hand, and in a few years was already improving its position when he fell See also:ill and died; and he was succeeded in 1852 by his son Algernon Borthwick, afterwards Lord Glenesk (1830-1908) . The later history of the paper is primarily connected with its practical re-establishment and successful conduct under the latter . Algernon Borthwick had been its Paris correspondent from 1850, and had shown social gifts and journalistic acumen of great promise . When he became managing editor in 1852 he devoted himself with such energy to the work that in seven years the See also:debt on the business had been paid off . He gave the paper a strong political See also:colour, Conservative, Imperialist and Protectionist; and in the 'fifties and 'sixties Borthwick was a keen supporter of Lord See also:Palmerston . After the death of Mr See also:Crompton, his See also:nephew, Mr Rideout, the principal surviving partner in the paper manufacturing See also:firm, was so impressed with Borthwick's success that he vested the entire control of the paper in him for life; and on Mr Rideout's death in 1877, Borthwick was enabled, by the help of his friend See also:Andrew Montague, to buy the property and become sole proprietor . The Morning Post had now become, largely through Borthwick's own social qualities, the principal organ of the See also:fashion-able world; but in 1881 he took what was then considered the hazardous step of reducing its price from threepence to a penny, and appealing no longer to the " threepenny public " with The Times but to a wider clientele with the Daily Telegraph and Standard . The result was a ten-fold increase in circulation and a financial success exceeding all anticipations . Borthwick himself, who was knighted in 1880, and was created a See also:baronet in 1887, had entered parliament in 1880 for Evesham, and from 1885 to 1895 sat for South See also:Kensington, being finally raised to the See also:peerage in 1895 . His political gifts naturally increased the influence of the paper; he supported the " Tory See also:democracy " and was an active worker for the See also:Primrose See also:League, of which he was three times See also:chancellor; and the Morning Post, under his control, became one of the great organs of opinion on the Conservative side . From 1880 onwards he devolved the over . Modern London Newspapers . The Morning Post (See also:oldest of existing London daily papers) dates from 1772 . For some years it was in the hands of Henry Bate "Morning (Sir Henry Bate Dudley), and it attained some degree of Post." temporary popularity, though of no very enviable sort . In 1795 the entire copyright, with house and printing materials, was sold for L600 to Peter and Daniel Stuart, who quickly raised the position of the Post by enlisting Sir James Mackintosh and the poet Coleridge in its service, and also by giving unremitting attention to advertisements and to the copious supply of incidental news and amusing paragraphs . There has been much controversy about the share which Coleridge had in elevating the Post from obscurity to See also:eminence . That he greatly promoted this result there can be no doubt . His famous " Character of Pitt," published in 1800, was especially successful, and created a demand for the particular number in which it appeared that lasted for weeks, a thing almost without precedent . Coleridge wrote for this paper from 1795 until 1802, and during that period its circulation in ordinary See also:rose from 35o copies, on the average, to 4500 . Whatever the amount of rhetorical See also:hyperbole in See also:Fox's saying—recorded as spoken in the House of Commons—" Mr Coleridge's essays in the Morning Post led to the rupture of the treaty of See also:Amiens," it is none the less a striking testimony, not only to Coleridge's powers as a publicist, but to the position which the newspaper press had won, in spite of innumerable obstacles at that time . The list of his fellow-workers in the Post is a most brilliant and varied one . Besides Mackintosh, See also:Southey and Arthur Young, it included a See also:galaxy of poets . Many of the lyrics of Moore, many of the social verses of Mackworth See also:Praed, some of the noblest sonnets of Wordsworth, were first published in the columns of the Post . And the See also:story of the paper, in its early days, had tragic as well as poetic episodes . In consequence of offence taken at some of its articles, the editor and proprietor, Nicholas Byrne (who succeeded Daniel Stuart), was assaulted and murdered whilst sitting in his office . Up to about x850 the history of the Morning Post offers little to record; with the Morning Chronicle and Morning Herald, and having a smaller circulation than either of them, it was being rapidly eclipsed in London journalism by The Times (see below), and in 1847 only sold some three thousand copies . Heavily in debt to Messrs J. and T . B . Crompton, the paper manufacturers, it had been taken over able literary talent in all departments kept at least an equal pace with those which were directed towards the improvement of its mechanical resources . And thus it came to pass that a circulation which did not, even in 1815, exceed on the average 5000 copies became, in 1834, 10,000; in 1840, 18,500; in 1844, 23,000; in 1851, 40,000; and in 1854, 51,648 . In the year last named the average circulation of the other London dailies was—Morning Advertiser, 7644; Daily News, 4160; Morning Herald, 3712; Morning Chronicle, 2800; Morning Post, 2667; so that the supremacy of The Times can readily be understood . Sir John Stoddart, afterwards See also:governor of See also:Malta, edited The Times for several years prior to 1816 . He was succeeded by Thomas See also:Barnes, who for many years wrote largely in the paper . When his See also:health began to fail the largest share of the editorial work came into the hands of Captain Edward See also:Sterling—the contributor about a quarter of a century earlier of a noteworthy series of political letters signed " Vetus," the Paris correspondent of The Times in 1814 and subsequent eventful years, and afterwards for many years the most conspicuous among its leader-writers.' From 1841 to 1877 the chief editor was John Thadeus See also:Delane, who had his brother-in-law G . W . See also:Dasent for assistant-editor, and another brother-in-law, See also:Mowbray See also:Morris, as business manager . By the time of the second John Walter's death (1847) the substantial monopoly of The Times in London journalism had been established; and under the proprietor-See also:ship of the third John Walter the result of the labour of Delane as editor, and of the brilliant staff of contributors whom he directed, among whom Henry See also:Reeve was conspicuous as regards foreign affairs, 1 See the See also:centenary number of January 2, 1888; the pamphlet by S . V . Makower, issued by The Times in 1904, " The History of The Times "; and the article by See also:Hugh Chisholm on " The Times, 1785–1908 " in the See also:National Review (May 1908) . 2 See Life of John Sterling, by See also:Carlyle, who says of him at this time: " The emphatic, big-voiced, always influential and often strongly unreasonable Times newspaper was the See also:express See also:emblem of Edward Sterling . He, more than any other man, . was The Times, and thundered through it, to the shaking of the See also:spheres." The nick-name of " The Thunderer," for The Times, came in vogue in his day . was to turn the " favourite broadsheet " of the English public into service, with a special steamer, in the Far East, at the opening of the the " leading journal of the world." When Delane retired, he was succeeded as editor by Thomas See also:Chenery, and on his death in 1884 by George See also:Earle See also:Buckle (b . 1854) . At the beginning of 1908 considerable changes took place in the proprietorial side of The Times, which was converted into a company, with Mr A . F . Walter (chief proprietor since 1891) as chairman and Mr C . See also:Moberly Bell (b . 1847; manager since 1890) as managing director; the financial control passing into the hands of Lord Northcliffe . In the history of The Times its influence on the mechanical side of newspaper work was very great . The increasing circulation of The Times between the years 1840 and 1850 made an improvement in the printing-presses necessary, as sometimes the publication could not be completed before the afternoon . To meet this want the Applegath See also:vertical press was introduced in 1848 and the American See also:Hoe ten-feeder press in 1858 . Meanwhile the idea of stereotyping from the movable types had been making steady progress . About the year 1856, however, a Swiss named Dellagana introduced to The Times Kroning's idea of casting from See also:papier-m3che instead of See also:plaster, and was allowed to experiment in The Times office . After a time the invention was so much improved that matrices of pages could be taken and the stereotype plates fixed bodily on the printing machine in place of the movable type . This cleared the way for the introduction of the famous Walter press . Hitherto only one set of " formes " could be used, as the type was set up once only—one side of the paper being worked on one machine and the sheets then taken to another machine to be " perfected." Stereotyping enabled the formes to be multiplied to any extent, as several plates could be cast from one See also:matrix . Mr See also:MacDonald, the manager of The Times, had devoted himself for several years to the production of a press which could print papers on both sides in one operation from a large See also:reel of paper, the web of paper being cut into the required size after printing, instead of each sheet being " laid on " by a man and then printed . After years of experiment the Walter press was introduced into the Times machine-room in 1869, and the question of printing great numbers in a short time was solved . Each press turned out 12,000 sheets per hour, and it was therefore only a question of multiplying the stereo plates and presses to obtain any number of printed papers by a certain time . Meanwhile Messrs Hoe had set about producing something even quicker and better than the Walter press . They succeeded in accomplishing this by multiplying the reels of paper on each press, and also adding folders and stitchers . The result was the production of over 36,000 sheets per hour from each machine . These presses were adopted by The Times in 1895 . In 1868 the question of composing machines for the quicker setting-up of type was taken up by The Times . A German named Kastenbein had an invention which he brought to the notice of The Times, and arrangements were made for him to continue his experiments in The Times office . In a couple of years a machine was made, which was worked and improved until in 1874 several machines were ready to set up a portion of the paper; but it was not until 1879 that the arrangements were sufficiently advanced to make certain that they could do all that was wanted from them . The introduction of composing machines, and the necessary alterations in the office arrangements which followed, led to some trouble among the compositors, which in 188o culminated in a partial strike; but a part of the staff remaining loyal, the printer was able by extra effort to produce the paper at the proper time on the morning following the strike . Various improvements were made, until one machine was able to set up as many as 298 lines of The Times in one hour, equal to 16,688 separate types . A system of telephoning the parliamentary report from the House of Commons direct to the compositor was begun in 1885, and was continued until the House decided to rise at midnight, which enabled the more economical method of composing direct from the " copy " to be resumed . Ever since the introduction of the composing machines the business had been much hampered by the question of'" distribution "—that is, the breaking-up and sorting of the types after use . Kastenbein had invented a distributing machine to accompany his composing machine, but it proved to be unsatisfactory . Various systems were tried at The Times office, but for many years the work of the composing machines was to some extent crippled by the distribution difficulty . This had been recognized by Mr Frederick Wicks (d . 1910), the inventor of the Wicks Rotary Type-casting Machine, who for many years had been working at a machine which would cast new type so quickly and so cheaply as to do away with the old system of distribution and substitute new type every day . In 1899 his machine was practically perfect, and The Times entered into a contract with him to supply any quantity of new type every day . The difficult question of distribution was thus surmounted, and composition by machines placed on a satisfactory basis . Thus during the last half of the 19th century The Times continued to take the See also:lead in new inventions relating to the printing of a news-paper, just as it had in the fifty years preceding . The three most important advances during the later period were practically worked out at The Times office--namely, fast-printing presses, stereotyping and machine composing, and without these it is safe to say that the cheap newspaper of the present day could not exist . Further indications of the enterprise of The Times in taking up journalistic novelties may also be seen in its organizing a wireless telegraphy Russo-See also:Japanese War . The price at which The Times has been sold has been changed at various dates: in 1796 to 41d., 1799 to 6d., 1809 to 62d., 1815 to 7d., 1836 to 5d., 1855 to 4d., 1861 (Oct . I) to 3d., and in 1904 (still remaining at 3d.) it started a method of payment by subscription which gave subscribers an advantage in one form or another and thus in reality reduced the price further . In 1905 this advantage took the form of the price (3d.). covering a subscription to The Times Book Club, a circulating library and book-shop on novel lines (see BOOI{SELLING and PUBLISHING) . The first number of the paper contained 57 brief advertisements, but as it grew in repute and in size its advertising revenue became very large, and with the growth of this revenue came pari passe the means of spending more money on the contents . As far back as 186r a single issue had contained 105 columns of advertisements, and another 98 . Prior to 1884 the paper had only on two occasions consisted of 24 pages in a single issue . Between that year and 1902 more than 8o separate issues of this size were published, many of them containing over 8o columns of advertisements . Of two issues, one containing the news of the death and the other the account of the funeral of- Queen Victoria, 140,000 copies were printed . From that time issues of 20 pages and over became an ordinary matter: and on May 24 ,1909 (Empire Day), The Times signalized the occasion by bringing out a huge supplement of 72 pages full of articles on Imperial topics . The Times has long stood in a class by itself among newspapers, owing to its abundance of trustworthy news, its high literary standard and its command of the ablest writers, who, however, are generally anonymous in its columns . It has always claimed to be a national rather than a party organ . It was Liberal in its politics in the Reform days, but became more and more Conservative and Imperialist when the Unionist and See also:anti-Home Rule era set in . On the See also:conversion of Mr Gladstone to Home Rule, The Times was, indeed, largely instrumental in forming the Liberal-Unionist party . In the course of its vigorous See also:campaign against Irish Nationalism it published as part of its case a series of articles on " Parnellism and Crime," including what were alleged to be facsimile reproductions of letters from Mr See also:Parnell showing his complicity with the See also:Phoenix See also:Park murders . The history of this See also:episode, and of the appointment of the Special See also:Commission of investigation by the government, is told under PARNELL . One of the strongest features of The Times has been always its foreign correspondence . Among leading incidents in the history of The Times a few may be more particularly mentioned . In 184o the Paris correspondent of the paper (Mr O'Reilly) obtained information respecting a gigantic See also:scheme of See also:forgery which had been planned in France, together with particulars of the examination at Antwerp of a minor agent in the See also:conspiracy, who had been there, almost by See also:chance, arrested . All that he could collect en the subject, including the names of the chief conspirators, was published by The Times on the 26th of May in that year, under the heading " Extraordinary and Extensive Forgery and Swindling Conspiracy on the Continent (Private Correspondence)." The project contemplated the almost simultaneous presentation at the chief banking-houses throughout the Continent of forged letters of credit, purporting to be those of Glyn & Company, to a very large amount; and its failure appears to have been in a great degree owing to the exertions made, and the responsibility assumed, by The Times . One of the persons implicated brought an action for libel against the paper, which was tried at See also:Croydon in August 1841, with a See also:verdict for the See also:plaintiff, one farthing damages . A subscription towards defraying the heavy expenses (amounting to more than £5000) which The Times had incurred was speedily opened, but the proprietors declined to profit by it; and the sum which had been raised was devoted to the foundation of two " Times scholarships,' in connexion with See also:Christ's See also:Hospital and the City of London School . Three years afterwards The Times rendered See also:noble public service in a different direction . It used its vast power with vigour—at the expense of materialiy checking the growth of its own advertisement fund—by denouncing the fraudulent schemes which underlay the " railway mania " of 1845 . The Parnell affair has already been mentioned . And more recently the " book war," arising out of the attack by the combined publishers on The Times Book Club in 1906, was prosecuted by The Times with great vigour, until in 1908 it came quietly to an end . Various adjuncts to The Times, issued by its proprietors, have still to be mentioned . The Mail, published three times a week at the price of 2d. per number, gives a summary of two days' issue of The Times . The Times Weekly Edition (begun in 1877) is published every Friday at 2d., and gives an See also:epitome of The Times for the six days . The Law Reports (begun in 1884) are conducted by a special staff of Times law reporters . Commercial Cases deals with cases of a commercial nature . Issues is a useful half-yearly compilation of all the company announcements and demands for new capital, taken from the advertisement columns of The Times . In 1897 The Times started a weekly literary organ under the title of Literature . In 1901, however, a weekly literary supplement to The Times was issued instead, and Literature passed into the hands of the proprietor of the See also:Academy, with which paper it was incorporated . The " Literary Supplement," which appears each Thursday (at first on Fridays), is printed in a different form, and separately paged . In 1904 a " Financial and Commercial Supplement " (at first on Mondays, and later on Fridays) was added; in 1905 an " See also:Engineering Supplement " (Wednesdays), and in 1910 a "Woman's Supplement." The publishing department of The Times also invaded several new See also:fields of enterprise . The Times See also:Atlas was first published in 1895, and this publication was supplemented by that of The Times (previously See also:Longmans') Gazetteer . A much larger amd more important venture was the issue in 1898 of a reprint of the ninth edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica at less than half the original price, on a new system of terms (known as The Times system) that enabled the purchaser to receive the whole work at once and to pay for it by a series of equal monthly payments . This was followed by a similar sale of the Century See also:Dictionary and of a reprint of the first fifty years of See also:Punch ; and eleven new volumes of the Encyclopaedia Britannica, supplementing the ninth edition, and forming with it the tenth edition, were issued by The Times in 1902 on similar terms (see ENCYCLOPAEDIA) . In 1895 The Times, through its Vienna correspondent, See also:purchased from Dr See also:Moritz See also:Busch the MS. and entire copyright of his journals, containing a very See also:minute record of his intimate relations with See also:Bismarck . It was stipulated in the contract that these were not to be published until after the death of the prince . That event occurred an the 30th July 1898, and on the 12th September of the same year The Times published through Messrs See also:Macmillan (in 3 vols.) Bismarck: Some Secret Pages of his History, by Dr Moritz Busch .
The Times History of the War in South Africa arose out of a desire to preserve in a more readable form the excellent work done by the numerous Times correspondents in South Africa
.
When originally projected in the early days of 1900 it was hoped that the war would be of short duration, and that the history of it could be rapidly completed
.
The length of the war naturally upset all these calculations, and eventually the See also:sixth and last volume was only issued in 19o9
.
For a long period after the establishment of The Times, no effort to found a new daily London morning newspaper was ever conspicuously successful
.
Among unfruitful attempts were—(1) the New Times, started by Dr (afterwards Sir John) Stoddart, upon his departure from Printing-House Square; (2) the Representative (1824), established by John See also: It could boast of having continuously been the See also:champion of Liberal ideas and principles—of what (so long as Mr Gladstone lived) might be called official Liberalism at home and of liberty abroad . It became a penny paper in 1868 . Its only rival in the history of Liberal journal-ism in London for many years was the Morning Star, which in 1870 it absorbed . Notably, it led British public opinion in foreign affairs as champion of the North in the American Civil War, of the cause of Italy, of the emancipation of Bulgaria from the Turk and of See also:Armenia . Its early editors were Charles Dickens (21st January–March 1846), John See also:Forster (March–October 1846), E . E . See also:Crowe (1847–1851), F . K . Hunt (1851–1854), W . See also:Weir (1854–1858), T . Walker (1858–1869) . In 1868 the price was reduced to a penny, and it came under the management of Mr (afterwards Sir) John R .
Robinson (1828–1903), who only retired in 1901
.
Its later editors included (1868–1886) Mr F
.
H
.
See also: Cook, who had shown brilliant ability as a publicist, but whose views on the Boer War were not shared by the new proprietor, retired, subsequently joining the staff of the Daily Chronicle; the journal then became an organ of the anti-imperialist section of the Liberal party . Mr A . G . See also:Gardiner became editor in 1902; and in 1904 considerable changes were made in the style of the paper, which was reduced in price to a halfpenny . The influence of Mr Cadbury, and of the See also:group of Quaker families—largely associated with the manufacture of See also:cocoa—who followed his example in promoting the publication of Liberal and Free Trade newspapers, led in later years to somewhat violent attacks from political opponents on the so-called " Cocoa Press," with the Daily News at its head . The first number of the Daily Telegraph was published on 29th June 1855, as a twopenny newspaper . Its proprietor was See also:Colonel See also:Sleigh . This gentleman soon found himself in pecuniary „See also:flail straits, and in See also:satisfaction of the debt for the printing Teteof the paper it was transferred to Mr Joseph See also:Moses See also:Levy graph.” in the following September . On 17th September Mr Levy published it as a .four-paged penny journal, the first penny newspaper produced in London . His son, afterwards Sir Edward See also:Lawson (b . 1833), who was created Baron Burnham in 1904, immediately entered the office, and after a short time became editor, a post which he only abandoned in 1885, when he became managing proprietor and sole director . From the outset Mr Levy gathered round him a staff of high literary skill and reputation .
Among the first were Thornton Hunt, See also:Geoffrey Prowse, George See also:Hooper and Sir See also:Edwin See also:Arnold
.
E
.
L
.
Blanchard was among the earliest of the dramatic critics, and See also:
See also:Traill was a leader-writer for well-nigh a quarter of a century
.
J
.
M
.
Le See also:Sage (b
.
1837), for many years the managing editor, began his connexion with the paper under Mr Levy
.
Others prominently associated with the paper have been W
.
L
.
See also:Courtney (b
.
185o), a distinguished man of letters who, after several years of work as See also:tutor at New College, Oxford, joined the staff in 189o, and in 1894 also became editor of the Fortnightly Review ; E
.
B
.
Iwan-See also:
L
.
Garvin (from 1899), afterwards (1904) editor of the Observer
.
After 1890 Mr H
.
W
.
L
.
Lawson, Lord Burnham's eldest son and See also:heir, assisted his father in the general control of the paper
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The Daily Telegraph may be said to have led the way in London journalism in capturing a large and important reading-public from the monopoly of The Times
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It became the great organ of the middle classes, and was distinguished for its enterprise in many fields
.
In June 1873 the Telegraph despatched George See also: Another geographical feat with which the name of the Daily Telegraph is associated was the exploration of See also:Kilimanjaro (1884–1885) by Mr (afterwards Sir) Harry See also: |