NIGERIA  , a See also:

• BRITISH

British See also:

• PROTECTORATE

protectorate in See also:

• WEST
• WEST, BENJAMIN (1738-1820)
• WEST, NICHOLAS (1461-1533)

West See also:

• AFRICA
• AFRICA, ROMAN

Africa occupying the See also:

• LOWER

lower See also:

• BASIN, or BASON (the older form bacin is found in many of the Romanic languages, from the Late Lat. baccinus or bacchinus, probably derived from bacca, a bowl)
• BASIN, THOMAS (1412—1491)

basin of the See also:

• NIGER
• NIGER, GAIUS PESCENNIUS

Niger and the See also:

• COUNTRY (from the Mid. Eng. contre or contrie, and O. Fr. cuntree; Late Lat. contrata, showing the derivation from contra, opposite, over against, thus the tract of land which fronts the sight, cf. Ger. Gegend, neighbourhood)

country between that See also:

• RIVER

river and See also:

• LAKE
• LAKE, GERARD LAKE, 1ST VISCOUNT (1744-1808)

Lake See also:

• CHAD
• CHAD [CEADDA], SAINT (d. 672)

Chad, including the See also:

• FULA (FULBE, FELLATAH or PEULS)

Fula See also:

• EMPIRE

empire (i.e. the See also:

• HAUSA

Hausa States) and the greater See also:

• PART

part of Bonin . It embraces most of the territory in the square formed by the meridians of 3° and 14° E. and the See also:

• PARALLELS

parallels of 4° and 14° N., and has an See also:

• AREA

area of about 338,000 sq. m . The protectorate is bounded W., N. and N.E. by See also:

• FRENCH
• FRENCH, DANIEL CHESTER (1850– )
• FRENCH, NICHOLAS (1604-1678)

French possessions (See also:

• DAHOMEY (Fr. Dahome)

Dahomey, Upper See also:

• SENEGAL

Senegal and Niger See also:

• COLONY (Lat. colonia, from colonus, a cultivator)

colony, and Chad territory), S.E. by the See also:

• GERMAN
• GERMAN, DUTCH AND SCANDINAVIAN

German colony of Cameroon and S. by the See also:

• ATLANTIC

Atlantic . See also:

• PHYSICAL

Physical Features.—The country is divisible, broadly, into three zones See also:

• RUNNING

running parallel with the See also:

• COAST (from Lat. costa, a rib, side)

coast: (I) the See also:

• DELTA (from the shape of the Gr. letter A, delta, originally used of the mouth of the Nile)

delta, (2) See also:

• FOREST

forest region, giving See also:

• PLACE (through Fr. from Lat. platea, street; Gr. IrAar6s, wide)

place to (3) the See also:

• PLATEAU (a French term, older platel, for a flat piece of wood, metal, &c., from plat, flat)
• PLATEAU, JOSEPH ANTOINE FERDINAND (1801-1883)

plateau region . The coast See also:

• LINE

line, some Soo m. in length, extends along the Gulf of See also:

• GUINEA

Guinea from 2° 46' 55" E. to 8° 45' E. ending at the Rio del Rey, the point where the See also:

• GREAT

great See also:

• BEND

bend eastwards of the See also:

• CONTINENT (from Lat. continere, "to hold together "; hence " connected," " continuous ")

continent ceases and the See also:

• LAND

land turns See also:

• SOUTH
• SOUTH, ROBERT (1634–1716)

south . The Niger (q.v.), which enters the protectorate at its N.W. corner and flows thence S.E. to the Atlantic, receives, 250 M. from the See also:

• SEA (in O. Eng. sae, a common Teutonic word; cf. Ger. See, Dutch Zee, &c.; the ultimate source is uncertain)
• SEA, COMMAND OF THE

sea, the See also:

• BENUE

Benue, which, rising in the mountains of See also:

• ADAMAWA

Adamawa south of Lake Chad, flows west across the plateau . Into the huge delta of the Niger several other See also:

• RIVERS
• RIVERS, ANTHONY WOODVILLE, or WYDEVILLE, 2ND EARL (c. 1442—1483)
• RIVERS, EARL
• RIVERS, RICHARD SAVAGE, 4TH EARL (c. 1660—1712)

rivers (the " Oil Rivers ") empty themselves; the See also:

• CHIEF (from Fr. chef, head, Lat. caput)

chief being, on the west, the See also:

• BENIN

Benin (q.v.), and on the See also:

• EAST
• EAST, ALFRED (1849- )

east the See also:

• BRASS
• BRASS (O. Eng. braes)

Brass . East of the Niger delta is that formed by the Imo or Opobo, Bonny and other streams, and still farther east is the See also:

• CALABAR (or OLD CALABAR)

Calabar See also:

• ESTUARY (from the Lat. aestuarium, a place reached by aestus, the tide)

estuary, mainly formed by the See also:

• CROSS

Cross river (q.v.) . West of the Niger delta are several See also:

• INDEPENDENT

independent streams discharging into lagoons, which here line the coast . The most See also:

• WESTERLY

westerly of these streams, the Ogun, enters the See also:

• LAGOS

Lagos See also:

• LAGOON (Fr. lagune, Lat. lacuna, a pool)

lagoon, which is connected by navigable waterways with the Niger (see LAGOS) . , The delta region is swampy, and forms, for a distance of from 40 to 70 M. inland, a network of interlacing creeks.and broad sluggish channels fringed with monotonous See also:

• MANGROVE

mangrove forests . The See also:

• MAIN (from the Aryan root which appears in " may " and " might," and Lat. magnus, great)
• MAIN (Lat. Moenus)

main rivers are navigable for ocean-going steamers for a distance of from 15 to 40 M. from their mouths .

Beyond the delta See also:

• FIRM

firm ground takes the place of mud and the mangroves disappear . The land rises gradually at first, becoming, however, in many districts very hilly, and is covered with dense forests . The Niger at its confluence with the Benue is not more than 250 It. above the sea . See also:

• NORTH
• NORTH, BARONS
• NORTH, MARIANNE (1830—1890)
• NORTH, ROGER (1653-1734)
• NORTH, SIR THOMAS (1535?-16o1?)

North of this point are hills forming the walls of the plateau which extends over the centre of the See also:

• EMERY (Ger. Smirgel)

Emery See also:

• WALKER, FRANCIS AMASA (1840-1897)
• WALKER, FREDERICK (184o--1875)
• WALKER, GEORGE (c. 1618-169o)
• WALKER, HENRY OLIVER (1843— )
• WALKER, HORATIO (1858– )
• WALKER, JOHN (1732—1807)
• WALKER, OBADIAH (1616-1699)
• WALKER, ROBERT (d. c. 1658)
• WALKER, ROBERT JAMES (1801-1869)
• WALKER, SEARS COOK (1805—1853)
• WALKER, THOMAS (1784—1836)
• WALKER, WILLIAM (1824-1860)

Walker ao . U' Ambru S E N E G A L ° A N D °Aisa `~Kaddaio - ` .. Buda See also:

• HILL
• HILL (0. Eng. hyll; cf. Low Ger. hull, Mid. Dutch hul, allied to Lat. celsus, high, collis, hill, &c.)
• HILL, A
• HILL, AARON (1685-175o)
• HILL, AMBROSE POWELL
• HILL, DANIEL HARVEY (1821-1889)
• HILL, DAVID BENNETT (1843–1910)
• HILL, GEORGE BIRKBECK NORMAN (1835-1903)
• HILL, JAMES J
• HILL, JOHN (c. 1716-1775)
• HILL, MATTHEW DAVENPORT (1792-1872)
• HILL, OCTAVIA (1838– )
• HILL, ROWLAND (1744–1833)
• HILL, SIR ROWLAND (1795-1879)

Hill P E R Chibiri See also:

• ZINDER

Zinder -oGaIdab . N I G EIR of Mir Bosso =•_= Nassara a Ke mello Sabon I; Matadi .' . ..~ See also:

• DESERT

Desert qo ~~ Rosso° (btro • $irn~f tr °Gushi Gorselik Zomba -C21Jfg`•. See also:

• PRO

pro . Beibet Godabawa o Sansanne~ QKoollema °Watha :." Maim Bab. r•~y Yeilu°See also:

• RYE

rye = •Wurnu unkarr Dingas a0.GR..•~:(u 0.@ ~- C d_ . Kariman of See also:

• SOKOTO

Sokoto •Gandi ~ Ketsena° ra'=yi~ ° oMachena Bidere - •~ - H ' , ~ goo Karaguao Koachelari Old See also:

• BORNU

Bornu Kau ° F . S' Argungu 0 . Vaneuna .

B.11amaari "'••~ Alangeron,,,~,{ :• IEim'1 See also:

• KUKA, or KUKAWA

Kuka oGando r` Kunc Gummel'o `r"~ "-'^""" '- oBarga Ngornu S tj--_K `•~"~° 'f` 't+• Dampri e Jega k o t10 r°fa o Hader°.~~./" /' Gorgoram o Kubdi ~• j Guerki •'•, oBedigana/Gnmsa ano r •"-j{asetl^ Katngu Galin Kalima0 See also:

• FIR

fir•• _f Gaya S a.` .. -T . iyaH Dori j E g . R 0 . MoiGugu~ ,kwa GarJ uru N Baua O R K G O Maifoni ° °t°°° lloy .. Gombe %a° 'b j~ r• t O Y y^ B GOJba N $J 9 Saria Birnin t J a '',See also:

• RAND

Rand, Mfi .•°,j •..• ..•M p Dallwa° See also:

• PALE (through Fr. pal, from Lat. palms, a stake, for paglus, from the stem pag- of pangere, to fix; " pole " is from the same original source)

Pale w a Kandt % Kotonkoro 'Gwari `Carla { e-• See also:

• ALES (ALEsIus), ALEXANDER (1500-1565)

Ales au I. n u -- "~ Naganno}~~) ) aa ~ Guar m 0- °MunyI t . a40 5 .` 1 ;la ,' 1• t" `. la'•_,,,, ASh ob ht° Cl Buay •°angbass K' Velwa ~O~ °Kortgs', ,• .. 's' rr d I~afada Ashak K on% Nikki r %. tJ' S^ .~ to o• _Girku a u 4 . . ...... ForgaY _ oduo • °~' '~ '~,( .c h ille J .. Kontago(a' / See also:

• BAUCHI

Bauchi Gombe Burmi See also:

• WADI

Wadi, _ r - 04 •" . k . Ako° Gan' . .,um wU~` ° . l~ s* us ro •GaradtmanKogo °Matmatdt ...,_ 1 I a Ivtubt{~ - °See also:

• GOMM, SIR WILLIAM MAYNARD (1784-1875)

Gomm V °Bor O §! a—C } i~l .

Kota"•' VC m~ {;.•- I{or,bo Shillen — yB ~,,a ZUII era'., .. Kachta ,+m,,K bye n uku u Gwona /- (~ Gui See also:

• AGORA

agora 'Leaba gshi •' f Kanam t:atan `"F N J `' • @ EYaked< . '•WaShi m p T< t T Bilashi } O tJ1' Klatpa t Godte-°'~ BartJukO See also:

• DAR

Dar oro $uCa .Basha See also:

• MURI

Muri a ~,~ , Paraku too,: See also:

• RABBA

Rabba- 1I0°M Pa ko G See also:

• MURCHISON, SIR RODERICK IMPEY (1792-1871)

Murchison '4 o Wase BOpd; Lav n `P de' !. "ku[a Jebba N °a Lapa Aboja j fi"yrt• Ra ge ;.; See also:

• RAT (a word common to Teut. and Rom. languages; probably first adopted in Teut.; the ultimate origin is not known; Skeat suggests the root rad-, to scratch; cf. Ger. Ratte, Dan. rotte, Fr. rat, &c.)

rat 1 B'tkor 0 ° _'~. f e 1'fn\~ -'~ - { t•; Amar Jah ngu RIM arua Tab ra K sht honga • M P r;; Pundarri K oa ) Yelual t t ; ~`•~' - See also:

• YOLA

Yola 3s' - )= % . e(t a '~-•~ r`` °' •^`+tt + dy . Igbohd 1 !a ^R w ..~ A See also:

• ATE

ate Laf a;Be.rebere Gassol Gonkusa~ 1\\~"'_ 'n_ o r ! fllesh ~~ Egga _ ~S f) a a ono See also:

• NASSARAWA

Nassarawa . I Sakr Lgbete , I Ul 1 o r L1 n Bars: Nassaraw LaffanG tssen tbu dt riu }' Ch am6a' t ~ dddddd A Suku bd Bak ^ Dtrnm a See also:

• SARI

Sari , O,:a nlonn Nass~araw,T ~~ Mt3..g Y o rlu b b l{a ha See also:

• OFFA
• OFFA (d. 796)

Offa $~ ,Romasho'", Loko / ! n d Awton YashtkitaK,h a m a w a , - A edt )-.>~ ... ., y f 'ukan G 4f Iseym R Osho bo ,IKa ba J t of ~•~ •See also:

• BELT (a word common to Teutonic languages, the Old Ger. form being bale, from which the Lat. balteus probably derived)
• BELT, THOMAS (1832-1878)

Belt . ,.x I an xn O S Ede' odakale ~"4 !ftke ~re r,'Ik Ao r{if'amre Loko a Be v e 4 ^ ~~•+ P ~1 g K ry ,~ .0.•Gbe a wb° Denyankn agba achya F• - nR I~achella 'See also:

• CAT
• CAT, CIVET
• CAT, HOUSE

Cat \, . G'ashaka A E . °Jwa oaIbada = ,.. See also:

• SER

ser a ;, A S a ~ `~ y, ~ .w TT~~ g t B a...- S See also:

• KATSENA

Katsena } n,~ k n Ttutitdq ZI I Ishoyy 1 !' \~,\ a .a . i %Pe tp, J S _, Mudi.,~'? t .

, M ~'S A o See also:

• ABEOKUTA

Abeokuta Ond .° Ow 'ISI ka N ~~'~~ '3A t r §r 0 o O° Ekperri of oOgrugru t y i Baful ..• t<WMt°' f ~~ ` d[ o ,.°~ o NN.S ;z U , • . Mt f - See also:

• BAH

Bah s•,,. amJw../er a f.° m Aro~ .2o T HJ '-E R oul acv a~ d' O Benin/ Iliushi' c~ G2 t o iy - . ', J' - fir . 0 Mf•"Ifba/la.f~my~'Mbtnn r 1 Ngat~ tdere r r . t^'"yN -6 ;,hw c r 1,~ , E R••~ O O,•,,,N~.~ I, ,v + - afo•:.•' ' Ttbau'" - 't._- NQ m °°+ °-F ~'t r• 1/ Y G b M1ttem ltnh „t 9 „//rf1 D°~ - q~° oF~=v tO 1"Am lorial o m 1~ - - p Asabao' •-,""1 R Bl hC Q =D oOnttsha Op•toko° y- f - ATLAlV - a - sa~s o Sa e/See also:

• LLL

lll~-=ay See also:

• MOSS

moss a= a siding Bamenda rem NIGERIA 8e t . `iJ*wan le t.lushha 3 kPe as as, a engu~a See also:

• ENGLISH

English See also:

• MILES, NELSON APPLETON (1839— )

Miles T7C 4'~+''” Ebom• A' Ttnto, F • rso ae~o Forca,:s t A /Lrt Oweri Bende a Ok n -''” ;E°R d {~j 4 7•Ctt ~+"' I . su it Cal ar~„,~~ okouss ° 1 .t td • 4Rky o1•„?~N sokQa` i\~~ 4' a• a \OknkaS Idua ra ~eI t may os -t w, , ~ — ..Doti o 0 C F A N — Peta~ ~4 - . - ~. leYo yt, r~97, eiwea Mt Rai/ways " . := -o', Owt—o',~ tcr .' r•J _-^•a.~ ^ . Swamps — . 4 C See also:

• LONGITUDE (from Lat. longitudo, " length ")

Longitude Fast 8° of See also:

• GREENWICH

Greenwich D E F 1 2 to 3 8 4 5 I2° protectorate and is part of the great plateau of North Africa . This plateau, broken only by the valleys of the rivers, does not attain an See also:

• ELEVATION

elevation approaching that of the plateaus of the See also:

• SOUTHERN

southern See also:

• HALF

half of the continent, the culminating point (apart from particular See also:

• MOUNTAIN (0. Fr. montaigne; popular Lat. montanea, an adjectival form from the classical mons, montis, whence Eng. " mount," a form usually used along with the name of an individual mountain, e.g. Mt Everest)
• MOUNTAIN, THE (La Montagne)

mountain districts), situated in about ro° N., reaching a height of 3000 ft. only . The valleys of the Niger and Benue, especially the latter, are very much lower, the See also:

• TOWN

town of Yola on the Benue, some 400 M. inland, lying at an See also:

• ALTITUDE (Lat. altitudo, from altus, high)

altitude of little over 600 ft .

The See also:

• SURFACE

surface is generally undulating, with isolated " table mountains " of See also:

• GRANITE (adapted from the Ital. granite, grained; Lat. granum, grain)

granite and See also:

• SANDSTONE

sandstone often rising abruptly from the See also:

• PLAIN (O. Fr. plain, from Lat. plenum)

plain . It is clothed largely with thin forest, but becomes more open to the north until, near the French frontier, the arid See also:

• STEPPES

steppes bordering the See also:

• SAHARA

Sahara are reached . Much of the country north of See also:

• ZARIA

Zaria (I I° N.) is covered with heavy loose See also:

• SAND
• SAND, GEORGE (1804-1876)

sand . The most mountainous districts are See also:

• NORTHERN

northern Bauchi (a little north of ro°), where heights of 600c to 7000 ft. occur; parts of Muri, along the north See also:

• BANK

bank of the Benue; and the southern border of the Benue basin, where the hills (consisting of ironstone, See also:

• QUARTZ

quartz and granite) appear See also:

• RICH, BARNABE (c. 1540-1617)
• RICH, CLAUDIUS JAMES (1787-1821)
• RICH, JOHN (1692-1761)
• RICH, PENELOPE, LADY (c. 1562–1607)
• RICH, RICHARD, 1ST BARON RICH (1490?-1567)

rich in minerals . The mountainous area covers some 5o,000 sq. m . On the east the plateau sinks to the plains of Bornu (q.v.), which extend to Lake Chad . Tributaries of the Niger See also:

• TRAVERSE

traverse the western portion of the country, the most noteworthy being the Gulbin Kebb° or Sokoto river and the Kaduna, which flows through a valley not more than 500 ft. above the sea . The north-eastern part of the country drains to Lake Chad by the Waube or Yo, an intermittent stream, which in its lower course forms the Anglo-French boundary . The western portion of Lake Chad (q.v.) belongs to the protectorate, which contains no other large lake . The See also:

• WATER

water parting between the Chad and Niger systems runs N.W. and S.E. from about Katsena in 13° N. to the Bauchi hills . Of the tributaries of the Benue the most important is the Gongola . During the dry See also:

• SEASON (0. Fr. seson, seison, mod. saison, Lat. satio, sowing time, the spring, from serere, to sow; in Late Lat. the word is found with its present meaning, the spring being considered as particularly the season of the year)

season most of the small rivers cease running and the water in the larger streams is See also:

• LOW, SETH (1850- )
• LOW, WILL HICOK (1853- )

low .

The great rise of the Niger within the protectorate takes place in See also:

• AUGUST (originally Sextilis)

August and See also:

• SEPTEMBER (Lat. septem, seven)

September and there is a second rise about the beginning of the See also:

• YEAR

year . See also:

• GEOLOGY (from Gr. yp7, the earth, and Abyor, science)

Geology.—The fundamental formation f•;onsists of crystalline rocks . From the edge of the coast belt to near the confluence of the Benue and Niger they are overlain by unfossil:iferous sandstones, lying undisturbed and possibly of the See also:

• AGE (Fr. age, through late Lat. aetaticum, from aetas)

age of the sandstones of the See also:

• CONGO

Congo basin . Limestones, with fossils indicating a See also:

• TERTIARY

Tertiary age, have been found near Sokoto . Superficial deposits occupy the coast belt . See also:

• RECENT

Recent See also:

• ALLUVIUM

alluvium and a thick See also:

• DEPOSIT (Lat. depositurn, from deponere, to lay down, to put in the care of)

deposit of See also:

• BLACK
• BLACK, ADAM (1784-1874)
• BLACK, JEREMIAH SULLIVAN (1810–1883)
• BLACK, WILLIAM (1841-1898)

black See also:

• EARTH
• EARTH (a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Erde, Dutch aarde, Swed. and Dan. jord; outside Teutonic it appears only in the Gr. 'pq'e, on the ground; it has been connected by some etymologists with the Aryan root ar-, to plough, which is seen in
• EARTH, FIGURE OF
• EARTH, FIGURE OF THE

earth border the upper reaches of the Benue and See also:

• COVER (from the Fr. convert, from couvrir, to cover, Lat. cooperire)

cover wide areas around Lake Chad . See also:

• CLIMATE

Climate.—The country lies wholly within the tropics . The climate of the coast-lands is moist and hot, and extremely unhealthy, malarial See also:

• FEVER (Lat. febris, connected with fervere, to burn)

fever being prevalent and deadly . The See also:

• ANNUAL

annual rainfall in the delta regions varies between too and 140 or more inches; the mean temperature is over 8o° F . The See also:

• HEAT (0. E. haktu, which like " hot," Old Eng. hat, is from the Teutonic type haita, hit, to be hot; cf. Ger. hitze, heiss; Dutch, hitte, heet, &c.)

heat does not, vary greatly, rarely sinking below 7o°, and not often exceeding too° in the shade . The Trial by See also:

• ORDEAL (O.Eng. ordal, ordael, judgment)

ordeal and domestic See also:

• SLAVERY

slavery are still among the recogdirection of the prevailing See also:

• WIND
• WIND (a common Teut. word, cognate with Skt. vats, Lat. ventus, cf. " weather," to be of course distinguished from to " wind," to coil or twist, O.Eng. windan, cf. "wander," "wend," &c.)

wind is S.W . Though unfavourable for nized institutions. the permanent See also:

• RESIDENCE (Latin residere, to remain behind, to dwell, reside)

residence of See also:

• WHITE
• WHITE, ANDREW DICKSON (1832– )
• WHITE, GILBERT (1720–1793)
• WHITE, HENRY KIRKE (1785-1806)
• WHITE, HUGH LAWSON (1773-1840)
• WHITE, JOSEPH BLANCO (1775-1841)
• WHITE, RICHARD GRANT (1822-1885)
• WHITE, ROBERT (1645-1704)
• WHITE, SIR GEORGE STUART (1835– )
• WHITE, SIR THOMAS (1492-1567)
• WHITE, SIR WILLIAM ARTHUR (1824--1891)
• WHITE, SIR WILLIAM HENRY (1845– )
• WHITE, THOMAS (1628-1698)
• WHITE, THOMAS (c. 1550-1624)

white men, the interior is much less deadly than the coast-lands .

The northern part is a land of tornadoes . At the See also:

• CLOSE
• CLOSE (from Lat. clausum, shut)
• CLOSE, MAXWELL HENRY (1822-1903)

close of the dry season (end of See also:

• FEBRUARY

February) cyclones from the N.E., usually accompanied by See also:

• RAIN (O.E. regn; the word is common to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Regen, Swed. and Dan. regn; it has been connected with Lat. rigare, to wet, Gr. 13pixeav)

rain and See also:

• THUNDER

thunder, burst over the land . They increase in frequency until they See also:

• MERGE

merge in the heavy rains which last from See also:

• JULY

July to See also:

• OCTOBER

October . Then the " hamattan," or hot, dry wind from the Sahara, begins and brings with it clouds of impalpable dust . At this See also:

• PERIOD
• PERIOD (Gr. irepioSos, a going or way round, circuit, aepi, round, and &Sis, way, road)

period the nights are See also:

• COLD (in O. Eng. cald and ceald, a word coming ultimately from a root cognate with the Lat. gelu, gelidus, and common in the Teutonic languages, which usually have two distinct forms for the substantive and the adjective, cf. Ger. Kolte, kalt, Dutch koude

cold, and in the north See also:

• JANUARY

January and February are cold even in the See also:

• DAY (O. Eng. dreg, Ger. Tag; according to the New English Dictionary, " in no way related to the Lat. dies")
• DAY, JOHN (1574-1640?)
• DAY, THOMAS (1748-1789)

day-See also:

• TIME (0. Eng. Lima, cf. Icel. timi, Swed. timme, hour, Dan. time; from the root also seen in " tide," properly the time of between the flow and ebb of the sea, cf. O. Eng. getidan, to happen, " even-tide," &c.; it is not directly related to Lat. tempus)
• TIME, MEASUREMENT OF
• TIME, STANDARD

time, while frosts are experienced in the neighbourhood of Lake Chad . The temperature in the central part of the protectorate is much the same See also:

• AVERAGE

average as at the coast, but the range is far greater, varying from a shade minimum of 590 to a shade maximum of 107°.1 The rainfall is much scantier on the plateaus than in the maritime regions, averaging in Northern Nigeria about 50 in. a year . There is See also:

• EVIDENCE (Lat. evidentia, evideri, to appear clearly)

evidence of the increasing See also:

• DESICCATION (from the Lat. desiccare, to dry up)

desiccation of the whole country north of the forest belt . This desiccation is partly attributable to the unrestricted See also:

• FELLING

felling of See also:

• WOOD, ANTHONY A2 (1632-1695)
• WOOD, JOHN GEORGE (1827—1889)
• WOOD, MRS HENRY [ELLEN] (1814—1887)
• WOOD, SEARLES VALENTINE (1798—188o)

wood practised for many centuries by the inhabitants . Along the northern border of the protectorate this has resulted in the encroachment of the Saharan desert over once fertile districts . The natives of the northern regions do not suffer to any extent from fever unless they move to a part of the country some distance from their See also:

• HOME
• HOME, DANIEL DUNGLAS (1833-1886)
• HOME, EARLS OF

home . Leprosy is See also:

• COMMON

common, especially in the inland towns; while ophthalmia is prevalent in the north, especially among the poorer classes, who See also:

• AXE (0. Eng. aex; a word common, in different forms, in the Teutonic languages, and akin to the Greek 41v17; the New English Dictionary prefers the spelling " ax ")

axe compelled to expose themselves to the See also:

• BLINDING

blinding dust from the deserts and the excessive glare of the See also:

• SUN
• SUN (0. Eng. sonne, Ger. sonne. Fr. soleil, Lat. sol, Gr. ijXior, from which comes helio- in various English compounds)

sun reflected from the burning sand . See also:

• FAUNA

Fauna and See also:

• FLORA

Flora.—The animals of Nigeria include the See also:

• ELEPHANT

elephant, See also:

• LION
• LION (Lat, leo, leonis; Gr. Mew)

lion, See also:

• LEOPARD

leopard, See also:

• GIRAFFE

giraffe, See also:

• HYENA

hyena, West-See also:

• AFRICAN

African See also:

• BUFFALO

buffalo, many kinds of See also:

• ANTELOPE

antelope and gazelle and smaller See also:

• GAME

game .

Monkeys are numerous in the forests, and See also:

• SNAKES

snakes are common . The See also:

• CAMEL (from the Arabic Djemal or the Heb. Gamal)

camel is found in the northern regions bordering the Sahara . In the rivers are See also:

• RHINOCEROS

rhinoceros, See also:

• HIPPOPOTAMUS (" river-horse," Gr. lames, horse and aoraµbs, river)

hippopotamus and See also:

• CROCODILE

crocodile . The manatus is also found . The birds include the See also:

• OSTRICH

ostrich, See also:

• MARABOUT (the French form of the Arab. murdbit, " one who pickets his horse on a hostile frontier "; cf. Portug.marabute; Span. morabito)

marabout, vultures, kites, See also:

• HAWKS, FRANCIS LISTER (1798-1866)

hawks, ground See also:

• HORN
• HORN (a common Teutonic word, cognate with Lat. cornu; cf. Gr. Kipas)
• HORN (Lat. cornu; corresponding terms being Fr. cor, trompe; Ger. Horn; Ital. corno)
• HORN, ARVID BERNHARD, COUNT (1664-1742)
• HORN, PHILIP DE MONTMORENCY, COUNT

horn-See also:

• BILL

bill, great See also:

• BUSTARD (corrupted from the Lat. Avis tarda, though the application of the epithet' is not easily understood)

bustard, guinea See also:

• FOWL (Dan. Fugl, Ger. Vogel)

fowl, See also:

• PARTRIDGE (Du. Patrijs, Fr. perdrix, from Lat. perdix, apparently onomatopoeic from the call of the bird)
• PARTRIDGE, JOHN BERNARD (1861– )
• PARTRIDGE, WILLIAM ORDWAY (1861– )

partridge, lesser bustard, See also:

• QUAIL (0. Fr. Quaille, Mod. Fr. Caille, Ital. Quaglia, Low Lat. Quaquila, Du. Kwakkel and Kwartel, Ger. Wachtel, Dan. Vagtel)

quail, See also:

• SNIPE (0. Eng. Spite, Icel. Snipe, Dutch Snip, Ger. Schnepfe)

snipe, See also:

• DUCK

duck, widgeon, See also:

• TEAL (O.E. tele)

teal, geese of various kinds, paraquets, doves, See also:

• BLUE (common in different forms to most European languages)

blue, See also:

• BRONZE

bronze and See also:

• GREEN, A
• GREEN, ALEXANDER HENRY (1832—1896)
• GREEN, DUFF (1791—1875)
• GREEN, JOHN RICHARD (1837—1883)
• GREEN, MATTHEW (1696-1737)
• GREEN, THOMAS HILL (1836-1882)
• GREEN, VALENTINE (1739–1813)
• GREEN, WILLIAM HENRY (.1825–1900)

green pigeons, and many others . Domestic animals include the See also:

• HORSE (a word common to Teutonic languages in such forms as hors, hros, ros; cf. the Ger. ross)

horse and donkey in the plateaus, but baggage animals are rare in the coast-lands, where the tsetse See also:

• FLY (formed on the root of the supposed original Tent. fleugan, to fly)

fly is found . Mosquitoes are also abundant throughout the delta . Herds of See also:

• CATTLE (Norman Fr. catel, from Late Lat. capitale, wealth or property, a word applied in the feudal system to movable property and particularly to live stock, and surviving in its wider meaning as " chattel " or " chattle ")

cattle and flocks of See also:

• SHEEP
• SHEEP (from the Anglo-Saxon sceap, a word common in various forms to Teutonic languages; e.g. the German Schaf)

sheep and goats are numerous throughout the country . The mangrove is the characteristic See also:

• TREE (0. Eng. treo, treow, cf. Dan. tree, Swed. Odd, tree, trd, timber; allied forms are found in Russ. drevo, Gr. opus, oak, and 36pv, spear, Welsh derw, Irish darog, oak, and Skr. dare, wood)
• TREE, SIR HERBERT BEERBOHM (1853- )

tree of the swamps . North of the swamps the oil See also:

• PALM (Lat. palma, Gr. iraX6.jn )
• PALM, JOHANN PHILIPP (1768-1806)

palm (Elaeis guineensis) flourishes abundantly . It is common as far as about 70 N . See also:

• RUBBER, INDIARUBBER

Rubber vines, See also:

• MAHOGANY

mahogany, See also:

• EBONY (Gr. E(3evos)

ebony and many valuable See also:

• TIMBER

timber trees are found in the forest See also:

• ZONE (Gr. 'WV77, a girdle, from 'wvvLvay to gird)

zone .

Other trees, found chiefly on the plateaus, are the See also:

• BAOBAB

baobab, the shea-See also:

• BUTTER (Lat. butyrum, Gr. 0obrvpov, apparently connected with $ous, cow, and rvpbs, cheese, but, according to the New English Dictionary, perhaps of Scythian origin)

butter tree, the See also:

• LOCUST

locust tree, See also:

• GAMBIER
• GAMBIER, JAMES GAMBIER, BARON (1756-1833)

gambier, palms, including the date and dum palm (Hyphaene), the See also:

• TAMARIND

tamarind, and, in the arid regions, the See also:

• ACACIA

acacia and See also:

• MIMOSA (so named from the movements of the leaves in many species which " mimic " animal sensibility)

mimosa . Inhabitants.—The See also:

• POPULATION (Lat. populus, people; populare, to populate)

population of Nigeria is estimated at 15i000,000 . The Europeans (mostly British) number about a thousand, and are See also:

• CIVIL

civil servants, soldiers, traders or missionaries . In the delta See also:

• DISTRICT

district and the forest zone the inhabitants are typical negroes . Besides the See also:

• PEOPLE

people of Benin, the coast tribes include the Jekri, living on the lower part of the Benin river and akin to the Yoruba, the Ijos, living in the delta east of the main mouth of the Niger, and the Ibos, occupying a wide See also:

• TRACT (from Lat. tractare, to treat of a matter, through Provencal tractat and Ital. trattato)

tract of country just above the delta and extending for See also:

• LOO (formerly called " Lanterloo," Fr. lanturlu, the refrain of a popular 17th-century song)

loo m. east from the Niger to the Cross river . South of the Ibos live the Aros, a tribe of relatively great intelligence, who dominated many of the surrounding tribes and possessed an See also:

• ORACLE (Lat. oraculum, from ora' to pray; the corresponding Greek word is uavreiov or Xpnuri7pwov)

oracle or See also:

• JUJU

juju of reputed great See also:

• POWER [WILLIAM GRATTAN] TYRONE (1797-1841)

power . On the See also:

• MIDDLE

middle Cross river live the Akuna-kunas, an agricultural See also:

• RACE

race, and in the Calabar region are the Efiks, Ibibios and Kwas . All these tribes are fetish worshippers, though See also:

• CHRISTIAN
• CHRISTIAN, WILLIAM (1608-1663)

Christian and Moslem missionaries have made numerous converts . The Efiks, a coast tribe which has come much into contact with white men, have adopted several See also:

• EUROPEAN

European customs, and educated Efiks are employed in See also:

• GOVERNMENT
• GOVERNMENT (0. Fr. governement, mod. gouvernement, O. Fr. governer, mod. gouverner, from Lat. gubernare, to steer a ship, guide, rule; cf. Gr. xv(3epvav)

government service . The great See also:

• SECRET (Lat. secretum, hidden, concealed)

secret society called See also:

• EGBO

Egbo (q.v.) is an Efik institution . Each tribe has a different juju, and each speaks a See also:

• SEPARATE

separate See also:

• LANGUAGE (adapted from the Fr. langage, from langue, tongue, Lat. lingua)

language or See also:

• DIALECT (from Gr. Sia stcror, conversation, manner of speaking, &aXeyec6at, to converse)

dialect, the most widely diffused See also:

• TONGUES, GIFT OF, or GLOSSOLALIA (yXwova, tongue, aXeiv, speak)

tongues being the See also:

• IBO

Ibo and Efik, which have been reduced to See also:

• WRITING
• WRITING (the verbal noun of " to write," O. Eng. writan, to inscribe)

writing . In See also:

• GENERAL
• GENERAL (Lat. generalis, of or relating to a genus, kind or class)

general little clothing is worn, but none of the tribes go absolutely nude .

In See also:

• COLOUR (Lat. color, connected with celare, to hide, the root meaning, therefore, being that of a covering)

colour the See also:

• MAJORITY (Fr. majorite; Med. Lat. majoritas; Lat. major, greater)

majority are dark See also:

• CHOCOLATE

chocolate, others are See also:

• COAL

coal-black (a tint much admired by the natives themselves) or dark yellow-See also:

• BROWN
• BROWN, CHARLES BROCKDEN (1771-181o)
• BROWN, FORD MADOX (1821-1893)
• BROWN, FRANCIS (1849- )
• BROWN, GEORGE (1818-188o)
• BROWN, HENRY KIRKE (1814-1886)
• BROWN, JACOB (1775–1828)
• BROWN, JOHN (1715–1766)
• BROWN, JOHN (1722-1787)
• BROWN, JOHN (1735–1788)
• BROWN, JOHN (1784–1858)
• BROWN, JOHN (1800-1859)
• BROWN, JOHN (1810—1882)
• BROWN, JOHN GEORGE (1831— )
• BROWN, ROBERT (1773-1858)
• BROWN, SAMUEL MORISON (1817—1856)
• BROWN, SIR GEORGE (1790-1865)
• BROWN, SIR JOHN (1816-1896)
• BROWN, SIR WILLIAM, BART
• BROWN, THOMAS (1663-1704)
• BROWN, THOMAS (1778-1820)
• BROWN, THOMAS EDWARD (1830-1897)
• BROWN, WILLIAM LAURENCE (1755–1830)

brown . See also:

• CANNIBALISM

Cannibalism, human sacrifices and other revolting practices common to the tribes, are being gradually stamped out under British See also:

• CONTROL (Fr. contrdle, older form contre rolle, from Med. Lat. contra-rotulus, a counter roll or copy of a document used to check the original; there is no instance in English of the use of " control " in this, its literal, meaning)

control . 1 Returns at Zungeru for 1903 . In the northern parts of Nigeria the inhabitants are of more mixed See also:

• BLOOD

blood, the See also:

• NEGRO (from Lat. eager, black)

negro substratum having been to a great extent driven out by the northern races of the continent . The most important race in Northern Nigeria is that of the Hausa (q.v.), among whom the See also:

• SUPERIOR

superior classes adopted Mahommedanism in the 13th and 14th centuries . While the lower classes remained See also:

• PAGAN
• PAGAN (Lat. paganus, of or belonging to a pagus, a canton, county district, village, commune)

pagan, a fairly civilized See also:

• SYSTEM

system of See also:

• ADMINISTRATION (Lat. administrare, to serve)

administration, with an efficient judicial and fiscal organization, was established in the Hausa territories . The Hausa are keen traders and make excellent soldiers . At the beginning of the 19th See also:

• CENTURY (from Lat. centuria, a division of a hundred men)

century the Hausa territories were conquered by another dominant See also:

• MAHOMMEDAN

Mahommedan race, the Fula (q.v.), who See also:

• FORM (Lat. forma)

form a separate See also:

• CASTE (through the Fr. from Span. and Port. casta, lineage, Lat. cast us, pure)

caste of cattle-rearers . Arab merchants are settled in some of the larger Hausa towns . In general the people living in the river valleys have been unaffected by Moslem propaganda either in blood or See also:

• RELIGION
• RELIGION, FOLKLORE, CUSTOM

religion . Thus along the See also:

• BANKS, GEORGE LINNAEUS (1821-1881)
• BANKS, NATHANIEL PRENTISS (1816–1894)
• BANKS, SIR JOSEPH
• BANKS, THOMAS (1735-1805)

banks of the Niger, Benue and other streams, the inhabitants are negro and pagans, and generally of a purely See also:

• SAVAGE
• SAVAGE, MINOT JUDSON (1841– )
• SAVAGE, RICHARD (d. 1743)

savage though often rather See also:

• FINE

fine type . Of these the See also:

• MUNSHI, or MOONSHI

Munshi, who inhabit the district nearest the junction of the Benue with the Niger, were See also:

• LONG, GEORGE (1800-1879)
• LONG, JOHN DAVIS (1838– )

long noted for their intractability and hostility to strangers, whom they attacked with poisoned arrows .

The Yoraghums, their neighbours, were cannibals . Nearer Yola live the See also:

• BATTAS (Dutch Battaks)

Battas, who also had a See also:

• BAD, BCD

bad reputation . These tribes, under British See also:

• INFLUENCE (Late Lat. influentia, from influere, to flow in)

influence, are turning to See also:

• TRADE (O. Eng. trod, footstep, from tredan, to tread; in M. Eng. the forms teed, trod and trade appear, the last in the sense of a beaten track)
• TRADE, BOARD OF

trade and agricultural pursuits . In the central hilly region of Kachia are other pagan tribes . They See also:

• WEAR

wear no clothes and their bodies are covered with See also:

• HAIR (a word common to Teutonic languages)

hair . South of the Benue, near the Niger confluence, dwell the savage and warlike Okpotos, Bassas and other tribes . In the districts of See also:

• ILLORIN

Illorin and See also:

• BORGU, or BARBA

Borgu, west of the Niger, the inhabit-ants are also negroes and pagan, but of a more advanced type than the tribes of the river valleys . To See also:

• ATTEMPT (Lat. adtemptare, attentare, to try)

attempt any See also:

• COMPLETE

complete See also:

• LIST (O.E. lisle, a Teutonic word, cf. Dut. lust, Ger. Leiste, adapted in Ital. lista and Fr. lisle)
• LIST, FRIEDRICH (1789-1846)

list of the tribes inhabiting Northern Nigeria would be vain . In the one See also:

• PROVINCE
• PROVINCE (Lat. provincia; perhaps a contraction of providentia)

province of Bauchi as many as sixty native See also:

• LANGUAGES

languages are spoken . In Bornu (q.v.) the population consists of (I) Berberi or See also:

• KANURI, or BERIBERI

Kanuri, the ruling race, containing a mixture of See also:

• BERBER

Berber and negro blood, with many lesser indigenous tribes; (2) so-called See also:

• ARABS

Arabs, and (3) Fula . The country to the back of Lagos is largely inhabited by Yorubas (q.v.), and the people of Borgu according to some native traditions claim to have had a Coptic origin . Towns.—A large proportion of the population dwells in towns .

The chief ports are Lagos (q.v.), See also:

• CAPITAL (i.e. capital stock or fund)
• CAPITAL (Lat. caput, head)

capital of Southern Nigeria, with a population of about 50,000; Calabar (q.v.), pop. about 15,000, known as Old Calabar and See also:

• DUKE (corresponding to Fr. duc, Ital. duca, Ger. Herzog)

Duke Town, on the Calabar river; Opobo, Bonny Town and Brass Town, all on the rivers of the same name . Brass Town contains a fine See also:

• CHURCH
• CHURCH (according to most authorities derived from the Gr. Kvpcaxov [&wµa], " the Lord's [house]," and common to many Teutonic, Slavonic and other languages under various forms—Scottish kirk, Ger. Kirche, Swed. kirka, Dan. kirke, Russ. tserkov, Buig. cerk
• CHURCH, FREDERICK EDWIN (1826-1900)
• CHURCH, GEORGE EARL (1835–1910)
• CHURCH, RICHARD WILLIAM (1815–189o)
• CHURCH, SIR RICHARD (1784–1873)

church, the See also:

• GIFT (a common Teutonic word, cf. Ger. die Gift, gift, das Gift, poison, formed from the Teut. stem gab-, to give, cf. Dutch geven, Ger. geben; in O. Eng. the word appears with initial y, the guttural of later English is due to Scandinavian influence)

gift of a native chief . These places are east of the See also:

• NUN (O. Eng. nunne, from Lat. nonnus, nonna, familiar terms for an old man or woman)

Nun or main mouth of the Niger, where, on the western bank, is Akassa . Here are important See also:

• ENGINEERING

engineering See also:

• WORKS

works and a slip for repairing See also:

• SHIPS

ships . Further west at the Forcados mouth of the Niger is a town of the same name, which is the See also:

• PRINCIPAL

principal See also:

• PORT

port of entry for the river . Benin (q.v.), about 6o m. inland from the mouth of the Benin river, and Bende, about 50 M . N.W. of Calabar, were noted juju towns and have large populations . Wari and Sapele are towns in the Benin district . Owo, some 50 M . N. of Benin See also:

• CITY (through Fr. cite, from Lat. civitas)

city, is an important trade centre for the Yoruba country, in which are the large cities of Abeokuta, See also:

• IBADAN

Ibadan and Illorin, all separately noticed . On the Niger at the See also:

• HEAD (in 0. Eng. heafad; the word is common to Teutonic languages; cf. Dutch hoofd, Ger. Haupt, generally taken to be in origin connected with Lat. caput, Gr. KerbOvi7)
• HEAD, SIR EDMUND WALKER, BART
• HEAD, SIR FRANCIS BOND, BART

head of the delta are Asaba (west bank) and Onitsha (east bank); Iddah (See also:

• IDA (d. 559)

Ida), in the palm-oil zone; See also:

• LOKOJA

Lokoja on the west bank opposite the confluence with the Benue, and the headquarters of the protectorate's military force; Baro, on the east bank, 7o m. above Lokoja, the river See also:

• TERMINUS

terminus of the Northern Nigeria railway; Egga, Mureji (at the Kaduna confluence), Jebba and See also:

• BUSSA

Bussa (q.v.) . The administrative headquarters of Northern Nigeria are at Zungeru, on the Kaduna river, in 6° 09' 40" E., 9° 48' 32" N .

Apart from the sea and river ports and the towns in Yorubaland, the chief centres of population are in the open plains east of the Niger . They are the capitals of various states founded by the Hausa . Of these cities the most important is See also:

• KANO

Kano (q.v.), the great See also:

• EMPORIUM (a Latin adaptation of the Gr. Eµabpuov, from f)

emporium of trade for the central See also:

• SUDAN (Arabic Bilad-es-Sudan, country of the blacks)

Sudan, where See also:

• TUAREG, or TAWAREK (more properly Tawarik, the collective form of tarki, from Arabic terek, to give up)

Tuareg and Arab from the north meet merchants from the Niger, Lake Chad and the far southern regions . It is situated in 12° N. and 8° 32' E . Some 220 M . W.N.W. of Kano is Sokoto, on a tributary of the Niger of the same name . Sokoto is the religious and See also:

• POLITICAL

political centre of the Fula . Next in importance among the Hausa towns are Bauchi (or Yakoba), pop. over 50,000, 140 m . S.E. of Kano; Zaria (q.v.), pop . about 60,000, 82 m . S.S.W. of Kano; Katsena (q.v.), 84 m . N.W. of Kano; Hadeija, near the N. eastern frontier; See also:

• GANDO

Gando,6o 1n .

S.W. of Sokoto; See also:

• BIDA

Bida (q.v.), 25 M . N.W. of Egga on the Niger; and Yola (q.v.) on the Benue near the German frontier . Jegga, 85 m . S.W. of Sokoto, is an important See also:

• ENTREPOT (a French word, from the Lat. interpositum, that which is placed between)

entrepot for trade from the See also:

• HINTERLAND (German for " the land behind ")

hinterland of the Guinea coast and the Hausa states . The chief towns of Bornu are Kuka (q.v.) on Lake Chad, and Maidugari, some 7o m . S.W. of that lake . Most of these towns are capitals of provinces and residences of native princes subordinate to the British administration . They are nearly all surrounded by strong mud walls and See also:

• OUTER

outer dry moats . Their interior is divided into a See also:

• SERIES (a Latin word from serere, to join)

series of compounds, each entered through a See also:

• FLAT (a modification of O. Eng. flet, an obsolete word of Teutonic origin, meaning the ground beneath the feet)

flat-roofed See also:

• AUDIENCE (from Lat. audire, to hear)

audience chamber . Inside are the beehive-shaped huts of the See also:

• HOUSEHOLD, ROYAL

household . The gateways are strongly fortified . In addition to the towns mentioned there are many others containing populations of from 10,000 to 20,000, the bulk of the inhabitants of the Hausa countries being town dwellers .

Cotnntunications.—The rivers are the great highways of communication, but, in consequence of the lowness of the water between October and D See also:

• LAY

lay, See also:

• NAVIGATION (from Lat. navis, ship, and agere, to move)

navigation is then only possible for shallow See also:

• DRAUGHT (from the common Teutonic word " to draw "; cf. Ger. 7'racht, load; the pronunciation led to the variant form " draft," now confined to certain specific meanings)

draught stern-See also:

• WHEEL (0. Eng. hweol, hweohl, &c., cognate with Icel. hjol, Dan. hiul, the Indo-European root is seen in Sanskrit chakra, Gr. r in Aos, circle, whence " cycle ")
• WHEEL, BREAKING ON THE

wheel steamers and launches . From the Forcados mouth of the Niger steamers can ascend the main stream as far as Jebba, a distance of 530 M. and, at some See also:

• RISK

risk, to Fort See also:

• GOLDIE, SIR GEORGE DASHWOOD TAUBMAN (1846– )

Goldie, 30 M. farther up at the See also:

• FOOT

foot of the Bussa rapids . Steamers can also ascend the Benue to Yola, 48o m., above the confluence of that river with the Niger at Lokoja . It is also possible by this route to proceed by small See also:

• BOAT (0. Eng. bdt; the true etymological connexion with Dutch and Ger. boot, Fr. bateau, Ital. battello presents great difficulties; Celtic forms are from O. Eng.)

boat via the See also:

• SHARI

Shari system to Lake Chad . The Kaduna from its confluence with the Niger can be ascended by steamer 5o m. to Barijuko, which is 22 M. by See also:

• RAIL

rail from Zungeru . The Gongola is navigable at high water for i;;o M. from its junction with the Benue . In the delta region every place of importance is easily reached by river steamers, and there is a See also:

• REGULAR

regular service between Forcados and Lagos by the lagoons . The Cross river is navigable 240 M . Up to and beyond the frontier of Cameroon . A 3 ft .. 6 in. See also:

• GAUGE, or GAGE (Med. Lat. gauja, jaugia, Fr. jauge, perhaps connected with Fr. jale, a bowl, galon, gallon)

gauge railway from the port of Lagos to Ibadan was completed in 1900, the distance by rail being 123 M . Only about half that distance intervenes betweenJIbadan and the sea .

This line was, during 1906-1910, extended via Oshogbo, Illorin and Jebba to Zungeru, whence it is continued to She, 40 M . E. of Zungeru and about 450 M. from Lagos, where a junction is effected with the Baro-Kano line . A small See also:

• LIGHT

light surface line 22 M. long, 2 ft . 6 in. gauge was built (1901-1902)in Northern Nigeria between Barijuko on theKaduna and the capital, Zungeru, and proved most successful and lucrative . In 1907 the construction was begun of a 3 ft . 6 in. railway from Baro on the Niger via Bida and Zaria to Kano—a distance of about 400 M . See also:

• GOOD, JOHN MASON (1764-1827)

Good roads connect some of the great Hausa cities, and Kano and Kuka are starting-points for caravans across the Sahara to the Mediterranean . There are also old established See also:

• CARAVAN (more correctly Karwan)

caravan routes from Kano to See also:

• ASHANTI

Ashanti and neighbouring countries . Regular communication is maintained with See also:

• EUROPE

Europe by steamers running between See also:

• LIVERPOOL
• LIVERPOOL, EARLS
• LIVERPOOL, EARLS OF

Liverpool and Forcados, Bonny and Calabar, the steamers calling at other West African ports en route . The time occupied between Liverpool and Forcados is about seventeen days . Other steamers ply between the ports named (and others in the protectorate) and See also:

• LONDON

London and See also:

• HAMBURG

Hamburg . There is telegraphic communication between Brass and Bonny and Europe by submarine See also:

• CABLE (from Late Lat. capulum, a halter, from capere, to take hold of)
• CABLE, GEORGE WASHINGTON (1844– )

cable, and land lines from Calabar to Lagos and from Lagos to Jebba, Lokoja, Zungeru, Kano, &c., a connexion being also effected with the See also:

• TELEGRAPH (Gr. Tike, far, and rypaq5eiv, to write)

telegraph system of French West Africa .

See also:

• AGRICULTURE
• AGRICULTURE (from Lat. ages, field, and colere, to cultivate)
• AGRICULTURE, BOARD OF

Agriculture.—The natives of the coast region cultivate yams and other See also:

• FOOD
• FOOD (like the verb " to feed," from a Teutonic root, whence O. Eng. foda; cf. " fodder "; connected with Gr. lrareicOae, to feed)

food See also:

• PLANTS

plants,' but in that district agriculture proper scarcely exists, the See also:

• FRUIT (through the French from the Lat. fructus; frui, to enjoy)

fruit of the oil-palm supplyi an easy means of obtaining almost everything that the natives require . In the plains of the north, inhabited by Hausa and by agricultural pagan tribes, and in the fertile river valleys, agriculture is regularly carried on . See also:

• RICE (Greek 6p6 a, Latin oryza, French riz, Italian riso, Spanish arroz, derived from the Arabic)
• RICE, EDMUND IGNATIUS (1762-1844)
• RICE, JAMES (1843-1882)

Rice and See also:

• WHEAT
• WHEAT (Triticum)

wheat are cultivated in many parts, though the See also:

• STAPLE

staple food is guinea See also:

• CORN (a common Teutonic word; cf. Lat. granum, seed, grain)
• CORN (fromm Lat. corms, horn)

corn . Sweet potatoes, ground nuts, yams, onions and ot