NSI  . P• 352) . Manufactures, Inventions, See also:

• ART

Art.—From an See also:

• EARLY
• EARLY, JUBAL ANDERSON (1816-1894)

early date the towns of the Phoenician See also:

• COAST (from Lat. costa, a rib, side)

coast were occupied, not only with distributing the merchandise of other countries but with working at See also:

• INDUSTRIES

industries of their own; especially See also:

• PURPLE

purple-See also:

• DYEING (0. Eng. dedgian, dealt ; Mid. Eng. deyen)

dyeing and textile fabrics (Il, vi . 289 sqq.), See also:

• METAL
• METAL (through Fr. from Lat. metallum, mine, quarry, adapted from Gr. µATaXAov, in the same sense, probably connected with ,ueraAAdv, to search after, explore, µeTa, after, aAAos, other)

metal See also:

• WORK

work in See also:

• SILVER

silver, See also:

• GOLD
• GOLD [symbol Au, atomic weight 195.7(H = 1),197.2(0 =16)]

gold and See also:

• ELECTRUM, ELECTRON (Gr. ijXei rpov, amber)

electrum (Il. See also:

• XXIII

xxiii . 741 sqq.; Od. iv . 615 sqq., xv . 458 sqq.), and See also:

• GLASS
• GLASS (O.E. glees, cf. Ger. Glas, perhaps derived from an old Teutonic root gla-, a variant of glo-, having the general sense of shining, cf. " glare," " glow ")
• GLASS, STAINED

glass-work, which had its seat at See also:

• SIDON (Phoen. ins, Hebrew 1-rs, Assyr. Sidunnu, Egypt. Diduna)

Sidon . The See also:

• IRON [symbol Fe, atomic weight 55.85 (0=16)]

iron and See also:

• COPPER (symbol Cu, atomic weight 63.1, H=1, or 63.6, O = 16)

copper mines of See also:

• CYPRUS
• CYPRUS, CHURCH OF

Cyprus (not Sidon, as See also:

• HOMER, WINSLOW (1836-191o)

Homer implies, Od. xv . 424) furnished the ore which was manufactured into articles of See also:

• COMMERCE
• COMMERCE (Lat. commercium, from, cum, together, and rnerx, merchandise)

commerce.' See also:

• EGYPTIAN

Egyptian monuments frequently mention the vessels of gold and silver, iron and copper, made by the Dahi, i.e. the Phoenicians (W . M . See also:

• MULLER, FERDINAND VON, BARON (1825–1896)
• MULLER, FRIEDRICH (1749-1825)
• MULLER, GEORGE (1805-1898)
• MULLER, JOHANNES PETER (18o1-1858)
• MULLER, JOHANNES VON (1752-1809)
• MULLER, JULIUS (18oi-1878)
• MULLER, KARL OTFRIED (1797-1840)
• MULLER, LUCIAN (1836-1898)
• MULLER, WILHELM (1794-1827)
• MULLER, WILLIAM JAMES (1812-1845)

Muller, As. u . Eur .

306) ; and in Cyprus and at Nimrud See also:

• BRONZE

bronze and silver paterae have been found, engraved with Egyptian designs, the work of Phoenician artists (see table-cases C and D in the Nimrud See also:

• GALLERY (through Ital. galleria, from Med. Lat. galeria, of which the origin is unknown)

gallery of the Brit . See also:

• MUS

Mus.) . The invention of these various arts and industries was popularly ascribed, to the Phoenicians, no doubt merely because Phoenician traders brought the products into the See also:

• MARKET (Lat. mercatus, trade or place of trade)

market . But dyeing and See also:

• EMBROIDERY (M.E. embrouderie, from O. Fr. embroder, Mod. Fr. broder)

embroidery probably came from See also:

• BABYLON (mod. Hillah)

Babylon in the first instance; glass-making seems to have been borrowed from See also:

• EGYPT

Egypt; the invention of See also:

• ARITHMETIC (Gr. apeOµ7run7, sc. TEXVn, the art of counting, from (ipLBµos, number)

arithmetic and of weights and See also:

• MEASURES

measures must be laid to the See also:

• CREDIT (Lat. credere, to believe)

credit of the Babylonians . The ancients believed that the Phoenicians invented the use of the See also:

• ALPHABET (see also WRITING)

alphabet (e.g . See also:

• PLINY, THE ELDER
• PLINY, THE YOUNGER

Pliny, N.H. v . 13, cf. vii . 57; See also:

• LUCAN

Lucan, See also:

• BELL
• BELL, ALEXANDER MELVILLE (1819—1905)
• BELL, ANDREW (1753—1832)
• BELL, GEORGE JOSEPH (1770-1843)
• BELL, HENRY (1767-1830)
• BELL, HENRY GLASSFORD (1803-1874)
• BELL, JACOB (1810-1859)
• BELL, JOHN (1691-178o)
• BELL, JOHN (1763-1820)
• BELL, JOHN (1797-1869)
• BELL, ROBERT (1800-1867)
• BELL, SIR CHARLES (1774—1842)

Bell . Civ. iii . 220 seq.) ; but it is unlikely that any genuine tradition on the subject existed, and though the Phoenician theory has found favour in See also:

• MODERN

modern times it is open to much question . The Phoenicians cannot be said to have invented any of the arts or industries, as the See also:

• ANCIENT
• ANCIENT (also spelt ANTIENT; derived, through the Fr. ancien, old, from the late Lat. antianum, from ante, before)

ancient See also:

• WORLD

world imagined; but what they did was something hardly less meritorious: they See also:

• DEVELOPED

developed them with singular skill, and disseminated the knowledge and use of them . The art of See also:

• PHOENICIA

Phoenicia is characterized generally by its dependence upon the art of the neighbouring races .

It struck out no See also:

• ORIGINAL

original See also:

• LINE

line of its own, and borrowed freely from See also:

• FOREIGN

foreign, especially Egyptian, See also:

• MODELS

models . Remains of See also:

• SCULPTURE
• SCULPTURE (Lat. sculptura, from sculpere, to carve, cognate with Gr. yXb4ew)

sculpture, engraved bronzes and gems, show clearly the source to which the Phoenician artists went for See also:

• INSPIRATION (Lat. inspirare, breathe upon or into)

inspiration; for example, the uraeus-See also:

• FRIEZE

frieze and the winged disk, the ankh or See also:

• SYMBOL (Gr. o-uµ(3oXov, a sign)

symbol of See also:

• LIFE

life, are Egyptian designs frequently imitated . It was in the times of the See also:

• PERSIAN
• PERSIAN, SYRIAN, EGYPTIAN AND TURKISH

Persian See also:

• MONARCHY (Fr. monarchic, from Lat. monarchia, Gr. uovapXia, rule of one, µbvos, alone, apXi7, rule)

monarchy that Phoenician art raached its highest development, and to this See also:

• PERIOD
• PERIOD (Gr. irepioSos, a going or way round, circuit, aepi, round, and &Sis, way, road)

period belong the See also:

• OLDEST

oldest sculptures and coins that have come down to us . A characteristic specimen of the former is the See also:

• STELE

stele of Yehaw-See also:

• MILK (0. Eng. meoluc; from a common Indo-European root, cf. Lat. mulgere, Gr. ?t dXyetv)

milk, See also:

• KING
• KING (O. Eng. cyning, abbreviated into cyng, cing; cf. O. H. G. chun- kuning, chun- kunig, M.H.G. kiinic, kiinec, kiinc, Mod. Ger. Konig, O. Norse konungr, kongr, Swed. konung, kung)
• KING [OF OCKHAM], PETER KING, 1ST BARON (1669-1734)
• KING, CHARLES WILLIAM (1818-1888)
• KING, CLARENCE (1842–1901)
• KING, EDWARD (1612–1637)
• KING, EDWARD (1829–1910)
• KING, HENRY (1591-1669)
• KING, RUFUS (1755–1827)
• KING, THOMAS (1730–1805)
• KING, WILLIAM (1650-1729)
• KING, WILLIAM (1663–1712)

king of Gebal (CIS. i . 1), in which the king is' represented in Persian See also:

• DRESS (from the Fr. dresser, to set out, arrange, formed from Lat. directus, arranged, dirigere, to direct, arrange)

dress, and the goddess to whom he is offering a bowl looks exactly like an Egyptian See also:

• ISIS (Egyptian Ese)

Isis-See also:

• HATHOR

Hathor; the inscription mentions the various See also:

• OBJECTS

objects of bronze and gold, engraved work and See also:

• TEMPLE
• TEMPLE, FREDERICK (1821-1902)
• TEMPLE, RICHARD
• TEMPLE, SIR RICHARD, BART
• TEMPLE, SIR WILLIAM, BART

temple See also:

• FURNITURE (from " furnish," Fr. fournir)

furniture, which the king dedicated . The whole See also:

• ARTISTIC

artistic See also:

• MOVEMENT

movement in Phoenicia may be divided into two See also:

• GREAT

great periods: in the first, from the earliest times to the 4th See also:

• CENTURY (from Lat. centuria, a division of a hundred men)

century Inc., Egyptian See also:

• INFLUENCE (Late Lat. influentia, from influere, to flow in)

influence and then Babylonian or See also:

• ASIATIC

Asiatic influence is predominant, but the See also:

• NATIONAL

national See also:

• ELEMENT (Lat. elementum)

element is strongly marked; while in the second, See also:

• GREEK
• GREEK, ETRUSCAN AND

Greek influence has obtained the mastery, and the native element, though making itself See also:

• FELT (cognate with Ger. Filz, Du. vilt, Swed. and Dan. fill; the root is unknown; the word has given Med. Lat. filtrum, " filter ")

felt, is much less obtrusive . Throughout these periods See also:

• WORKS

works of art, such as statues of the gods and sarcophagi, were imported See also:

• DIRECT

direct at first from Egypt and afterwards mainly from See also:

• RHODES
• RHODES, CECIL JOHN (1853-1902)
• RHODES, JAMES FORD

Rhodes . The oldest example of native sarcophagi are copied from Egyptian See also:

• MUMMY (from the Persian mumiai, pitch or asphalt)

mummy-cases, painted with See also:

• COLOURS, MILITARY

colours and ornamented with carvings in See also:

• LOW, SETH (1850- )
• LOW, WILL HICOK (1853- )

low See also:

• RELIEF

relief ; towards and during the Greek period the contours of the See also:

• BODY

body begin to be marked more clearly on the See also:

• COVER (from the Fr. convert, from couvrir, to cover, Lat. cooperire)

cover . The finest sarcophagi that have been found in the See also:

• NECROPOLIS

necropolis of Sidon (now in the Imperial Museum, See also:

• CONSTANTINOPLE
• CONSTANTINOPLE, COUNCILS OF

Constantinople) are not Phoenician at all, but exquisite specimens of Greek art . The Phoenicians spent much care on their See also:

• BURIAL

burial-places, which have furnished the most important 1 Traces of ancient See also:

• MINING

mining for iron have been found in the See also:

• LEBANON
• LEBANON (from Semitic laban, " to be white," or " whitish," probably referring not to snow, but to the bare white walls ofchalk or limestone which form the characteristic feature of the whole range)

Lebanon; cf . LXX. r See also:

• KINGS, FIRST AND SECOND BOOKS OF

Kings ii . 46c (ed .

Swete), which has been taken to refer to this See also:

• QUARRYING

quarrying in See also:

• SEARCH, or VISIT AND SEARCH

search of iron; Jer. xv . 12 . , See Benzinger on 1 Kings ix . 19 . monuments See also:

• LEFT

left to us . The tombs are subterranean See also:

• CHAMBERS (the Fr. chambre, from Lat. camera, a room)
• CHAMBERS, EPHRAIM (d. 1740)
• CHAMBERS, GEORGE (1803-1840)
• CHAMBERS, ROBERT (18oz-1871)
• CHAMBERS, SIR WILLIAM (1726-1796)

chambers of varied and often irregular See also:

• FORM (Lat. forma)

form, sometimes arranged in two storeys, sometimes in several rows one behind the other . While in early times a See also:

• MERE
• MERE, ADALBERT (1838-1909)

mere perpendicular See also:

• SHAFT
• SHAFT (O. Eng., sceaft, from scafan, to shave; the word is common to Teutonic languages)

shaft led to these excavations, at a later date stairs were constructed down to the chambers . The dead were buried either in the See also:

• FLOOR (from O. Eng. flor, a word common to many Teutonic languages, cf. Dutch vloer, and Ger. Flur, a field, in the feminine, and a floor, masculine)

floor (often in a See also:

• SARCOPHAGUS (Gr. vapsorg yos, literally " flesh-eating," from vapt, flesh, ¢ayeiv, to eat)

sarcophagus), or, according to later See also:

• CUSTOM (from O. Fr. costume, costume or coustume; Low Lat. costuma, a shortened form of consuetudo)

custom, in niches . The mouths of the tombs were walled up and covered with slabs, and occasionally cippi (Phoen. magleboth) were set up to See also:

• MARK
• MARK, CARL (1858– )
• MARK, GOSPEL OF ST
• MARK, ST

mark the spot . The great sepulchral monuments, popularly called maghdzil, i.e . " spindles," above the tombs near Amrit, have peculiarities of their own; some of them are adorned with lions at the See also:

• BASE

base and with See also:

• ROOFS

roofs of pyramidal shape . Besides busts and figurines, which belong as a See also:

• RULE

rule to the Greek period, the smaller objects usually found are earthen pitchers and lamps, glass-wares, tesserae and gems .

Of buildings which can be called architectural few specimens now exist on Phoenician See also:

• SOIL

soil, for the See also:

• REASON (Lat. ratio, through French raison)

reason that for ages the inhabitants have used the ruins as convenient quarries . Not a vestige remains of the great See also:

• SANCTUARY (from the late Lat. sanctuarium, a sacred place)

sanctuary of Melqarth at See also:

• TYRE (Phoen. and Hebr. =" rock," Assyr. S'urru, Egypt. Dara, Early Lat. Sarra)

Tyre; a few traces of the temple of See also:

• ADONIS

Adonis near Byblus were discovered by See also:

• RENAN, ERNEST (1823-1892)

Renan, and a See also:

• PECULIAR

peculiar See also:

• MAUSOLEUM

mausoleum, Burj al-Bezzaq, is still to be seen near Amrit; See also:

• RECENT

recent excavations at Bostan esh-Shekh near Sidon have unearthed parts of the enclosure or See also:

• FOUNDATIONS

foundations of the temple of Eshmun (NSI. p . 401); the conduits of See also:

• RAS

Ras el-'See also:

• AIN

Ain, See also:

• SOUTH
• SOUTH, ROBERT (1634–1716)

south of- Tyre, are considered to be of ancient date . With regard to the See also:

• PLAN
• PLAN (from Lat. planes, flat)

plan and See also:

• DESIGN (Fr. desiin, drawing; Lat. designare, to mark out)

design of a Phoenician temple, it is probable that they were in many respects similar to those of the temple at See also:

• JERUSALEM (Heb. ^S0-r, Yerushalaim, pronounced as a dual)
• JERUSALEM, SYNOD OF (1672)

Jerusalem, and the See also:

• PROBABILITY (Lat. probabilis, probable or credible)

probability is confirmed by the re-mains of a sanctuary near Amrit, in which there is a See also:

• CELLA

cella See also:

• STANDING

standing in the midst of a large See also:

• COURT
• COURT (from the O. Fr. court, Late Lat. cortis, curtis, a popular form of class. Lat. cohors, gen. cohortis; the mod. Fr. form tour is due to the influence of the Lat. curia, the word used in medieval documents to translate " court " in the feudal sense)
• COURT, ANTOINE (1696-176o)

court hewn out of the See also:

• ROCK
• ROCK (O.Fr. rake, Sp. rota, Ital. rocca; possibly from a Lat. form rupica, from rupes, rock)
• ROCK, DANIEL (1799–187t)

rock, together with other buildings in an Egyptian See also:

• STYLE
• STYLE (from Gr. a-6'1ms, a column; a different word from that used in literature, see below)

style . The two pillars before the See also:

• PORCH (through the Fr. porehe, from Lat. porticus; the Ital. equivalent is portico, corresponding to the Gr. vapOi ; Ger. Vorhalle)

porch of See also:

• SOLOMON, ODES OF
• SOLOMON, PSALMS OF

Solomon's temple (1 Kings vii . 21) remind us of the two pillars which See also:

• HERODOTUS (c. 484-425 B.C.)

Herodotus saw in the temple of Melqarth at Tyre (See also:

• HEROD
• HEROD (surnamed THE GREAT)

Herod. ii . 44), and of those which stood before the temples of See also:

• PAPHOS

Paphos and See also:

• HIERAPOLIS

Hierapolis (see W . R . See also:

• SMITH
• SMITH, ADAM (1723–1790)
• SMITH, ALEXANDER (183o-1867)
• SMITH, ANDREW JACKSON (1815-1897)
• SMITH, CHARLES EMORY (1842–1908)
• SMITH, CHARLES FERGUSON (1807–1862)
• SMITH, CHARLOTTE (1749-1806)
• SMITH, COLVIN (1795—1875)
• SMITH, EDMUND KIRBY (1824-1893)
• SMITH, G
• SMITH, GEORGE (1789-1846)
• SMITH, GEORGE (184o-1876)
• SMITH, GEORGE ADAM (1856- )
• SMITH, GERRIT (1797–1874)
• SMITH, GOLDWIN (1823-191o)
• SMITH, HENRY BOYNTON (1815-1877)
• SMITH, HENRY JOHN STEPHEN (1826-1883)
• SMITH, HENRY PRESERVED (1847– )
• SMITH, JAMES (1775–1839)
• SMITH, JOHN (1579-1631)
• SMITH, JOHN RAPHAEL (1752–1812)
• SMITH, JOSEPH, JR
• SMITH, MORGAN LEWIS (1822–1874)
• SMITH, RICHARD BAIRD (1818-1861)
• SMITH, ROBERT (1689-1768)
• SMITH, SIR HENRY GEORGE WAKELYN
• SMITH, SIR THOMAS (1513-1577)
• SMITH, SIR WILLIAM (1813-1893)
• SMITH, SIR WILLIAM SIDNEY (1764-1840)
• SMITH, SYDNEY (1771-1845)
• SMITH, THOMAS SOUTHWOOD (1788-1861)
• SMITH, WILLIAM (1769-1839)
• SMITH, WILLIAM (c. 1730-1819)
• SMITH, WILLIAM (fl. 1596)
• SMITH, WILLIAM FARRAR (1824—1903)
• SMITH, WILLIAM HENRY (1808—1872)
• SMITH, WILLIAM HENRY (1825—1891)
• SMITH, WILLIAM ROBERTSON (1846-'894)

Smith, Rel. of Sem. p . 468 seq.) . See also:

• RELIGION
• RELIGION, FOLKLORE, CUSTOM

Religion.—Like the Canaanites of whom they formed a See also:

• BRANCH (from the Fr. branche, late Lat. branca, an animal's paw)

branch, the Phoenicians connected their religion with the great See also:

• POWERS, HIRAM (1805-1873)

powers and The processes of nature.' The gods whom they worshipped Phoenician belonged essentially to the See also:

• EARTH
• EARTH (a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Erde, Dutch aarde, Swed. and Dan. jord; outside Teutonic it appears only in the Gr. 'pq'e, on the ground; it has been connected by some etymologists with the Aryan root ar-, to plough, which is seen in
• EARTH, FIGURE OF
• EARTH, FIGURE OF THE

earth; the fertile See also:

• FIELD (a word common to many West German languages, cf. Ger. Feld, Dutch veld, possibly cognate with O.E. f olde, the earth, and ultimately with root of the Gr. irAaror, broad)
• FIELD, CYRUS WEST (1819-1892)
• FIELD, DAVID DUDLEY (18o5-1894)
• FIELD, EUGENE (1850-1895)
• FIELD, FREDERICK (18o1—1885)
• FIELD, HENRY MARTYN (1822-1907)
• FIELD, JOHN (1782—1837)
• FIELD, MARSHALL (183 1906)
• FIELD, NATHAN (1587—1633)
• FIELD, STEPHEN JOHNSON (1816-1899)
• FIELD, WILLIAM VENTRIS FIELD, BARON (1813-1907)

field, trees Clods. and mountains, headlands and See also:

• RIVERS
• RIVERS, ANTHONY WOODVILLE, or WYDEVILLE, 2ND EARL (c. 1442—1483)
• RIVERS, EARL
• RIVERS, RICHARD SAVAGE, 4TH EARL (c. 1660—1712)

rivers and springs, were believed to be inhabited by different divinities, who were therefore primarily See also:

• LOCAL

local, many in number, with no one in particular supreme over the See also:

• REST (O. Eng. rest, reste, bed, cognate with other Teutonic forms, e.g. Ger. Rast, Riiste, rest, and probably Gothic Rasta, league, i.e. resting or stopping place)

rest . It seems, however, that as See also:

• TIME (0. Eng. Lima, cf. Icel. timi, Swed. timme, hour, Dan. time; from the root also seen in " tide," properly the time of between the flow and ebb of the sea, cf. O. Eng. getidan, to happen, " even-tide," &c.; it is not directly related to Lat. tempus)
• TIME, MEASUREMENT OF
• TIME, STANDARD

time went on some of them acquired a more extended See also:

• CHARACTER (Gr. xapareri7p, from xap&crew, to scratch)

character; thus See also:

• BAAL

Baal and See also:

• ASTARTE

Astarte assumed See also:

• CELESTIAL, OR STELLAR

celestial attributes in addition to their earthly ones, and the Tyrian Melqarth combined a celestial with a marine aspect.' The gods in See also:

• GENERAL
• GENERAL (Lat. generalis, of or relating to a genus, kind or class)

general were called 'elonim, 'elim; See also:

• PLAUTUS, TITUS MACCIUS (originally perhaps MACCUS; cf. Asin. Prol. 11)

Plautus uses alonium valonuth for gods and goddesses' (Poen. v .

1, I) . These plurals go back to the singular form 'El, the See also:

• COMMON

common Semitic name for See also:

• GOD

God; but neither the singular nor the plural is at all common in the See also:

• INSCRIPTIONS (from Lat. inscribere, to write upon)

inscriptions (NSI. pp . 24, 41, 51); El by itself has been found only once;' the fem . 'Elath is also rare (ibid. pp . 135, 158) . The god or. goddess was generally called the Ba'al or Ba'alath of such and such a See also:

• PLACE (through Fr. from Lat. platea, street; Gr. IrAar6s, wide)

place, a See also:

• TITLE (0. Fr. title, mod. titre, from Lat. titulus)

title which was used not only by the Canaanites, but by the Aramaeans (Be'el) and Babylonians (See also:

• BEL

Bel) as well . There was no one particular god called Baal; the word is not a proper name but an appellative, a description of the deity as owner or See also:

• MISTRESS

mistress; and the same is the See also:

• CASE
• CASE, JOHN (d. 1600)

case with Milk or Melek, 'Adon, 'Amma, which mean king, See also:

• LORD
• LORD (O. Eng. hldford, i.e. hldfweard, the warder or keeper of bread, hlIf, loaf; the word is not represented in any other Teutonic language)
• LORD, JOHN (1810-1894)

lord, See also:

• MOTHER

mother . The god himself was unnamed or had no name . Occasionally we know what the name was; the Baal of Tyre was Melqarth (Melkarth), which again means merely " king of the See also:

• CITY (through Fr. cite, from Lat. civitas)

city "; similarly among the Aramaeans the Ba'al of See also:

• HARRAN, HARAN

Harran was the See also:

• MOON (a common Teutonic word, cf. Ger. Mond, Du. maan, Dan. maane, &c., and cognate with such Indo-Germanic forms as Gr. µlip, Sans. ma's, Irish mi, &c.; Lat. uses luna, i.e. lucna, the shining one, lucere, to shine, for the moon, but preserves the word i
• MOON, SIR RICHARD, 1ST BARONET (1814-1899)

moon-god See also:

• SIN
• SIN (O. Eng. syn: a common Teutonic word, cf. Dutch zonde, Ger. Siinde)

Sin . As each city or See also:

• DISTRICT

district had its own Ba'al, the author of its fertility, the " See also:

• HUSBAND

husband " (a common meaning of ba'al) of the See also:

• LAND

land which he fertilized, so there were many Ba'als, and the Old Testament writers could allude to the Ba'alim of the neighbouring Canaanites . Some-times the god received a distinguishing attribute which indicates an association not with any particular place, but with some See also:

• SPECIAL

special characteristic; the most common forms are Baal-1 See also:

• AMMAN, JOHANN CONRAD (1669-c.773o)
• AMMAN, JOST (1539-1591)
• AMMAN, PAUL (1634-1691)

amman, the See also:

• CHIEF (from Fr. chef, head, Lat. caput)

chief deity of Punic See also:

• NORTH
• NORTH, BARONS
• NORTH, MARIANNE (1830—1890)
• NORTH, ROGER (1653-1734)
• NORTH, SIR THOMAS (1535?-16o1?)

north See also:

• AFRICA
• AFRICA, ROMAN

Africa, perhaps " the glowing Ba'al," the god of fertilizing warmth, and Baal-shamem, " Ba'al of the heavens."' The latter deity was widely venerated throughout the North-Semitic world; his name, which does not appear in the Phoenician inscriptions before the 3rd century B.C., implies perhaps a more universal conception of deity than existed in the earlier days.' Cf . See also:

• HANNIBAL
• HANNIBAL (" mercy " or " favour of Baal ")

Hannibal's See also:

• OATH (0. Eng. ddh)

oath to See also:

• PHILIP
• PHILIP (Gr.'FiXtrsro , fond of horses, from dn)^eiv, to love, and limos, horse; Lat. Philip pus, whence e.g. M. H. Ger. Philippes, Dutch Filips, and, with dropping of the final s, It. Filippo, Fr. Philippe, Ger. Philipp, Sp. Felipe)
• PHILIP, JOHN (1775-1851)
• PHILIP, KING (c. 1639-1676)
• PHILIP, LANOGRAVE OF HESSE (1504-1567)

Philip of Macedon; beside the named deities he invokes the gods of " See also:

• SUN
• SUN (0. Eng. sonne, Ger. sonne. Fr. soleil, Lat. sol, Gr. ijXior, from which comes helio- in various English compounds)

sun and moon and earth, of rivers and meadows and See also:

• WATERS, TERRITORIAL

waters " (Polyb. vii .

9) . ' This is well brought out by G . F . See also:

• HILL
• HILL (0. Eng. hyll; cf. Low Ger. hull, Mid. Dutch hul, allied to Lat. celsus, high, collis, hill, &c.)
• HILL, A
• HILL, AARON (1685-175o)
• HILL, AMBROSE POWELL
• HILL, DANIEL HARVEY (1821-1889)
• HILL, DAVID BENNETT (1843–1910)
• HILL, GEORGE BIRKBECK NORMAN (1835-1903)
• HILL, JAMES J
• HILL, JOHN (c. 1716-1775)
• HILL, MATTHEW DAVENPORT (1792-1872)
• HILL, OCTAVIA (1838– )
• HILL, ROWLAND (1744–1833)
• HILL, SIR ROWLAND (1795-1879)

Hill, See also:

• CHURCH
• CHURCH (according to most authorities derived from the Gr. Kvpcaxov [&wµa], " the Lord's [house]," and common to many Teutonic, Slavonic and other languages under various forms—Scottish kirk, Ger. Kirche, Swed. kirka, Dan. kirke, Russ. tserkov, Buig. cerk
• CHURCH, FREDERICK EDWIN (1826-1900)
• CHURCH, GEORGE EARL (1835–1910)
• CHURCH, RICHARD WILLIAM (1815–189o)
• CHURCH, SIR RICHARD (1784–1873)

Church Quarterly Rev . (See also:

• APRIL

April 1908), pp . 118-141, who specially emphasizes the See also:

• EVIDENCE (Lat. evidentia, evideri, to appear clearly)

evidence of the Phoenician coins . " To the lord 'El, which Ba'al-shillem . . . vowed," &c.; Clermont-Ganneau, Recueil, v . 376 . Probably " the detested thing that causes horror " (ax' See also:

• PIPER, CARL, COUNT (1647-1716)

piper) of See also:

• DAN

Dan. xii . I I, xi . 31, &c., is an intentional disfigurement of anr~ Sys, 'The name has been found on an important Aramaic inscr. from North See also:

• SYRIA

Syria, dating c .

800 B.C., in which Zakir, king of Hamath and La'ash frequently speaks of his god Be'el-shamin (Pognon, Inscr. sem. de la Syrie, 1908) . The See also:

• WORSHIP (i.e. " worth-ship," O. Eng. weor8scipe)

worship of the See also:

• FEMALE

female along with the male principle was a strongly marked feature of Phoenician religion . To See also:

• JUDGE (Lat. judex, Fr. juge)

judge from the earliest evidence on the subject, the Ba'alath of Gebal or Byblus, referred to again and again in the Amarna letters (Bilit a Gubla, Nos . 55-11o), must have been the most popular of the Phoenician deities, as her sanctuary was the oldest and most renowned . The mistress of Gebal was no doubt 'Ashtart (Astarte in Greek, 'Ashtoreth in the Old Testament, pronounced with the vowels of boshelh, " shame "), a name which is obviously connected with the Babylonian See also:

• ISHTAR

Ishtar, and, as used in Phoenician, is practically the See also:

• EQUIVALENT

equivalent of " goddess." She represented the principle of fertility and See also:

• GENERATION (from Lat. generare, to beget, procreate; genus, stock, race)

generation; references to her cult at Gebal, Sidon, Ashkelon, in Cyprus at Kition and Paphos, in See also:

• SICILY (Ital. Sicilia)

Sicily at Eryx, in Gaulus, at See also:

• CARTHAGE
• CARTHAGE (Phoenician Kart-hadshat, " New City "; Gr. Kapxn5c; v, Lat. Carthago or Carchedon)
• CARTHAGE, SYNODS OF

Carthage, are frequent in the inscriptions and elsewhere . The common epithetsKGapir and KuBipiia(of Kuthera in Cyprus) ,Cypria and Paphia, show that she was identified with See also:

• APHRODITE

Aphrodite and See also:

• VENUS

Venus . Though not primarily a moon-goddess, she sometimes appears in this character (See also:

• LUCIAN (d. 312)
• LUCIAN [Aowaavos] (c. A.D. 120-180)

Lucian, Dea syr . § 4; Herodian v . 6, lo), and Herodotus describes her temple at Ashkelon as that of the heavenly Aphrodite (i . 105) . We find her associated with Ba'al and called " the name of Ba`al," i.e. his manifestation, though this rendering is disputed, and some scholars prefer " ' Ashtart of the See also:

• HEAVEN (0. Eng. hefen, heofon, heofone; this word appears in O.S. hevan; the High. Ger. word appears in Ger. Himmel, Dutch hemel; there does not seem to be any connexion between the two words, and the ultimate derivation of the word is unknown; the sugges

heaven of Ba'al " (NSI. p . 37) .

Another goddess, specially honoured at Carthage, is Tanith (See also:

• PRONUNCIATION (Lat. pronuntiatio, from pronuntiare, proclaim, announce, pronounce)

pronunciation uncertain) ; nothing is known of her characteristics; she is regularly connected with Ba'al on the Carthaginian votive tablets, and called " the See also:

• FACE (from Lat. fades, derived either from facere, to make, or from a root fa-, meaning " appear "; cf. Gr. cbatvstv)

face of Ba'al," i.e. his representative or See also:

• REVELATION, BOOK OF

revelation, though again some question this rendering as too See also:

• META

meta-See also:

• PHYSICAL

physical, and take " face of Ba'al " to be the name of a place, like eni'el (" face of 'El ") . Two or three other deities may be mentioned here: Eshmun, the god of vital force and healing, worshipped at Sidon especially, but also at Carthage and in the colonies, identified by the Greeks with Asclepius; Melqarth, the See also:

• PATRON

patron deity of Tyre, identified with Heracles; Reshef or Reshuf, the " See also:

• FLAME (Lat. flamma; the root flag- appears in flagrare, to burn, blaze, and Gr. d, XEryew)

flame " or " See also:

• LIGHTNING

lightning " god, especially popular in Cyprus and derived originally from Syria, whom the Greeks called See also:

• APOLLO (Gr. 'A2r6XXwv,'Airkkhwv)

Apollo . A tendency to form a distinct deity by combining the attributes of two produced such curious fusions as Milk-'ashtart, Milk-ba'al, Milk-'osir, Eshmunmelqarth, Melqarth-See also:

• REEF (1)

reef, &c . As in the case of art and industries, so in religion the Phoenicians readily assimilated foreign ideas . The influence of Egypt was specially strong (NSI. pp . 62, 69, 148, 154) thus the Astarte represented on the stele of Yebaw-milk, mentioned above, has all the See also:

• APPEARANCE (from Lat. apparere, to appear)

appearance of Isis, who, according to the See also:

• LEGEND (through the French from the med. Lat. legenda, things to be read, from legere, to read)

legend preserved by See also:

• PLUTARCH
• PLUTARCH (Gr. llXoi rapxos) (c. A.D. 46–120)

Plutarch (de Is. et Os . 15), journeyed to Byblus, where she was called Astarte . The Phoenician settlers at the See also:

• PEIRAEUS, or PIRAEUS (Gr. Hetpaceur)

Peiraeus worshipped the See also:

• ASSYRIAN

Assyrian See also:

• NERGAL

Nergal, and their proper names are compounded with the names of Babylonian and Arabian deities (NSI. p. ioi) . Closer intimacy with the Greek world naturally brought about modifications in the character of the native gods, which became apparent when Ba'al of Sidon or Ba'al-shamem was identified with See also:

• ZEUS

Zeus, Tanith with See also:

• DEMETER

Demeter or See also:

• ARTEMIS

Artemis, 'Anath with See also:

• ATHENA (the Attic form of the Homeric Athene, also called Athenaia, Pallas Athene, Pallas)

Athena, &c.; the notion of a supreme Ba'al, which finds expression in the Greek Nos and 9aaarLs or 1 itABrts (the goddess of Byblus), was no doubt encouraged by foreign influences . On the other See also:

• HAND
• HAND (a word common to Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Hand, Goth. handus)
• HAND, FERDINAND GOTTHELF (1786-185r)

hand, the Phoenicians produced a considerable effect upon Greek and See also:

• ROMAN

Roman religion, especially from the religious centres in Cyprus and Sicily . A great number of divinities are known only as elements in proper names, e.g . Sakun-yathon (See also:

• SANCHUNIATHON (Gr. form of Phoenician Sakkun-yathon, " the god Sakkun has given ")

Sanchuniathon), 'Abd-sasom, Sed-yathon, and fresh ones are continually being discovered .

It was the custom among the Phoenicians, as among other Semitic nations, to use the names of the gods in forming proper names and thus to See also:

• EXPRESS (through the French from the past participle of the Lat. exprimere, to press out, by transference used of representing objects in painting or sculpture, or of thoughts, &c. in words)

express devotion or invoke favour; thus Ijanni-ba'al, 'Abd-melqarth, Hanni-'ashtart, Eshmun-'azar . The proper names further illustrate the way in which the relation of See also:

• MAN
• MAN, ISLE OF (anc. Mona)

man to God was regarded ; the commonest forms are servant (`abd, e.g . 'Abd-'ashtart), member or See also:

• LIMB

limb bod, e.g . Bod-melgarth), client or See also:

• GUEST (a word common to Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Gast, and Swed. gust; cognate with Lat. hostis, originally a stranger, hence enemy; cf. " host " )
• GUEST, EDWIN (1800–188o)

guest (ger, e.g . Ger-eshmun) ; the religious See also:

• IDEA (Gr. Ibia, connected with i&eiv, to see; cf. Lat. species from specere, to look at)

idea of the guest of a deity had its origin in the social custom of extending hospitality to a stranger and in the old Semitic right of sanctuary . The See also:

• INTERPRETATION (from Lat. interpretari, to expound, explain, inter pres, an agent, go-between, interpreter; inter, between, and the root pret-, possibly connected with that seen either in Greek 4 p4'ew, to speak, or irpa-rrecv, to do)

interpretation of such names as 'Abi-ba'al (See also:

• FATHER

father of Ba'al), Himilkath (See also:

• BROTHER

brother of Milkath), Hiram (brother of the exalted one) is not altogether certain, and can hardly be discussed here.' Probably like other Canaanites the Phoenicians offered worship " on every high hill and under every See also:

• GREEN, A
• GREEN, ALEXANDER HENRY (1832—1896)
• GREEN, DUFF (1791—1875)
• GREEN, JOHN RICHARD (1837—1883)
• GREEN, MATTHEW (1696-1737)
• GREEN, THOMAS HILL (1836-1882)
• GREEN, VALENTINE (1739–1813)
• GREEN, WILLIAM HENRY (.1825–1900)

green See also:

• TREE (0. Eng. treo, treow, cf. Dan. tree, Swed. Odd, tree, trd, timber; allied forms are found in Russ. drevo, Gr. opus, oak, and 36pv, spear, Welsh derw, Irish darog, oak, and Skr. dare, wood)
• TREE, SIR HERBERT BEERBOHM (1853- )

tree "; but to judge from the allusions to sanctuaries in the inscriptions and else- Sacre where, the Baal or 'Ashtart of a place was usually Objectd s and worshipped at a temple, which consisted of a court or Worship. enclosure and a roofed See also:

• SHRINE (Lat. scrinium, a case or chest for books, hence a casket; from scribere, to write, Fr. ecrin, Ital. scrigno)

shrine with a See also:

• PORTICO (Ital. for " porch," Lat. porticus)

portico or pillared See also:

• HALL
• HALL (generally known as SCHWABISCH-HALL, tc distinguish it from the small town of Hall in Tirol and Bad-Hall, a health resort in Upper Austria)
• HALL (O.E. heall, a common Teutonic word, cf. Ger. Halle)
• HALL, BASIL (1788-1844)
• HALL, CARL CHRISTIAN (1812–1888)
• HALL, CHARLES FRANCIS (1821-1871)
• HALL, CHRISTOPHER NEWMAN (1816—19oz)
• HALL, EDWARD (c. 1498-1547)
• HALL, FITZEDWARD (1825-1901)
• HALL, ISAAC HOLLISTER (1837-1896)
• HALL, JAMES (1793–1868)
• HALL, JAMES (1811–1898)
• HALL, JOSEPH (1574-1656)
• HALL, MARSHALL (1790-1857)
• HALL, ROBERT (1764-1831)
• HALL, SAMUEL CARTER (5800-5889)
• HALL, SIR JAMES (1761-1832)
• HALL, WILLIAM EDWARD (1835-1894)

hall at the entrance . In the court sometimes stood a conical See also:

• STONE
• STONE (0. Eng. shin; the word is common to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Stein, Du. steen, Dan. and Swed. sten; the root is also seen in Gr. aria, pebble)
• STONE, CHARLES POMEROY (1824-1887)
• STONE, EDWARD JAMES (1831-1897)
• STONE, FRANK (1800-1859)
• STONE, GEORGE (1708—1764)
• STONE, LUCY [BLACKWELL] (1818-1893)
• STONE, MARCUS (184o— )
• STONE, NICHOLAS (1586-1647)

stone, probably the symbol of Astarte, as on the Roman coins of Byblus (illustrated in See also:

• RAWLINSON, GEORGE (1812-1902)
• RAWLINSON, RICHARD (169o-1755)
• RAWLINSON, SIR HENRY CRESWICKE (1810—1895)
• RAWLINSON, SIR ROBERT (1810—1898)

Rawlinson, Phoenicia, 146, See also:

• PERROT, SIR JOHN (c. 1S27–1592)

Perrot et Chipiez, Hist. de l'art, iii . 6o; see also Ohnefalsch-See also:

• RICHTER, ADRIAN LUDWIG (1803-1884)
• RICHTER, ERNST FRIEDRICH EDUARD (1808–1879)
• RICHTER, EUGEN (1839–1906)
• RICHTER, HANS (1843– )
• RICHTER, JEREMIAS BENJAMIN (1762–1807)
• RICHTER, JOHANN PAUL FRIEDRICH (1763–1825)

Richter, Cyprus, pl. lvi., the See also:

• TEMENOS (Gr. TEµevos, TElcvfw, to cut)

temenos at Idalion) . Stone or bronze images of the gods were set up in the sanctuaries (NSI . Nos . 1 seq., 23-27, 30, &c.) ; and besides these the baetylia (meteoric stones) which were regarded as symbols of the gods . Pillars, again, had a prominent place in the court or be-fore the shrine (nasab, ibid. pp .

102 seq.) ; but it is not known whether the sacred See also:

• POLE (FAMILY)
• POLE, REGINALD (1500-1558)
• POLE, RICHARD DE LA (d. 1525)
• POLE, WILLIAM (1814—1900)

pole ('asherah), an invariable feature of a Canaanite sanctuary, was usual in a Phoenician temple (ibid. pp . 5o seq.) . The ' See Frazer, Adonis, Allis, See also:

• OSIRIS

Osiris, 44 seq . inscriptions mention altars of stone and bronze, and from the sacrificial tariffs which have survived we learn that the chief types of See also:

• SACRIFICE (from Lat. sacrificium; sacer, holy, and facere, to make)

sacrifice among the Phoenicians were analogous to those which we find in the Old Testament (ibid. p . 117) . The ghastly practice of sacrificing human victims was resorted to in times of great See also:

• DISTRESS

distress (e.g. at Carthage, Diod. xx . 14), or to avert national disaster (See also:

• PORPHYRY (IlopcPisptos) (A.D. 233-c. 304)

Porphyry, de Abstin, ii . 56); See also:

• PHILO
• PHILO, HERENNIUS

Philo gives the legend that Cronus or El sacrificed his only son when his See also:

• COUNTRY (from the Mid. Eng. contre or contrie, and O. Fr. cuntree; Late Lat. contrata, showing the derivation from contra, opposite, over against, thus the tract of land which fronts the sight, cf. Ger. Gegend, neighbourhood)

country was threatened with See also:

• WAR
• WAR (O. Eng. werre, Fr. guerre, of Teutonic origin; cf. O.H.G. werran, to confound)

war (Fr. hist. gr. iii . 570) ; it was regarded as a patriotic See also:

• ACT (Lat. actus, actum)

act when Hamilcar threw himself upon the pyre after the disastrous See also:

• BATTLE

battle of See also:

• HIMERA

Himera (Herod. vii . 167) . The god who demanded these victims, and especially the burning of See also:

• CHILDREN, LAW RELATING TO

children, seems to have been Milk, the Molech or See also:

• MOLOCH, or MOLECH (in Hebrew, with the doubtful exception of i Kings xi. 7, always " the Molech ")

Moloch of the Old Testament . In this connexion may be mentioned the custom of burning the chief god of the city in effigy, or in the See also:

• PERSON, OFFENCES AGAINST THE

person of a human representative, at Tyre and in the Tyrian colonies, such as Carthage and Gades; the custom lasted down to a See also:

• LATE

late time (see Frazer, loc. cit. ch. v.) .

Another horrible sacrifice was regularly demanded by Phoenician religion: See also:

• WOMEN

women sacrificed their virginity at the shrines of Astarte in the belief that they thus propitiated the goddess and won her favour (Frazer, ibid. ch. iii.) ; licentious See also:

• RITES

rites were the natural See also:

• ACCOMPANIMENT (i.e. that which " accompanies ")

accompaniment of the worship of the reproductive powers of nature . These temple prostitutes are called edeshim gedeshoth, i.e. sacred men, women, in the Old Testament (Dent. xxui . 18; I Kings xiv . 24, &c.) . Other persons attached to a temple were priests, See also:

• AUGURS

augurs, sacrificers, barbers, officials in See also:

• CHARGE
• CHARGE (through the Fr. from the Late Lat. carricare, to load in a carrus or wagon; cf. " cargo ")

charge of the curtains, masons, &c . (NSI . No . 2o) ; we hear also of religious See also:

• GILDS, or GUILDS

gilds and corporations, perhaps administrative See also:

• COUNCILS

councils, associated with the sanctuaries (ibid. pp . 94, 121, 130, 144 seq.) . No doubt the Phoenicians had their legends and myths to See also:

• ACCOUNT
• ACCOUNT (through O. Fr. acont, Late Lat. comptum, cornputare, to calculate)

account for the origin of man and the universe; to some extent these would have resembled the ideas embodied in the See also:

• BOOK

book of Mythando ologgy See also:

• GENESIS
• GENESIS (Gr. 'ybeo-es, becoming; the term being used in English as a synonym for origin or process of coming into being)

Genesis . Two cosmogonies have come down to us ous Ideas. which, though they differ in details, are fundamentally in agreement . The one, of Sidonian origin, is pre-served by See also:

• DAMASCIUS

Damascius (de See also:

• PRIM, JUAN, MARQUIS DE LOS CASTILLEJOS, COUNT DE REDS (1814-187o)

prim. principiis, 125) and received at his hands a Neoplatonic interpretation; this See also:

• COSMOGONY (from Gr. K6Qµos, world and yiyvevGay to be born)

cosmogony was probably the See also:

• WRITING
• WRITING (the verbal noun of " to write," O. Eng. writan, to inscribe)

writing which See also:

• STRABO (born c. 63 n.c.)

Strabo ascribes to a Sidonian philosopher, Mochus, who lived before the Trojan times (xvi .

2, 24) . The other and more elaborate work was composed by Philo of Byblus (temp . See also:

• HADRIAN (PUBLICS AELIUS HADRIANUS)

Hadrian) ; he professed that he had used as his authority the writings of Sanchuniathon (q.v.), an ancient Phoenician See also:

• SAGE, RUSSELL (1816-1906)

sage, who again derived his See also:

• INFORMATION (from Lat. informare, to give shape or form to, to represent, describe)

information from the mysterious inscribed stones (h ovveis=o'ian, i.e. images or pillars of Ba'al-bamman) in the Phoenician temples . Philo's cosmogony has been preserved, at least in fragments, by See also:

• EUSEBIUS
• EUSEBIUS (Gr. EuOi/3tos, from ebaegils, pious, cf. the Latin name Pius)
• EUSEBIUS [OF CAESAREA] (c. 260-c. 340)
• EUSEBIUS [OF EMESA] (d. c. "36o)

Eusebius in Praep. evang. vol. i . (Fr. hist. gr. iii . 563 sqq.) . It cannot, however, be taken seriously as an account of genuine Phoenician beliefs . For Sanchuniathon is a mere See also:

• LITERARY

literary fiction; and Philo's treatment is vitiated by an obvious See also:

• ATTEMPT (Lat. adtemptare, attentare, to try)

attempt to explain the whole See also:

• SYSTEM

system of religion on the principles of See also:

• EUHEMERUS [EUEMERUS, EVEMERUS]

Euhemerus, an agnostic who taught the traditional See also:

• MYTHOLOGY

mythology as See also:

• PRIMITIVE

primitive See also:

• HISTORY

history, and turned all the gods and goddesses into men and women; and further by a patriotic See also:

• DESIRE

desire to prove that Phoenicia could outdo See also:

• GREECE

Greece in the See also:

• VENERABLE (Lat. venerabilis, worthy of reverence, venerari, to reverence, to worship, allied to Venus, love; the Indo-Germ. root is wen-, to desire, whence Eng. " win, properly to struggle for, hence to gain)

venerable character of its traditions, that in fact Greek mythology was simply a feeble and distorted version of the Phoenician.' At the same time Philo did not invent all the nonsense which he has handed down; he See also:

• DREW
• DREW, SAMUEL (1765-1833)

drew upon various See also:

• SOURCES

sources, Greek and Egyptian, some of them ultimately of Babylonian origin, and incidentally he mentions matters of See also:

• INTEREST

interest which, when tested by other evidence, are fairly well supported . He shows at any See also:

• RATE

rate that some sort of a See also:

• THEOLOGY

theology existed in his See also:

• DAY (O. Eng. dreg, Ger. Tag; according to the New English Dictionary, " in no way related to the Lat. dies")
• DAY, JOHN (1574-1640?)
• DAY, THOMAS (1748-1789)

day; particularly interesting is his description of the symbolic figure of Cronus with eyes before and behind and six wings open and folded (Fr. hist. gr. iii . 569), a figure which is represented on the coins of Gebal-Byblus (2nd century B.C.) as the mythical founder of the city . It is evident that the gods were regarded as being intimately concerned with the lives and fortunes of their worshippers . The vast number of small votive tablets found at Carthage prove this: they were all inscribed by grateful devotees " to the See also:

• LADY (0. Eng. hlaefdige, Mid. Eng. ldfdi, lavedi; the first part of the word is hldf, loaf, bread, as in the corresponding hldford, lord; the second part is usually taken to be from the root dig-, to knead, seen also in " dough "; the sense development fr

lady Tanith, Face of Ba'al, and the lord Baal-bamman, because he heard their See also:

• VOICE (Fr. voix, from Lat. vox)

voice." The care which the Phoenicians bestowed upon the burial of the dead has been alluded to above; pillars (mas.Feboth) were set up to commemorate the dead among the living (e.g .

NSI . Nos . 18, 19, 21, 32) ; if there were no children to fulfil the pious See also:

• DUTY (from " due," that which is owing, O. Fr. deu, dil, past participle of devoir; Lat. debere, debitum; cf. " debt ")

duty, a See also:

• MONUMENT (Lat. monumentum or monumentum; from monere, to advise, bring to mind, remind; the German equivalent is Denkmal)

monument would be set up by a man during his lifetime (ibid . No . 16; cf . 2 Sam. xviii . 18) . Any violation of the See also:

• TOMB (Gr. Tuµ/3a, Tuµ(3os, probably allied to Lat. tumulus, literally a swelling, tumere, to swell)

tomb was regarded with the greatest horror (ibid . Nos . 4, 5) . The See also:

• GRAVE

grave was called a resting-place (ibid . Nos .

4, 5, 16, 21), and the departed See also:

• LAY

lay at rest in the underworld with the Refaim, the weak ones (the same word and idea in the Old Testament, Ise.. xiv . 9, See also:

• XXVI

xxvi . 14, 19; See also:

• JOB

Job xxvi . 5; Ps. lxxxviii. ii, &c.) . The curious notion prevailed, as it did also among the Greeks and See also:

• ROMANS
• ROMANS, EPISTLE TO THE

Romans, that it was possible to communicate with the gods of the underworld by dropping into a grave a small See also:

• ROLL (O. Fr. rolle, roulle, mod. role, Lat. rotulus, dim. of rota, wheel)
• ROLL, ALFRED PHILIPPE (1846– )

roll of See also:

• LEAD
• LEAD (pronounced iced)

lead (tabella devotionis, NSI . No . 5o), inscribed with the See also:

• MESSAGE (a word occurring in slightly different forms in several languages, e.g. Fr. message, Span. mensaje, Ital. messagio; adapted from the Low Lat. missaticum, from mittere)

message, generally a curse, which it was desired to convey to them . ' An excellent and See also:

• CRITICAL (in alphabetical order of authors)

critical account of Philo's work is given by See also:

• LAGRANGE, JOSEPH LOUIS (1736-1813)

Lagrange, Etudes sur See also:

• LES

les rel. sem (2nd ed., 1905), ch. xi.following may be added: See also:

• MOVERS, FRANZ KARL (18o6–1856)

Movers, See also:

• DIE
• DIE (Fr. de, from Lat. datum, given)

Die Phonizier (1842–1856), to be used with caution; Renan, See also:

• MISSION

Mission de Phenicie (1864); See also:

• SCHRODER
• SCHRODER, FRIEDRICH LUDWIG (1744-1816)
• SCHRODER, SOPHIE (1781-1868)

Schroder, Die phonizische Sprache (1869); See also:

• STADE
• STADE, BERNHARD (1848–1906)

Stade in Morgenlandische Forschungen (1875); W . Baudissin, Studien zur semitischen Religionsgeschichte (1876, 1878) ; Baethgen, Beitrage zur semitischen Religionsgeschichte (1888); See also:

• LEVY (Fr. levee, from lever, Lat. levare, to lift, raise)
• LEVY, AMY (1861–1889)
• LEVY, AUGUSTE MICHEL (1844– )

Levy, Siegel and Gemmen (1869); J . L . Myres and Richter, See also:

• CATALOGUE (a Fr. adaptation of the Gr. KaraXoyos, a register, from Karalyety, to enrol or pick out)

Catalogue of the Cyprus Museum (1899) ; G . F .

Hill, Catalogue of the Greek Coins of Cyprus (1904) ; V . See also:

• BERARD, JOSEPH FREDERIC (1789-1828)

Berard, Les Pheniciens et l'Odyssee (1902—1903); Lidzbarski, See also:

• EPHEMERIS (Greek for a " diary ")

Ephemeris See also:

• FUR (connected with O. Fr. forre, a sheath or case; so " an outer covering ")

fur semitische Epigraphik (1902—1906); H . Winckler, Altorientalische Forschungen (1893–1906); Freiherr von See also:

• LANDAU

Landau, " Die Bedeutung der Phonizier See also:

• IM(K2+a2+h2â€