See also:

• WILLIAM
• WILLIAM (1143-1214)
• WILLIAM (1227-1256)
• WILLIAM (1J33-1584)
• WILLIAM (A.S. Wilhelm, O. Norse Vilhidlmr; O. H. Ger. Willahelm, Willahalm, M. H. Ger. Willehelm, Willehalm, Mod.Ger. Wilhelm; Du. Willem; O. Fr. Villalme, Mod. Fr. Guillaume; from " will," Goth. vilja, and " helm," Goth. hilms, Old Norse hidlmr, meaning
• WILLIAM (c. 1130-C. 1190)
• WILLIAM, 13TH

WILLIAM OF See also:

• WILLIAM OF OCCAM (d. c. 1349)

OCCAM (d. c. 1349)  , See also:

• ENGLISH

English schoolman, known as See also:

• DOCTOR (Lat. for " teacher ")

Doctor invincibilis and Venerabilis inceptor, was See also:

• BORN, IGNAZ, EDLER VON (1742–1791)

born in the See also:

• VILLAGE

village of Ockham, See also:

• SURREY
• SURREY, EARLDOM OF
• SURREY, HENRY HOWARD, EARL OF (1518?-1547)

Surrey, towards the end of the 13th See also:

• CENTURY (from Lat. centuria, a division of a hundred men)

century . Unattested tradition says that the See also:

• FRANCISCANS (otherwise called Friars Minor, or Minorites; also the Seraphic Order ; and in England Grey Friars, from the colour of the habit, which, however, is now brown rather than grey)

Franciscans persuaded him while yet a boy to enter their See also:

• ORDER
• ORDER (through Fr. ordre, for earlier ordene, from Lat. ordo, ordinis, rank, service, arrangement; the ultimate source is generally taken to be the root seen in Lat. oriri, rise, arise, begin; cf. " origin ")
• ORDER, HOLY

order, sent him to Merton See also:

• COLLEGE (Collegium)

College, See also:

• OXFORD
• OXFORD, EARLS OF
• OXFORD, EDWARD DE VERE, 17TH EARL
• OXFORD, JOHN DE VERE, 13TH EARL OF (1443-1513)
• OXFORD, PROVISIONS OF
• OXFORD, ROBERT DE VERE, 9TH EARL OF (1362-1392)
• OXFORD, ROBERT HARLEY, 1ST

Oxford (see G . C . Brodrick, Memorials of Merton College, p . 194), and to See also:

• PARIS
• PARIS (also called ALEXANDROS)
• PARIS, ALEXIS PAULIN (1800-x881)
• PARIS, BRUNO PAULIN GASTON (1839-1903)
• PARIS, FRANCOIS DE (169o-1727)
• PARIS, LOUIS PHILIPPE ALBERT
• PARIS, TREATIES OF (1814-1815)

Paris, where he was first the See also:

• PUPIL (Lat. pupillus, orphan, minor, dim. of pupus, boy, allied to puer, from root pm- or peu-, to beget, cf. "pupa," Lat. for " doll," the name given to the stage intervening between the larval and imaginal stages in certain insects)

pupil, afterwards the successful See also:

• RIVAL

rival, of See also:

• DUNS

Duns Scotus . He probably See also:

• LEFT

left See also:

• FRANCE
• FRANCE, ANATOLE (1844– )

France about 1314, and there are obscure traces of his presence in See also:

• GERMANY
• GERMANY (Ger. Deutschland)

Germany, in See also:

• ITALY
• ITALY (Italia)

Italy, and in See also:

• ENGLAND
• ENGLAND, THE CHURCH OF

England during the following seven years . It has generally been held that in 1322 he appeared as the provincial of England at the celebrated See also:

• ASSEMBLY, UNLAWFUL

assembly of the Franciscan order at See also:

• PERUGIA (anc. Perusia)

Perugia, and that there he headed the revolt of the Franciscans against Rene See also:

• JOHN
• JOHN (1167–1216)
• JOHN (1290-c. 1320)
• JOHN (1296-1346)
• JOHN (1371–1419)
• JOHN (1468-1532)
• JOHN (1801-1873)
• JOHN (Heb. llni')
• JOHN (ZAPOLYA) (1487-1540)
• JOHN, 4TH MARQUESS OF TWEEDDALE (c. 1695-1762)
• JOHN, DON (1545-1578)
• JOHN, DON (1629–1679)
• JOHN, GOSPEL OF ST
• JOHN, or HAYS (1513–1571)
• JOHN, THE APOSTLE
• JOHN, THE EPISTLES OF

John XXIL; but, according to Little (English See also:

• HISTORICAL

Historical Revi,av, vi . 747), the provincial See also:

• MINISTER (Lat. minister, servant)

minister on this occasion was See also:

• WILLIAM
• WILLIAM (1143-1214)
• WILLIAM (1227-1256)
• WILLIAM (1J33-1584)
• WILLIAM (A.S. Wilhelm, O. Norse Vilhidlmr; O. H. Ger. Willahelm, Willahalm, M. H. Ger. Willehelm, Willehalm, Mod.Ger. Wilhelm; Du. Willem; O. Fr. Villalme, Mod. Fr. Guillaume; from " will," Goth. vilja, and " helm," Goth. hilms, Old Norse hidlmr, meaning
• WILLIAM (c. 1130-C. 1190)
• WILLIAM, 13TH

William of See also:

• NOTTINGHAM
• NOTTINGHAM, CHARLES HOWARD, 1ST EARL OF1 (1536-1624)
• NOTTINGHAM, EARLS OF

Nottingham . Probably, however, See also:

• OCCAM, WILLIAM OF (d. c. 1349)

Occam was See also:

• PRESENT

present at the assembly . His See also:

• SHARE (O. Eng. scearu, chiefly in compounds, e.g. land-scearu, a share of land, from sceran to cut; cf. " shear" )

share in this revolt resulted in his imprisonment, on the See also:

• CHARGE
• CHARGE (through the Fr. from the Late Lat. carricare, to load in a carrus or wagon; cf. " cargo ")

charge of See also:

• HERESY

heresy, for seventeen See also:

• WEEKS, EDWIN LORD (1849-1903)

weeks in the dungeons of the papal See also:

• PALACE (Lat. Palatium, the name given by Augustus to his residence on the Palatine Hill)

palace at See also:

• AVIGNON

Avignon . He and his companions —See also:

• MICHAEL
• MICHAEL (1596-1645)
• MICHAEL (Hebrew Sn,q, " Who is like God? ")

Michael of See also:

• CESENA (anc. Caesena)

Cesena, See also:

• GENERAL
• GENERAL (Lat. generalis, of or relating to a genus, kind or class)

general of the order, and Bonagratiamanaged to See also:

• ESCAPE (in mid. Eng. eschape or escape, from the O. Fr. eschapper, modern echapper, and escaper, low Lat. escapium, from ex, out of, and cappa, cape, cloak; cf. for the sense development the Gr. iichueoOat, literally to put off one's clothes, hence to sli

escape, and found their way to See also:

• MUNICH (Ger. Munchen)

Munich, where they aided See also:

• LOUIS
• LOUIS (804–876)
• LOUIS (893–911)
• LOUIS, JOSEPH DOMINIQUE, BARON (1755-1837)
• LOUIS, or LEWIS (from the Frankish Chlodowich, Chlodwig, Latinized as Chlodowius, Lodhuwicus, Lodhuvicus, whence-in the Strassburg oath of 842-0. Fr. Lodhuwigs, then Chlovis, Loys and later Louis, whence Span. Luiz and—through the Angevin kings—Hungarian

Louis IV. or V . (q.v.) of See also:

• BAVARIA (Ger. Bayern)

Bavaria in his See also:

• LONG, GEORGE (1800-1879)
• LONG, JOHN DAVIS (1838– )

long contest with the papal See also:

• CURIA

curia .

It was for Occam's share in this controversy that he was best known in his lifetime . Michael of Cesena died in 1342, and Occam, who had received from him the See also:

• OFFICIAL (Late Lat. QJicialis, for class. Lat. apparitor, from officium, office, duty)

official See also:

• SEAL
• SEAL, FUR
• SEAL, HAIR

seal of the order, was recognized as general by his party . The date of his See also:

• DEATH

death and the See also:

• PLACE (through Fr. from Lat. platea, street; Gr. IrAar6s, wide)

place of his See also:

• BURIAL

burial are both uncertain . He probably died at Munich in 1349 . William of Occam was the most prominent intellectual See also:

• LEADER, BENJAMIN WILLIAMS (1831– )

leader in an See also:

• AGE (Fr. age, through late Lat. aetaticum, from aetas)

age which witnessed the disintegration of the old scholastic See also:

• REALISM (from Low Lat. realis, appertaining to res, things, as opposed to ideas and imaginations)

realism, the rise of the theological See also:

• SCEPTICISM (o-Kesrroµai, I consider, reflect, hesitate, doubt)

scepticism of the later See also:

• MIDDLE

middle ages, the See also:

• GREAT

great contest between See also:

• POPE (Gr. irarraas, post-classical Lat. papa, father)
• POPE, ALEXANDER (1688–1744)
• POPE, ALEXANDER (1763-1835)
• POPE, JANE (1742-1818)
• POPE, JOHN (1822-1892)
• POPE, SIR THOMAS (c. 1507-1559)

pope and See also:

• EMPEROR (Fr. empereur, from the Lat. imperator)

emperor which laid the See also:

• FOUNDATIONS

foundations of See also:

• MODERN

modern theories of See also:

• GOVERNMENT
• GOVERNMENT (0. Fr. governement, mod. gouvernement, O. Fr. governer, mod. gouverner, from Lat. gubernare, to steer a ship, guide, rule; cf. Gr. xv(3epvav)

government, and the See also:

• QUARREL

quarrel between the See also:

• ROMAN

Roman curia and the Franciscans which showed the long-concealed antagonism between the theories of See also:

• HILDEBRAND, LAY OF (Deis Hildebrandslied)

Hildebrand and See also:

• FRANCIS
• FRANCIS (FRarrcols) OF SALES, ST (1567-1622)
• FRANCIS (Lat. Franciscus, Ital. Francesco, Span. Francisco, Fr. Francois, Ger. Franz)
• FRANCIS, SIR PHILIP (174o-1818)

Francis of See also:

• ASSISI (anc. Asisium)

Assisi; and he shared in all these movements . The See also:

• COMMON

common See also:

• ACCOUNT
• ACCOUNT (through O. Fr. acont, Late Lat. comptum, cornputare, to calculate)

account of his philosophical position, that he reintroduced See also:

• NOMINALISM (from Lat. nomen, name)

nominalism, which had been in decadence since the days of See also:

• ROSCELLINUS (RUCELINrus, or ROUSSELIN) (c. 1050–c. 1122)

Roscellinus and See also:

• ABELARD, PETER (1079-1142)

Abelard, by teaching that universals were only flatus vocis, is scarcely correct . The expression is nowhere found in his writings . He revived nominalism by See also:

• COLLECTING

collecting and uniting isolated opinions upon the meaning of universals into a compact See also:

• SYSTEM

system, and popularized his views by associating them with the logical principles which were in his See also:

• DAY (O. Eng. dreg, Ger. Tag; according to the New English Dictionary, " in no way related to the Lat. dies")
• DAY, JOHN (1574-1640?)
• DAY, THOMAS (1748-1789)

day commonly taught in the See also:

• UNIVERSITIES

universities . He linked the doctrines of nominalism on to the principles of the See also:

• LOGIC (Xoy1K7, sc. rixvrt, the art of reasoning)

logic of See also:

• PSELLUS (Gr.'I' XXor)

Psellus, which had been introduced into the See also:

• WEST
• WEST, BENJAMIN (1738-1820)
• WEST, NICHOLAS (1461-1533)

West in the Summulae of See also:

• PETER
• PETER (Lat. Petrus from Gr. irfpos, a rock, Ital. Pietro, Piero, Pier, Fr. Pierre, Span. Pedro, Ger. Peter, Russ. Petr)
• PETER (PEDRO)
• PETER, EPISTLES OF
• PETER, ST

Peter of See also:

• SPAIN
• SPAIN (Espana)

Spain, and made them intelligible to common under-standings . The fundamental principles of his system (see See also:

• SCHOLASTICISM

SCHOLASTICISM) are that " Essentia non sunt multiplicanda praeter necessitatem " (" Occam's See also:

• RAZOR (O.F. razor, mod. rasoir, from racer, to scrape, rase, Late Lat. rasare, frequentative of radere, to scrape)

Razor "), that nouns, like algebraical symbols, are merely denotative terms whose meaning is conventionally agreed upon (suppositio), and that the destructive effect of these principles in theological matters does not in any way destroy faith (see the Centilogium Theologicum, See also:

• LYONS
• LYONS (Fr. Lyon)
• LYONS, COUNCILS OF
• LYONS, EDMUND LYONS, BARON (1790-1858)
• LYONS, RICHARD BICKERTON PEMELL LYONS, 1ST EARL (1817–1887)

Lyons, 1495, and Tractatus de See also:

• SACRAMENTO

Sacramento Altaris) . In the See also:

• OPUS ('O7rois)

Opus nonaginta dierum (1330) (written in reply to John XXII.'s libellus against Michael of Cesena), and in its successors, the Tractatus de dogmatibus Johannis XXII. papae (1333—1334), the Compendium errorum Johannis XXII. papae (1335—1338) and in the Defensorium contra errores Johannis XXII. papae (1335—1339), Occam only incidentally expounds his views as a publicist; the books are mainly, some of them entirely, theological, but they served the purpose of the emperor and of his party, because they cut at the See also:

• ROOT (late O.E. rot, adopted from Scand., cf. Norw. and Swed. rot, Dan. rod; the true O.E. word was wyrt, plant, represented in Ger. Wurz or Wurzel; the ultimate root is the same in both words, and is seen in Lat. radix)
• ROOT, ELIHU (1845– )

root of the spiritual as well as of the temporal. supremacy of the pope . In his See also:

• WRITING
• WRITING (the verbal noun of " to write," O. Eng. writan, to inscribe)

writing Super potestate summi pontccis octo quaestionum decisiones (1339—1342) Occam attacks the temporal supremacy of the pope, insists on the See also:

• INDEPENDENCE
• INDEPENDENCE, DECLARATION OF
• INDEPENDENCE, WAR OF

independence of kingly authority, which he maintains is as much an See also:

• ORDINANCE
• ORDINANCE, or ORDONNANCE

ordinance of See also:

• GOD

God as is spiritual See also:

• RULE

rule, and discusses what is meant by the See also:

• STATE
• STATE, GREAT OFFICERS OF

state .

His views on the independence of See also:

• CIVIL

civil rule were even more decidedly expressed in the Tractatus de jurisdictione imperatoris in causis matrimonialibus, in which, in spite of the See also:

• MEDIEVAL

medieval See also:

• IDEA (Gr. Ibia, connected with i&eiv, to see; cf. Lat. species from specere, to look at)

idea that See also:

• MATRIMONY (Lat. matrimonium, marriage, which is the ordinary English sense)

matrimony is a See also:

• SACRAMENT

sacrament, he demands that it belongs to the civil See also:

• POWER [WILLIAM GRATTAN] TYRONE (1797-1841)

power to decide cases of See also:

• AFFINITY (Lat. affinitas, relationship by marriage, from offinis, bordering on, related to; finis, border, boundary)
• AFFINITY, CHEMICAL

affinity and to state the prohibited degrees . By 1343 there was in circulation his great See also:

• WORK

work the Dialogus (see Goldast ii . 398-957), in which he attempted to present his views in a See also:

• COMPLETE

complete See also:

• SUMMARY

summary . It consists of three parts . The first is the De fautoribus hereticorum, and deals with the pope as arbiter in the See also:

• MATTER

matter of heresy . The second See also:

• PART

part is the refutation of the doctrines of John XXII . (see above See also:

• TREATISES

treatises) . The third was to be in nine sections, of which the first and second sections alone remain to us . It is probable that the Opus nonaginta dierum and the Compendium errorum were intended to See also:

• FORM (Lat. forma)

form part of the work . His last work, De Electione Caroli IV., restates his opinions upon temporal authority and adds little that is new . In all his writings against Pope John XXII . (q.v.), Occam inveighs against the pope's opinions and decisions on the value of the See also:

• LIFE

life of poverty .

The Compendium errorum selects four papal constitutions which involved a See also:

• DECLARATION (from Lat. declarare, to make fully clear, clams)

declaration against evangelical poverty, and insists th t they are full of heresy . Occam was a sincere Franciscan, and believed with his See also:

• MASTER (Lat. magister, related to tnagis, more, as the corresponding minister is to minus, less; the English form is due partly to the O. Eng. maegister, and partly to O. Fr. maistre, mod. maitre; cf. Du. meester, Ger. Meister, Ital. maestro)

master that salvation was won through rigid See also:

• IMITATION (Lat. imitatio, from intitari, to imitate)

imitation of Jesus in His poverty and obedience, and up to his days it had always been possible for Franciscans to follow the rules of their founder within his order . John XXII., however, condemned the See also:

• DOCTRINE

doctrine and excommunicated its supporters, some of whom were so convinced of the See also:

• NECESSITY (Lat. necessitas)

necessity of evangelical poverty for a truly See also:

• CHRISTIAN
• CHRISTIAN, WILLIAM (1608-1663)

Christian life that they denounced the pope when he refused them leave to practise it as See also:

• ANTICHRIST (avrixpu ros)

Antichrist . After Occam's days the opinions of Francis prevailed in many quarters, but the genuine Franciscans had no place within the See also:

• CHURCH
• CHURCH (according to most authorities derived from the Gr. Kvpcaxov [&wµa], " the Lord's [house]," and common to many Teutonic, Slavonic and other languages under various forms—Scottish kirk, Ger. Kirche, Swed. kirka, Dan. kirke, Russ. tserkov, Buig. cerk
• CHURCH, FREDERICK EDWIN (1826-1900)
• CHURCH, GEORGE EARL (1835–1910)
• CHURCH, RICHARD WILLIAM (1815–189o)
• CHURCH, SIR RICHARD (1784–1873)

church . They were See also:

• FRATICELLI (plural diminutive of Ital. frate, brother)

Fraticelli, Beghards, See also:

• LOLLARDS

Lollards or other confraternities unrecognized by the church and in steady opposition to her government . Beside the theological and See also:

• POLITICAL

political See also:

• WORKS

works above quoted, Occamwrote Summa Logices (Paris, 1488, Oxford, 1675) commentaries on See also:

• PORPHYRY (IlopcPisptos) (A.D. 233-c. 304)

Porphyry's Isagoge, on the Categoriae, De Inter pretatione and Elenchi of See also:

• ARISTOTLE
• ARISTOTLE (384-322 B.C.)

Aristotle . These latter were printed in 1496 at See also:

• BOLOGNA
• BOLOGNA, GIOVANNI DA (1524–1608)

Bologna, and entitled Expositio Aurea super totam artemveterem; Quaestiones in quattuor libros sententiarum (Lyons, 1495) . There is no See also:

• GOOD, JOHN MASON (1764-1827)

good monograph on Occam . For an account of his logic, see Prantl, Geschichte der Logik (1855—187o) ; for his See also:

• PHILOSOPHY (Gr. gthos, fond of, and vo4 (a, wisdom)

philosophy, see Stoekl, Geschichte der Philosophie See also:

• DES

des Mittelalters (1864—1866), vol. ii., for his publicist writings, see Riezler, See also:

• DIE
• DIE (Fr. de, from Lat. datum, given)

Die lilerarischen Widersacher der Pei pste zur Zeit See also:

• LUDWIG, KARL FRIEDRICH WILHELM (1816—1895)
• LUDWIG, OTTO (1813-1865)

Ludwig des Baiers (1874) . See also T . M See also:

• LINDSAY

Lindsay's See also:

• ARTICLE (from Lat. articulus, a joint)

article on " Occam and his connexion with the See also:

• REFORMATION
• REFORMATION, THE

Reformation," in the Brit . Quart .

See also:

• REVIEW (Fr. revue, from revoir, to see again, Lat. re and videre)

Review (See also:

• JULY

July, 1872) . Among See also:

• ANCIENT
• ANCIENT (also spelt ANTIENT; derived, through the Fr. ancien, old, from the late Lat. antianum, from ante, before)

ancient documents consult Denifle and See also:

• CHATELAIN (Med. Lat. castellanus, from castellum, a castle)

Chatelain's Chartularium Universitatis Parisiensis, vol. ii. pt. i . (Paris, 1887) ; See also:

• WADDING, LUKE (1588–1657)

Wadding's Annales Minorum (ed . See also:

• FONSECA, AMAPALA
• FONSECA, MANOEL DEODORO DA (1827-1892)

Fonseca, vols . 7 and 8, See also:

• ROME
• ROME (Roma)

Rome, 1733) . For a See also:

• LIST (O.E. lisle, a Teutonic word, cf. Dut. lust, Ger. Leiste, adapted in Ital. lista and Fr. lisle)
• LIST, FRIEDRICH (1789-1846)

list of Occam's works, see Little's See also:

• GREY, CHARLES GREY, 2ND EARL (1764-1845)
• GREY, HENRY GREY, 3RD EARL (1802-1894)
• GREY, LADY JANE (1537-1554)
• GREY, SIR EDWARD
• GREY, SIR GEORGE (1812–1898)

Grey Friars, pp . 225-234 . (T . M .