See also:

• NUMISMATICS
• NUMISMATICS (Lat. numisma, nomisma, a coin; from the Greek, derived from voj4 u', to use according to law)

NUMISMATICS (See also:

• LAT

Lat. numisma, nomisma, a See also:

• COIN
• COIN (older forms of the word are coyne, quoin and coign, all derived through the O. Fr. coing, and cuigne from Lat. cuneus, a wedge)

coin; from the See also:

• GREEK
• GREEK, ETRUSCAN AND

Greek, derived from voj4 u', to use according to See also:

• LAW
• LAW (0. Eng. lagu, M. Eng. lawe; from an old Teutonic root lag, " lie," what lies fixed or evenly; cf. Lat. lex, Fr. loi)
• LAW, JOHN (1671—1729)
• LAW, WILLIAM (1686-1761)

law)  , the See also:

• SCIENCE (Lat. scientia, from scire; to learn, know)

science treating of coins (See also:

• LOW, SETH (1850- )
• LOW, WILL HICOK (1853- )

Low See also:

• LAT

Lat. See also:

• CUNEUS (Latin for " wedge "; plural, cunei)

cuneus, a See also:

• DIE
• DIE (Fr. de, from Lat. datum, given)

die) and medals (Low Lat. medalla, a small See also:

• COIN
• COIN (older forms of the word are coyne, quoin and coign, all derived through the O. Fr. coing, and cuigne from Lat. cuneus, a wedge)

coin) . The earliest known coins were issued by the Greeks in the 7th See also:

• CENTURY (from Lat. centuria, a division of a hundred men)

century before the See also:

• CHRISTIAN
• CHRISTIAN, WILLIAM (1608-1663)

Christian era . By the 4th century the whole civilized See also:

• WORLD

world used See also:

• MONEY

money (q.v.), each See also:

• STATE
• STATE, GREAT OFFICERS OF

state generally having its proper coinage . Thisas continued to be the See also:

• CASE
• CASE, JOHN (d. 1600)

case to the See also:

• PRESENT

present See also:

• TIME (0. Eng. Lima, cf. Icel. timi, Swed. timme, hour, Dan. time; from the root also seen in " tide," properly the time of between the flow and ebb of the sea, cf. O. Eng. getidan, to happen, " even-tide," &c.; it is not directly related to Lat. tempus)
• TIME, MEASUREMENT OF
• TIME, STANDARD

time; so that now t ere are few nations without a See also:

• METAL
• METAL (through Fr. from Lat. metallum, mine, quarry, adapted from Gr. µATaXAov, in the same sense, probably connected with ,ueraAAdv, to search after, explore, µeTa, after, aAAos, other)

metal currency of their own, and of these but a small proportion are wholly unacquainted with the use of coins . Coins, although they confirm See also:

• HISTORY

history, rarely correct it, and never very greatly . The earliest belong to a time and to nations as to which we are not otherwise wholly ignorant, and they do not afford us that precise See also:

• INFORMATION (from Lat. informare, to give shape or form to, to represent, describe)

information which, would fill in any important details of the meagre See also:

• SKETCH (directly adapted from Dutch schets, which was taken from Ital. schizzo, a rough draft, Lat. schedium, something hastily made, Gr. oxE&os, sudden, off-hand, axeb6v, near by; Ger. Skizze and Fr. esquisse are from the same source)

sketch of contemporary history . We gain from them scarcely any See also:

• DIRECT

direct See also:

• HISTORICAL

historical information, except that certain cities or princes issued money . When in later times the devices and See also:

• INSCRIPTIONS (from Lat. inscribere, to write upon)

inscriptions of the coins give more detailed information, history is far See also:

• FULLER, ANDREW (1954-1815)
• FULLER, GEORGE (1822—1884)
• FULLER, M
• FULLER, MARGARET, MARCHIONESS
• FULLER, MELVILLE WESTON (1833-1910)
• FULLER, THOMAS (16o8-1661)
• FULLER, WILLIAM (1670--c. 1717)

fuller and clearer, so that the numismatic See also:

• EVIDENCE (Lat. evidentia, evideri, to appear clearly)

evidence is rarely more than corroborative . There are, indeed, some remarkable exceptions to this See also:

• RULE

rule, as in the case of the Bactrian and See also:

• INDIAN

Indian coins, which have supplied the outlines of a portion of history which was otherwise almost wholly lost . The value of the corroborative evidence afforded by coins must not, however, be overlooked . It chiefly relates to See also:

• CHRONOLOGY (Gr. xpovo?oyfa, computation of time, xp6vos)

chronology, although it also adds to our knowledge of the pedigrees of royal houses . But perhaps the most interesting manner in which coins and medals illustrate history is in their bearing contemporary, or nearly contemporary, portraits of the most famous See also:

• KINGS, FIRST AND SECOND BOOKS OF

kings and captains, from the time of the first successors of See also:

• ALEXANDER
• ALEXANDER (1461-1506)
• ALEXANDER (ALEXANDER OF BATTENBERG) (1857-1893)
• ALEXANDER (ALEXANDER OsxENOVici) (1876-1903)
• ALEXANDER, ARCHIBALD (1772—1851)
• ALEXANDER, FRANCIS (1800—1881)
• ALEXANDER, GEORGE (1858— )
• ALEXANDER, JOHN WHITE (1856- )
• ALEXANDER, JOSEPH ADDISON (18o9—186o)
• ALEXANDER, SIR JAMES EDWARD (1803—1885)
• ALEXANDER, WILLIAM (1824— )
• ALEXANDER, WILLIAM LINDSAY (1808—1884)

Alexander the See also:

• GREAT

Great to the present See also:

• AGE (Fr. age, through late Lat. aetaticum, from aetas)

age, whereas pictures do not afford portraits in any number before the latter See also:

• PART

part of the See also:

• MIDDLE

middle ages; and See also:

• WORKS

works of See also:

• SCULPTURE
• SCULPTURE (Lat. sculptura, from sculpere, to carve, cognate with Gr. yXb4ew)

sculpture, although occupying in this respect the same See also:

• PLACE (through Fr. from Lat. platea, street; Gr. IrAar6s, wide)

place as coins in the last-mentioned See also:

• PERIOD
• PERIOD (Gr. irepioSos, a going or way round, circuit, aepi, round, and &Sis, way, road)

period and under the See also:

• ROMAN

Roman See also:

• EMPIRE

empire, are neither so numerous nor so See also:

• AUTHENTIC (from Gr. aOO 'rns, one who does a thing himself)

authentic .

There is no more delightful See also:

• COMPANION (through the O. Fr. compaignon or compagnon, from the Late Lat. companio,—cum, with, and panis, bread,—one who shares meals with another; the word has been wrongly derived from the Late Lat. compagnus, one of the same pages or district)

companion in historical See also:

• READING

reading than a See also:

• CABINET

cabinet of coins and medals . The strength and See also:

• ENERGY (from the Gr. ivipyela; iv, in, ipyov, work)

energy of Alexander, the ferocity of See also:

• MITHRADATES

Mithradates, the philosophic calmness of See also:

• ANTONINUS, SAINT ANTONIO PIEROZZI

Antoninus, the obstinate ferocity of See also:

• NERO (37-68)

Nero, and the brutality of See also:

• CARACALLA (or CARACALLUS), MARCUS A U R E L I U S ANTONINUS (186-217)

Caracalla are as See also:

• PLAIN (O. Fr. plain, from Lat. plenum)

plain on the coins as in the pages of history . The numismatic portraits of the time following the See also:

• FOUNDING (from Lat. fundere, to pour)

founding of See also:

• CONSTANTINOPLE
• CONSTANTINOPLE, COUNCILS OF

Constantinople have less individuality; but after the revival of See also:

• ART

art they recover that quality, and maintain it to our own See also:

• DAY (O. Eng. dreg, Ger. Tag; according to the New English Dictionary, " in no way related to the Lat. dies")
• DAY, JOHN (1574-1640?)
• DAY, THOMAS (1748-1789)

day, although executed in very different styles from those of antiquity . From this last class we can See also:

• FORM (Lat. forma)

form a See also:

• SERIES (a Latin word from serere, to join)

series of portraits more See also:

• COMPLETE

complete and not less interesting than that of the See also:

• ANCIENT
• ANCIENT (also spelt ANTIENT; derived, through the Fr. ancien, old, from the late Lat. antianum, from ante, before)

ancient period . While coins and medals thus illustrate the events of history, they have an equally direct bearing on the belief of the nations See also:

• MYTHOLOGY

Mythology. by which they were issued; and in this reference lies no small part of their value in connexion with history . The mythology of the Greeks, not having been fixed in sacred writings, nor regulated by a dominant priesthood, but having grown out of the different beliefs of various tribes and isolated settlements, and having been allowed to form itself comparatively without check, can scarcely be learned from ancient books . Their writers give us but a partial or See also:

• SPECIAL

special view of it, and See also:

• MODERN

modern authors, in their attempts to systematize, have often but increased the confusion . The See also:

• GREEK
• GREEK, ETRUSCAN AND

Greek coins, whether of kings or cities, until the See also:

• DEATH

death of Alexander, do not, with a few negligible exceptions, represent the human form . Afterwards, on the See also:

• REGAL

regal coins, the See also:

• KING
• KING (O. Eng. cyning, abbreviated into cyng, cing; cf. O. H. G. chun- kuning, chun- kunig, M.H.G. kiinic, kiinec, kiinc, Mod. Ger. Konig, O. Norse konungr, kongr, Swed. konung, kung)
• KING [OF OCKHAM], PETER KING, 1ST BARON (1669-1734)
• KING, CHARLES WILLIAM (1818-1888)
• KING, CLARENCE (1842–1901)
• KING, EDWARD (1612–1637)
• KING, EDWARD (1829–1910)
• KING, HENRY (1591-1669)
• KING, RUFUS (1755–1827)
• KING, THOMAS (1730–1805)
• KING, WILLIAM (1650-1729)
• KING, WILLIAM (1663–1712)

king's See also:

• HEAD (in 0. Eng. heafad; the word is common to Teutonic languages; cf. Dutch hoofd, Ger. Haupt, generally taken to be in origin connected with Lat. caput, Gr. KerbOvi7)
• HEAD, SIR EDMUND WALKER, BART
• HEAD, SIR FRANCIS BOND, BART

head usually occupies the obverse and a subject, usually sacred, is placed on the See also:

• REVERSE

reverse . The coins of Greek cities under the empire have usually an imperial portrait and a reverse type usually mythological . The whole class thus affords us invaluable evidence for the reconstruction of Greek mythology . We have nowhere else so complete a series of the different types under which the divinities were represented .

There are in modern galleries very few statues of Greek divinities, including such as were intended for architectural decoration, which are in See also:

• GOOD, JOHN MASON (1764-1827)

good See also:

• STYLE
• STYLE (from Gr. a-6'1ms, a column; a different word from that used in literature, see below)

style, fairly preserved, and untouched by modern restorers . If to these we add reliefs of the same class, and the best Graeco-Roman copies, we can scarcely form a complete series of the various representations of these divinities . The coins, however, See also:

• SUPPLY (through Fr. from Lat. supplere, to fill up)

supply us with the series we See also:

• DESIRE

desire, and we may select types which are not merely of good See also:

• WORK

work, but of the finest . The mythology of ancient See also:

• ITALY
• ITALY (Italia)

Italy, as distinct from that of the Greek colonies of Italy, is not so fully illustrated by the coins of the See also:

• COUNTRY (from the Mid. Eng. contre or contrie, and O. Fr. cuntree; Late Lat. contrata, showing the derivation from contra, opposite, over against, thus the tract of land which fronts the sight, cf. Ger. Gegend, neighbourhood)

country, because these are for the most part of Greek See also:

• DESIGN (Fr. desiin, drawing; Lat. designare, to mark out)

design . There are, however, some remarkable exceptions, especially in the money of the Roman See also:

• COMMONWEALTH

commonwealth, the greater number of the types of which are of a See also:

• LOCAL

local See also:

• CHARACTER (Gr. xapareri7p, from xap&crew, to scratch)

character, including many that refer to the myths and traditions of the earliest days of the See also:

• CITY (through Fr. cite, from Lat. civitas)

city . The coins of the empire are especially important, as bearing representations of those personifications of an allegorical character to which the See also:

• INFLUENCE (Late Lat. influentia, from influere, to flow in)

influence of See also:

• PHILOSOPHY (Gr. gthos, fond of, and vo4 (a, wisdom)

philosophy gave great prominence in Roman mythology . Coins are scarcely less valuable in relation to See also:

• GEOGRAPHY (Gr. yil, earth, and ypiickty, to write)

geography than to history . The position of towns on the See also:

• SEA (in O. Eng. sae, a common Teutonic word; cf. Ger. See, Dutch Zee, &c.; the ultimate source is uncertain)
• SEA, COMMAND OF THE

sea or on See also:

• RIVERS
• RIVERS, ANTHONY WOODVILLE, or WYDEVILLE, 2ND EARL (c. 1442—1483)
• RIVERS, EARL
• RIVERS, RICHARD SAVAGE, 4TH EARL (c. 1660—1712)

rivers, the See also:

• RACE

race of their inhabitants, and many similar particulars are Geo- positively fixed on numismatic evidence . The informa- sg aphy. tion that coins convey as to the details of the history of towns and countries has a necessary connexion with geography, as has also their See also:

• ILLUSTRATION

illustration of local forms of See also:

• WORSHIP (i.e. " worth-ship," O. Eng. weor8scipe)

worship . The representations of natural productions on ancient money are of special importance, and afford assistance to the lexicographer . This is particularly the case with the Greek coins, on which these See also:

• OBJECTS

objects are frequently portrayed with great fidelity . We must recollect, however, that the nomenclature of the ancients was vague, and frequently comprised very different objects under one appellation, and that therefore we may find very different representations corresponding to the same name .

The art of sculpture, of which coin-See also:

• ENGRAVING

engraving is the offspring, receives the greatest illustration from See also:

• NUMISMATICS
• NUMISMATICS (Lat. numisma, nomisma, a coin; from the Greek, derived from voj4 u', to use according to law)

numismatics . Not only is the memory of lost statues preserved to us in the designs of ancient coins, but those of See also:

• GREECE

Greece afford admirable examples of that skill by which her sculptors attained their great renown . The excellence of the designs of very many Greek coins struck during the period of the best art is indeed so great that, were it not for their smallness, they would form the finest series of art-studies in the world . The Roman coins, though at no time to be compared to the purest Greek, yet represent not unworthily the Graeco-Roman art of the empire . From the See also:

• ACCESSION (from Lat. accedere, to go to, to approach)

accession of See also:

• AUGUSTUS (a name 1 derived from Lat. augeo, increase, i.e. venerable, majestic, Gr. Ee0avr6s)

Augustus to the death of See also:

• COMMODUS, LUCIUS AELIUS AURELIUS (161-192)

Commodus they are often fully equal to the best Graeco-Roman statues . This may be said, for instance, of the dupondii struck in See also:

• HONOUR (Lat. honos or lwnor, honoris; in English the word was spelled with or without the u indifferently until the 17th century, but during the 18th century it became fashion-able to spell the word " honor "; Johnson's and Webster's Dictionaries stereoty

honour of Livia by Tiberius and by the younger See also:

• DRUSUS, MARCUS LIVIUS
• DRUSUS, NERO1 CLAUDIUS (38–9 B.C.)

Drusus, of the sestertii of See also:

• AGRIPPINA

Agrippina, and of the See also:

• FLAVIAN (d. 449)

Flavian emperors, and of the See also:

• GOLD
• GOLD [symbol Au, atomic weight 195.7(H = 1),197.2(0 =16)]

gold coins of Antoninus See also:

• PIUS

Pius and the two Faustinas, all which present portraits of remarkable beauty and excellence . The See also:

• ITALIAN

Italian medals of the See also:

• RENAISSANCE, THE

Renaissance are scarcely less useful as records of the progress and characteristics of art, and, placed by the See also:

• SIDE
• SIDE (mod. Eski Adalia)

side of the Greek and Roman coins, complete the most remarkable See also:

• COMPARATIVE

comparative series of monuments illustrating the history of the great See also:

• SCHOOLS

schools of art that can be brought together . Ancient coins throw some See also:

• LIGHT

light upon the See also:

• ARCHITECTURE (Lat. architectura, from the Gr. ap)(LTEKrwv, a master-builder)

architecture as well as upon the sculpture of the nations by which they were struck . Under the empire, the Roman coins issued at the city very frequently See also:

• BEAR
• BEAR, BLACK
• BEAR, BROWN
• BEAR, GRIZZLY
• BEAR, ISABELLINE
• BEAR, WHITE

bear representations of important edifices . The Greek imperial coins struck in the provinces present similar types, representing the most famous temples and other structures of their cities, •of the form of some of which we should otherwise have been wholly ignorant . The art of See also:

• GEM (Lat. gemma, a bud,—from the root gen, meaning " to produce,"—or precious stone; in the latter sense the Greek term is > d>os)
• GEM, ARTIFICIAL

gem-engraving among the ancients is perhaps most nearly connected with their coinage . The subjects of coins and gems are so similar and so similarly treated that the authenticity of gems, that most difficult of archaeological questions, receives the greatest aid from the study of coins .

After what has been said it is not necessary to do more than mention how greatly the study of coins tends to illustrate the Ltterseure. contemporary literature of the nations which issued them . Not only the historians, but the philosophers and the poets, are constantly illustrated by the money of their times . This was perceived at the revival of letters; and during the 17th and 18th centuries coins were very frequently engraved in the larger See also:

• EDITIONS

editions of the See also:

• CLASSICS

classics . The science of numismatics is of comparatively See also:

• RECENT

recent origin . The ancients do not seem to have formed collections, although they appear to have occasionally preserved individual Origin specimens for their beauty . See also:

• PETRARCH (1304-1374)

Petrarch has the See also:

• CREDIT (Lat. credere, to believe)

credit of the Scknce. of having been the first See also:

• COLLECTOR

collector of any See also:

• NOTE
• NOTE (Lat. nota, mark, sign, from noscere, to know)

note; but it is probable that in his time ancient coins were already attracting no little See also:

• NOTICE

notice . The importance of the study of all coins has since been by degrees more and more recognised, and at present no See also:

• BRANCH (from the Fr. branche, late Lat. branca, an animal's paw)

branch of the pursuit is See also:

• LEFT

left wholly unexplored . Besides its bearing upon the history, the See also:

• RELIGION
• RELIGION, FOLKLORE, CUSTOM

religion, the See also:

• MANNERS, CHARLES (1857– )

manners, and the arts of the nations which have used money, the science ct>ce1 of numismatics has a special modern use in relation to Pra Use. art . Displaying the various styles of art prevalent in different ages, coins supply us with abundant means for promoting the See also:

• ADVANCEMENT

advancement of art among ourselves . If the study of many schools be at all times of See also:

• ADVANTAGE

advantage, it is especially so when there is little originality in the world . Its least value is to point out the want of See also:

• ARTISTIC

artistic merit and historical See also:

• COMMEMORATION

commemoration in modern coins, and to suggest that modern medals should be executed after some study of the rules which controlled the great works of former times . See also:

• DEFINITIONS

Definitions.—The following are the most necessary numismatic definitions .

1 . A coin is a piece of metal of a fixed See also:

• WEIGHT

weight, stamped by authority of See also:

• GOVERNMENT
• GOVERNMENT (0. Fr. governement, mod. gouvernement, O. Fr. governer, mod. gouverner, from Lat. gubernare, to steer a ship, guide, rule; cf. Gr. xv(3epvav)

government, and employed as a circulating See also:

• MEDIUM

medium.' 2 . A See also:

• MEDAL (Fr. medaille, from Lat. metallum)

medal is a piece, having no place in the currency, struck'to commemorate some event or See also:

• PERSON, OFFENCES AGAINST THE

person . Medals are frequently comprised with coins in descriptions that apply to both equally; thus, In the subsequent definitions, by the See also:

• TERM

term coins, coins and medals must generally be understood . 3 . The coinage of a country is usually divided into the classes of gold, See also:

• SILVER

silver and See also:

• BRONZE

bronze (See also:

• COPPER (symbol Cu, atomic weight 63.1, H=1, or 63.6, O = 16)

copper), for which the abbreviations N, JR, and sE are employed in catalogues . In addition to these metals, and to the modifications of them created by the presence of varying amounts of alloy, certain other compounds were frequently used, notably See also:

• ELECTRUM, ELECTRON (Gr. ijXei rpov, amber)

electrum, billon, See also:

• BRASS
• BRASS (O. Eng. braes)

brass and potin . ' This See also:

• DEFINITION (Lat. definitio, from de-finire, to set limits to, describe)

definition excludes, on the one See also:

• HAND
• HAND (a word common to Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Hand, Goth. handus)
• HAND, FERDINAND GOTTHELF (1786-185r)

hand, See also:

• PAPER
• PAPER (Fr. papier, from Lat. papyrus)

paper currencies and their equivalents among barbarous nations, such as cowries, because they are neither of metal nor of fixed weight, although either stamped or sanctioned by authority, and, on the other hand, modes of keeping metal in weight, like the so-called See also:

• CELTIC

Celtic " See also:

• RING (O.E. hring; a word common to Teutonic languages; and probably cognate with the Lat. circus, Gr. KtpKOS or KpLKOS, Skt'. chakra, wheel, circle, cf. also " harangue "); in art, a band of circular shape of varying sizes, made of any material and used f

ring-money," because it is not stamped, although perhaps sanctioned by authority . The latter has attracted much See also:

• ATTENTION (from Lat. ad-tendo, await, expect; the condition of being " stretched " or " tense ")

attention, but it is by no means made out that the rings were made with the See also:

• PRIMARY

primary intention of serving as money . But it is a very See also:

• COMMON

common usage among See also:

• SAVAGE
• SAVAGE, MINOT JUDSON (1841– )
• SAVAGE, RICHARD (d. 1743)

savage or semi-savage races to See also:

• WEAR

wear all their See also:

• WEALTH

wealth in the form of ornaments (as a woman may even now wear her See also:

• DOWRY (in Anglo-Fr. dowarie, O. Fr. douaire, Med. Lat. dotaria, from Lat. dos; from root of dare, to give; in Fr. dot)

dowry as ornaments in the form of coins) and to use the ornaments (or cut-off portions of them, " 'killings ") whenever occasion arises as a medium of See also:

• EXCHANGE

exchange . These rings then were doubtless used in this manner, but they were no more money than were any other See also:

• PRECIOUS (O. Fr. precios, mod. precieux, Lat. pretiosus, of high value or price, pretium)

precious possessions which couldbe used in exchange . There is no good evidence for the use of the little Gaulish " wheels " as money .

On these questions see Blanchet, Monn. See also:

• GAUL
• GAUL, GILBERT WILLIAM (1855— )

gaul. pp . 24-29 . On the border of the definition are such prehistoric " dumps " of metal as have been found at Enkomi in See also:

• CYPRUS
• CYPRUS, CHURCH OF

Cyprus and at See also:

• CNOSSUS

Cnossus in See also:

• CRETE (Gr. Kp;rrrr; Turk. Kirid, Ital. Candia)

Crete; one of these indeed seems to bear traces of a See also:

• MARK
• MARK, CARL (1858– )
• MARK, GOSPEL OF ST
• MARK, ST

mark of some See also:

• KIND (O. E. ge-cynde, from the same root as is seen in " kin," supra)

kind . 4 . Electrum See also:

• OLIVER, ISAAC (c. 1566--1617)
• OLIVER, PETER (1594-1648)

Oliver pop, Ti\EKTpoS, XEUKdS Xpuoos),acompound metallic substance, consisting of gold with a considerable alloy of silver . See also:

• PLINY, THE ELDER
• PLINY, THE YOUNGER

Pliny makes the proportion to have been four parts of gold to one of silver.2 The material of See also:

• EARLY
• EARLY, JUBAL ANDERSON (1816-1894)

early coins of See also:

• ASIA

Asia See also:

• MINOR
• MINOR (Lat. for smaller, lesser)
• MINOR, ROBERT CRANNELL (1839-1904)

Minor struck in the cities of the western See also:

• COAST (from Lat. costa, a rib, side)

coast is the ancient electrum . The amount of silver varies very considerably with time and place . Gold largely alloyed with silver, not struck by the ancient Greeks or their neighbours, should be termed See also:

• PALE (through Fr. pal, from Lat. palms, a stake, for paglus, from the stem pag- of pangere, to fix; " pole " is from the same original source)

pale gold, as in the case of some of the See also:

• LATE

late See also:

• BYZANTINE

Byzantine coins . 5 . Billon, a term applied to the See also:

• BASE

base metal of some Roman coins, and also to that of some See also:

• MEDIEVAL

medieval and modern coins . It contains about one-fifth silver to four-fifths copper . When the base silver coins are replaced by copper washed with silver the term billon becomes inappropriate .

6 . Brass, a mixture of copper and See also:

• ZINC

zinc . It may be used as an See also:

• EQUIVALENT

equivalent to the orichalcum of the See also:

• ROMANS
• ROMANS, EPISTLE TO THE

Romans, a See also:

• FINE

fine kind of brass of which the sestertii and dupondii were struck, but it is commonly applied indiscriminately to the whole of their copper currency under the empire . 7 . Potin, an alloy of copper and See also:

• TIN (Lat.- stannum, whence the chemical symbol " Sn "; atomic weight =117.6, 0=16)

tin (therefore a variety of bronze) used for some late Gaulish coins . 8 . Various other metallic substances have been used in coinage, including See also:

• IRON [symbol Fe, atomic weight 55.85 (0=16)]

iron (in See also:

• PELOPONNESUS (" Island of Pelops ")

Peloponnesus) and an alloy of copper and See also:

• NICKEL
• NICKEL (symbol Ni, atomic weight 58.68 (0=16))

nickel employed for some Bactrian coins . The so-called " See also:

• GLASS
• GLASS (O.E. glees, cf. Ger. Glas, perhaps derived from an old Teutonic root gla-, a variant of glo-, having the general sense of shining, cf. " glare," " glow ")
• GLASS, STAINED

glass coins " of the See also:

• ARABS

Arabs are merely coin-weights . 9 . The forms of coins have greatly varied in different countries and at different periods . The usual form in both ancient and modern times has been circular, and generally of no great thickness . lo .

Coins are usually measured by millimetres, or by inches and tenths, the greatest See also:

• DIMENSION (from Lat. dimensio, a measuring)

dimension being taken, or, when they are square or See also:

• OVAL (Lat. ovum, egg)

oval, the greatest dimension in two directions . 11 . The weight of a coin is of great importance, both in determining its genuineness and in distinguishing its identity . Metric weights are used by most numismatists except in See also:

• ENGLAND
• ENGLAND, THE CHURCH OF

England, where See also:

• TROY
• TROY, JEAN FRANCOIS DE (1679–1752)

troy weight is still in See also:

• GENERAL
• GENERAL (Lat. generalis, of or relating to a genus, kind or class)

general use . 12 . The specific gravity of a coin may be of use in determining the metals in its See also:

• COMPOSITION
• COMPOSITION (Lat. compositio, from componere, to put together)

composition . 13 . Whatever representations or characters are See also:

• BORNE, KARL LUDWIG (1786–1837)

borne by a coin constitute its type . The subject of each side is also called a type, and, when there is not only a See also:

• DEVICE

device but an inscription, the latter may be excluded from the term . This last is the general use . No distinct rule has been laid down as to what makes a difference of type, but it may be considered to be an essential difference, however slight . 14 .

A difference too small to constitute a new type makes a variety . 15 . A coin is a duplicate of another when it agrees with it in all particulars but those of exact See also:

• SIZE

size and weight . Strictly speaking, ancient coins are rarely, if ever, duplicates, except when struck from the same pair of See also:

• DIES, CHRISTOPH ALBERT (1755-1822)

dies . 16 . Struck coins are those on which the designs are produced by dies impressed on the See also:

• BLANK (from the Fr. blanc, white)

blank piece (or flan) of metal by some form of hammering or pressure; they are distinguished from See also:

• CAST (from the verb meaning " to throw "; the word is Scand. in origin, cf. Dan. kaste, and Swed. kasta; " cast " in Middle Eng. took the place of the A.S. weor pan, cf. Ger. werf en)

cast coins made by See also:

• RUNNING

running metal into a See also:

• MOULD

mould . 17 . Of the two sides of a coin, that is called the obverse which bears the more important device . In early Greek coins it is the See also:

• CONVEX

convex side, or the side impressed by the See also:

• LOWER

lower die; in Greek and Roman imperial it is the side bearing the head ; in medieval and modern that bearing the royal effigy, or the king's name, or the name of the city; and in See also:

• ORIENTAL

Oriental that on which the inscription begins . The other side is called the reverse . 18 . The See also:

• FIELD (a word common to many West German languages, cf. Ger. Feld, Dutch veld, possibly cognate with O.E. f olde, the earth, and ultimately with root of the Gr. irAaror, broad)
• FIELD, CYRUS WEST (1819-1892)
• FIELD, DAVID DUDLEY (18o5-1894)
• FIELD, EUGENE (1850-1895)
• FIELD, FREDERICK (18o1—1885)
• FIELD, HENRY MARTYN (1822-1907)
• FIELD, JOHN (1782—1837)
• FIELD, MARSHALL (183 1906)
• FIELD, NATHAN (1587—1633)
• FIELD, STEPHEN JOHNSON (1816-1899)
• FIELD, WILLIAM VENTRIS FIELD, BARON (1813-1907)

field of a coin is the space unoccupied by the See also:

• PRINCIPAL

principal devices or inscriptions .

Any detached See also:

• INDEPENDENT

independent device or character is said to be in the field, except when it occupies the exergue . 19 . The exergue is that part of the reverse of a coin which is below the See also:

• MAIN (from the Aryan root which appears in " may " and " might," and Lat. magnus, great)
• MAIN (Lat. Moenus)

main device, and distinctly separated from it; it often bears a secondary inscription . Thus, the well-known inscription CONOB occupies the exergue of the late Roman and early Byzantine gold coins . 20 . The edge of a coin is the See also:

• SURFACE

surface of its thickness . 21 . By the inscription or inscriptions of a coin all the letters it bears are intended; an inscription is either principal or secondary . 22 . In describing coins the terms right and left mean the right and left of the spectator, not the heraldic and military right and left, or those of the coin . 23 . A bust is the See also:

• REPRESENTATION

representation of the head and See also:

• NECK (O. Eng. hnecca; the word appears in many Teutonic languages; cf. Dutch ride, Ger. Nacken; in O. E. the common word was heals; cf. Ger. Hals)

neck; it is commonly used of such as show at least the See also:

• COLLAR

collar-See also:

• BONE (a word common in various forms to Teutonic languages, in many of which it is confined to the shank of the leg, as in the German Bein)
• BONE, HENRY (1755-1834)

bone, other busts being called heads .

A head properly means the representation of a head alone, without any part of the neck, but it is also commonly used 2 Hist. nat. xxxiii . 23; cp. See also:

• XXXVII

xxxvii . 11 . Pliny distinguishes two kinds of " See also:

• ELECTRON

electron,"—See also:

• AMBER

amber, and this metallic substance . In Greek See also:

• POETRY

poetry the name seems to apply to both, but it is generally difficult to decide which is meant in any particular case . See also:

• SOPHOCLES (495-406 B.c.)

Sophocles, however, where he mentions rdsrd EapfEwv ff XEKrpov, . Kai Tat, 'IvSucbv Xpuehv (See also:

• ANT
• ANT (O. Eng. aemete, from Teutonic a, privative, and maitan, cut or bite off, i.e. " the biter off "; aemete in Middle English became differentiated in dialect use to (mete, then amte, and so ant, and also to emete, whence the synonym " emmet," now only u

Ant . 103g-1039), can scarcely be doubted to refer to the metallic electrum . when any part of the neck above the collar-bone is shown . The present See also:

• ARTICLE (from Lat. articulus, a joint)

article follows See also:

• CUSTOM (from O. Fr. costume, costume or coustume; Low Lat. costuma, a shortened form of consuetudo)

custom in the use of the terms bust and head . When the neck is clothed, the bust is said to be draped . 24 .

A bust or head is either facing, usually three-See also:

• QUARTER (through Fr. from Lat. quartarius, fourth part)

quarter See also:

• FACE (from Lat. fades, derived either from facere, to make, or from a root fa-, meaning " appear "; cf. Gr. cbatvstv)

face, or in See also:

• PROFILE

profile, in which latter case it is described as to right or to left . Two busts may be placed in various relative positions, as jugate or confronted . 25 . A bust wearing a See also:

• LAUREL

laurel-See also:

• WREATH (O. Eng. wry, from wriian, to twist)

wreath is said to be See also:

• LAUREATE (Lat. laureatus, from laurea, the laurel tree)

laureate . 26 . A bust See also:

• BOUND, or BOUNDARY (from O. Fr. bonde, Med. Lat. bodena or butina, a frontier line)

bound with a regal See also:

• FILLET (through Fr. filet, from the med. Lat. filettum, diminutive of filum, a thread)

fillet (diadem) is called diademed . 27 . A bust wearing a See also:

• CROWN

crown with rays is said to be radiate . 28 . An See also:

• OBJECT

object in the field of a coin which is neither a See also:

• LETTER (through Fr. lettre from Lat. littera or litera, letter of the alphabet; the origin of the Latin word is obscure; it has probably no connexion with the root of linere, to smear, i.e. with wax, for an inscription with a stilus)

letter nor a See also:

• MONOGRAM (from Late Lat. monogramma, in Late Gr. µovoypaµµov, from µovos, single, ypaµµa, letter)

monogram is usually called a See also:

• SYMBOL (Gr. o-uµ(3oXov, a sign)

symbol . This term is, however, only applicable when such an object is evidently the badge of a See also:

• TOWN

town or individual . The term See also:

• ADJUNCT (from Lat. ad, to, and jungere, to join)

adjunct, which is sometimes employed instead of symbol, is manifestly incorrect .

29 . A See also:

• MINT
• MINT (Lat. moneta; Mid. Eng. mynt)

mint-mark is a difference placed by the authorities of the mint upon all money struck by them, or upon each new die or See also:

• SEPARATE

separate issue . 3o . A coin is said to be " over-struck " or " re-struck " when it has been struck on an older coin, of which the types are not altogether obliterated . 31 . A See also:

• DOUBLE
• DOUBLE (from the Mid. Eng. duble, the form which gives the present pronunciation, through the Old Er. duble, from Lat. duplus, twice as much)

double-struck coin is one in which the die or dies have shifted so as to cause a double impression . 32 . A coin which presents two obverse types, or two reverse types, or of which the types of the obverse and reverse do not correspond, is called a See also:

• MULE (Lat. mulus)

mule; it is the result of See also:

• MISTAKE (i.e. take amiss)

mistake or caprice . Arrangement of Coins.—No See also:

• UNIFORM

uniform See also:

• SYSTEM

system has as yet been applied to the arrangement of all coins . It is usual to separate them into the three great classes of ancient coins (comprising Greek and Roman), medieval and modern, and Oriental coins . The details of these classes have been differently treated, both generally and specially . The arrangement of the Greek series has been first See also:

• GEOGRAPHICAL

geographical, under countries and towns, and then See also:

• CHRONOLOGICAL

chronological, for a further See also:

• DIVISION (from Lat. dividere, to break up into parts, separate)

division; that of the Roman series, chronological, without reference to geography; that of the medieval and modern, the same as the Greek; and that of the Oriental, like the Greek, but unsystematically—a treatment inadmissible except in the case of a single empire ..

Then, again, some numismatists have separated each See also:

• DENOMINATION (Lat. denominare, to give a specific name to)

denomination or each metal, or have separated the denominations of one metal and not of another . There has been no general and comprehensive system, constructed upon reasonable principles, and applicable to every branch of this complicated science . Without laying down a system of rules, or criticizing former modes of arrangement, we offer the following as a See also:

• CLASSIFICATION (Lat. classis, a class, probably from the root cal-, cla-, as in Gr. icaMce, clamor)

classification which is uniform without being servile . 1 . Greek Coins.—All coins of Greeks, or barbarians who adopted Greek money, struck before the Roman rule or under it, but without imperial See also:

• EFFIGIES, MONUMENTAL

effigies . The countries and their provinces are placed in a geographical See also:

• ORDER
• ORDER (through Fr. ordre, for earlier ordene, from Lat. ordo, ordinis, rank, service, arrangement; the ultimate source is generally taken to be the root seen in Lat. oriri, rise, arise, begin; cf. " origin ")
• ORDER, HOLY

order from See also:

• WEST
• WEST, BENJAMIN (1738-1820)
• WEST, NICHOLAS (1461-1533)

west to See also:

• EAST
• EAST, ALFRED (1849- )

east, according to the system of See also:

• ECKHEL, JOSEPH HILARIUS (1737-1798)

Eckhel, with the cities in alphabetical order under the provinces, and the kings in chronological order . The civic coins usually precede the regal, as being the more important . The coins are further arranged chronologically, the civic commencing with the See also:

• OLDEST

oldest and ending with those bearing the effigies of Roman emperors . The gold coins of each period take See also:

• PRECEDENCE (from Lat. praecedere, to go before, precede)

precedence of the silver and the silver of the copper . The larger denominations in each metal are placed before the smaller . Coins of the same denomination and period are arranged in the alphabetical order of the magistrates' names, or the letters, &c., that they bear . 2 .

Roman Coins.—All coins issued by the Roman commonwealth and empire, whether struck at See also:

• ROME
• ROME (Roma)

Rome or in the provinces . The arrangement is chronological, or, where this is better, under geographical divisions . 3 . Medieval and Modern Coins of Euwflk.—All coins issued by Christian See also:

• EUROPEAN

European states, their branches and colonies, from the fall of the empire of the West to the present day . This class is arranged in a geographical and chronological order, as similar as possible to that of the Greek class, with the important exception of the Byzantine coins and the coins following Byzantine systems, which occupy the first place . The See also:

• REASON (Lat. ratio, through French raison)

reason for this deviation is that the Byzantine money may be regarded not only as the principal source of medieval coinage but as the most complete and important medieval series, extending as it does without a break throughout the middle ages . The regal coins usually precede the civic ones, as being the more important . The medals of each nation should be arranged in two series: (I) medais of rulers, according to their See also:

• DATES

dates; (2) medals of private persons, as far as possible according to the artists . 4 . Oriental Coins.—All coins bearing inscriptions in Eastern See also:

• LANGUAGES

languages, excepting those of the See also:

• JEWS
• JEWS (Heb. Y8hudi, man of Judah; Gr. 'Iovbaiot; Lat. Judaei)

Jews, Phoenicians and Carthaginians, which are classed with the Greek coins from their See also:

• CLOSE
• CLOSE (from Lat. clausum, shut)
• CLOSE, MAXWELL HENRY (1822-1903)

close connexion with them . These coins should be arranged under the following divisions: Ancient See also:

• PERSIAN
• PERSIAN, SYRIAN, EGYPTIAN AND TURKISH

Persian, Arab, Modern Persian, Indian, See also:

• CHINESE, JAPANESE AND

Chinese and coins of the Far East . This method of arrangement will be found to be as uniform as it can be made, without being absolutely See also:

• MECHANICAL

mechanical .

It differs in some important particulars from most or all of those which have previously obtained; but these very See also:

• DIFFERENCES, CALCULUS OF (Theory of Finite Differences)

differences are the result of the See also:

• CONSIDERATION (from Lat. considerare, to look at closely, examine, generally taken to be from con-, and the base seen in sidus, sideris, a star, the word being supposed to be originally an astrological or astronomical term)

consideration of a complete collection, and have therefore an inductive origin . A general uniformity is no slight gain, and may well reconcile us to some partial defects . I . GREEK COINS There are some matters See also:

• RELATING

relating to Greek coins in general which may be properly considered before they are described in geographical order . These are their general character, the See also:

• CHIEF (from Fr. chef, head, Lat. caput)

chief denominations, with the different talents of which they were the divisions, their devices and inscriptions, their art, and the mode of striking . The period during which Greek coins were issued was probably not much less than a thousand years, commencing about the beginning of the 7th century B.C. and generally ending at the death of See also:

• GALLIENUS, PUBLIUS LICINIUS EGNATIUS

Gallienus (A.D . 268) . If classed with reference only to their form, fabric, and general See also:

• APPEARANCE (from Lat. apparere, to appear)

appearance they are of three principal types—the archaic Greek, the See also:

• ORDINARY (med. Lat. ordinarius, Fr. ordinaire)

ordinary Greek, and the Graeco-Roman . The coins of the first class are of silver, electrum and sometimes gold . They are thick lumps of an irregular See also:

• ROUND (O. Fr. rond, Lat. rotundus, the Fr. is the source also of Du. rond; Ger., Swed., Dan. and Nor. rond)

round form, bearing on the obverse a device, with in some cases an accompanying inscription, and on the reverse a square or oblong incuse See also:

• STAMP (from " to stamp," to strike or tread heavily, hence to impress, O. Eng. stempen, Du. stampen, Ger. stampfen, whence, O. Fr. estamper, mod. etamper)

stamp (quadratum incusum), usually divided in a See also:

• RUDE, FRANCOIS (1784–1855)

rude manner . The coins of the second class are of gold, electrum, silver and bronze . They are much thinner than those of the preceding class, and usually have a convex obverse and a slightly See also:

• CONCAVE

concave or See also:

• FLAT (a modification of O. Eng. flet, an obsolete word of Teutonic origin, meaning the ground beneath the feet)

flat reverse .

The obverse ordinarily bears a head in bold See also:

• RELIEF

relief . The coins of the third class are, with very few exceptions, of bronze . They are flat and broad, but thin, and generally have on the obverse the portrait of a Roman See also:

• EMPEROR (Fr. empereur, from the Lat. imperator)

emperor . Many Greek cities, however, during the empire issued quasi-autonomous coins bearing the head of some deity or personification . Greek coins thus fail mainly into the classes of autonomous, quasi-autonomous and imperial . The coinage of Roman colonies in Greek as in other lands is usually distinguished by Latin inscriptions . Since Greek coinage originated in Asia Minor, the coins were ad- sted to the weight-systems there in use, and these go back to a Buabylonian origin . But it is possible that some of the Mone See also:

• STANDARD
• STANDARD, BATTLE OF THE

standard of Greece proper had a native origin . The unit systems of weight in the East was the See also:

• SHEKEL (from Heb. shakal, to weigh)

shekel (siglos) . This was See also:

• ALB (Lat. alba, from albus, white)

alb of the manah (See also:

• MINA, FRANCISCO ESPOZ Y (1781-1836)

mina, mna), and this of the See also:

• TALENT (Lat. talentum, adaptation of Gr. TaXavrov, balance, ! Recollections of a First Visit to the Alps (1841); Vacation Rambles weight, from root raX-, to lift, as in rXi vac, to bear, 1-aXas, and Thoughts, comprising recollections of three Continental

talent (talanton) . This See also:

• SCALE
• SCALE (1) A

scale the Greeks modified, in that, starting from the siglos as unit, they invented a money-mina of 5o sigli, with a money-talent of 6o minae or 3000 sigli . The siglos-See also:

• UNITS, DIMENSIONS OF
• UNITS, PHYSICAL

units (and corresponding See also:

• STANDARDS

standards) chiefly employed in Asia Minor were the following (the relation between gold and silver at the time of the invention of these units seems to have been 131:1) : Gold shekel, 8.4o grammes .

Phoenician silver shekel, 7.44 g . ='6 of 111.72 g. of silver, which was equivalent to 8.4 g. of gold . Babylonian or Persic silver shekel, 11.17 g . =ylp of 11I.72 g. of silver, which was equivalent to 8.4 g. of gold . Thus one gold shekel was the equivalent of 15 Phoenician or Io Babylonian silver shekels . Side by side with this system was another in which the weights were exactly double of those just given; a shekel of the heavier system might be regarded as a double shekel of the lighter . Various Babylonian weights are extant, dating from 2000 B.C. downwards, which prove the existence of minae of the two systems . The gold shekel standard was almost invariably used for gold coins, sometimes also for electrum . The Babylonian and Phoenician standards were also sometimes used for gold or electrum as well as silver . A weight more or less approaching that of the gold shekel or its multiples seems to have been usual all over the civilized world in Greek times; e.g. the Phocaean standard of 16.52 g. was but a modification of it . But for silver in Greece proper, from a very early period, the following standards prevailed: the Aeginetic (unit, didrachm or stater, of 12.6 g.) and the Euboic-See also:

• ATTIC (i.e. "in the Attic style ")

Attic (stater of 8.72 g.), with its modification the Corinthian . The Euboic-Attic standard attained enormous importance owing to the spread of Athenian See also:

• TRADE (O. Eng. trod, footstep, from tredan, to tread; in M. Eng. the forms teed, trod and trade appear, the last in the sense of a beaten track)
• TRADE, BOARD OF

trade and the See also:

• ADOPTION (Lat. adoptio, for adoptalio, from adoptare, to choose for oneself)

adoption of the weight by Alexander of Macedon .

It was used for both gold and silver . The Corinthian standard differed only in its divisional system, the stater being divided into thirds instead of halves . From it were derived some of the standards in use among the Greeks of S . Italy . Other standards of more local importance were : the Campanian, used in a large part of S . Italy (didrachm originally of 7.41 g., afterwards reduced), and perhaps derived from 872 the Phoenician; the Rhodian (instituted about 400 B.c., tetra-drachm about 15 g.) ; and the cistophoric (from about 200 B.C., with a tetradrachm of about 12.73 g.) . Denomina- The following table exhibits the weights in grammes boas. of the principal denominations of the Greek systems The term stater is usually applied to the didrachm, but also to the tetradrachm, and at See also:

• CYRENE [mod. Ain Shahat-Grenna]

Cyrene to the drachm . The bronze standards have been less fully discussed . Some notice of them will be given under different geographical heads . In the types of Greek coins (using the term in its restricted sense) the first intention of the designers was to indicate the city or state by Types, which the money was issued . The See also:

• NECESSITY (Lat. necessitas)

necessity for distinctive devices was most strongly See also:

• FELT (cognate with Ger. Filz, Du. vilt, Swed. and Dan. fill; the root is unknown; the word has given Med. Lat. filtrum, " filter ")

felt in the earlier days of the art, when the obverse of a coin alone See also:

• BORE

bore a design, and, if any inscription, only the first letter, or the first few letters, of the name of the See also:

• PEOPLE

people by whom it was issued . Whatever may have been the See also:

• ORIGINAL

original significance of the type in itself, religious or otherwise, it was adopted for the coinage—at least in the earliest times—because it was the badge by which the issuing authority was recognized .

It was only with the increased complexity of the denominations in later times, when new distinguishing types had to be found, that—as in the 4th century B.c.—the religious See also:

• MOTIVE (from Lat. movere, to move)

motive in the choice of types came deliberately into See also:

• PLAY

play . Greek coins, if arranged according to their types, fall into three classes: (I) civic coins, and regal without portraits of sovereigns; (2) regal coins bearing portraits; and (3) Graecoclasses . Roman coins, whether with imperial heads or not . The coins of the first class have either a device on the obverse and the quadratum incusum on the reverse, or two devices; and these last are again either independent of each other, though connected by being both local, or—and this is more common—that on the reverse is a kind of See also:

• COMPLEMENT (Lat. complementum, from complere, to fill up)

complement of that on the obverse . It will be best first to describe the character of the principal kinds of types of the first class, and then to notice their relation . It must be noted that a head or bust is usually an obverse type, and a figure or See also:

• GROUP

group a reverse one, and that, when there is a head on both obverse and reverse, that on the former is usually larger than the other, and represents the personage locally considered to be the more important of the'two . We must constantly bear in mind that these types are local if we would understand their meaning . In the following See also:

• LIST (O.E. lisle, a Teutonic word, cf. Dut. lust, Ger. Leiste, adapted in Ital. lista and Fr. lisle)
• LIST, FRIEDRICH (1789-1846)

list the types of Greek coins of cities, and of kings, not having regal portraits, are classed in a systematic order, without reference to their relative antiquity . 1 . Head or figure of a divinity worshipped at the town, or by the people, which issued the coin, as the head of See also:

• ATHENA (the Attic form of the Homeric Athene, also called Athenaia, Pallas Athene, Pallas)

Athena on coins of See also:

• ATHENS
• ATHENS ['AN vat, Athenae, modem colloquial Greek `Ath va]

Athens, and the figure of Heracles on coins of Boeotian See also:

• THEBES (anciently &Oat, Thebae, or in poetry sometimes Oif3a, in modern Greek Phiva, or, according to the corrected pronunciation, Thivae)
• THEBES (e 3a1)
• THEBES, ROMANCE OF

Thebes . See also:

• GROUPS
• GROUPS, THEORY

Groups are rare until the period of Graeco-Roman coinage . 2 .

Natural or artificial objects—(a) See also:

• ANIMAL
• ANIMAL (Lat. animalis, from anima, breath, soul)

animal, often sacred to a divinity of the place, as the See also:

• OWL (O. Eng. Ule, Swed. Uggla, Ger. Eule—all allied to Lat. Ulula, and evidently of imitative origin)

owl (Athens) and perhaps the See also:

• TORTOISE

tortoise (See also:

• AEGINA
• AEGINA (EGINA or ENGIA)

Aegina); (b) See also:

• TREE (0. Eng. treo, treow, cf. Dan. tree, Swed. Odd, tree, trd, timber; allied forms are found in Russ. drevo, Gr. opus, oak, and 36pv, spear, Welsh derw, Irish darog, oak, and Skr. dare, wood)
• TREE, SIR HERBERT BEERBOHM (1853- )

tree or plant, as the silphium (Cyrene) and the See also:

• OLIVE (Olea europaea)

olive-branch (Athens); (c) arms or implements of divinities, as the arms of Heracles (See also:

• ERYTHRAE [mod. Litri]

Erythrae), the See also:

• TONGS (O. Eng. Lange, M. Eng. tonge, cf. Du. tang, Ger. Zange, from base tang, to bite, cf. Gr. SaKVeiv)

tongs of See also:

• VULCAN (Volcanos)

Vulcan (See also:

• AESERNIA (mod. Isernia)

Aesernia) . It is difficult to connect many objects comprised in this class with local divinities . Some of them, as the See also:

• TUNNY (Thunnus thynnus)

tunny at See also:

• CYZICUS

Cyzicus, are doubtless only so connected because the chief See also:

• INDUSTRY (Lat. industria, from indu-