OFFICERS  . Historically the employment of the word " officer " to denote a See also:

• PERSON, OFFENCES AGAINST THE

person holding a military or See also:

• NAVAL

naval command as representative of the See also:

• STATE
• STATE, GREAT OFFICERS OF

state, and not as deriving his authority from his own See also:

• POWERS, HIRAM (1805-1873)

powers or privileges, marks an entire See also:

• CHANGE (derived through the Fr. from the Late Lat. cambium, cambiare, to barter; the ultimate derivation is probably from the root which appears in the Gr. «a urmu', to bend)

change in the See also:

• CHARACTER (Gr. xapareri7p, from xap&crew, to scratch)

character of the armed forces of civilized nations . Originally signifying an See also:

• OFFICIAL (Late Lat. QJicialis, for class. Lat. apparitor, from officium, office, duty)

official, one who performs an assigned See also:

• DUTY (from " due," that which is owing, O. Fr. deu, dil, past participle of devoir; Lat. debere, debitum; cf. " debt ")

duty (See also:

• LAT

Lat. officium), an See also:

• AGENT (from Lat. agere, to act)

agent, and in the 15th See also:

• CENTURY (from Lat. centuria, a division of a hundred men)

century actually meaning the subordinate of such an official (even to-See also:

• DAY (O. Eng. dreg, Ger. Tag; according to the New English Dictionary, " in no way related to the Lat. dies")
• DAY, JOHN (1574-1640?)
• DAY, THOMAS (1748-1789)

day a See also:

• CONSTABLE (0. Fr. connestable, Fr. connetable, Med. Lat. comestabilis, conestabilis, constabularius, from the Lat. comes stabuli, count of the stable)
• CONSTABLE, ARCHIBALD (1774-1827)
• CONSTABLE, HENRY (1562-1613)
• CONSTABLE, JOHN (1776-1837)
• CONSTABLE, SIR MARMADUKE (c. 1455-1518)

constable is so called), the word seems to have acquired a military significance See also:

• LATE

late in the 16th century ? It was at this See also:

• TIME (0. Eng. Lima, cf. Icel. timi, Swed. timme, hour, Dan. time; from the root also seen in " tide," properly the time of between the flow and ebb of the sea, cf. O. Eng. getidan, to happen, " even-tide," &c.; it is not directly related to Lat. tempus)
• TIME, MEASUREMENT OF
• TIME, STANDARD

time that armies, though not yet " See also:

• STANDING

standing," came to be constituted almost exclusively of professional soldiers in the See also:

• KING
• KING (O. Eng. cyning, abbreviated into cyng, cing; cf. O. H. G. chun- kuning, chun- kunig, M.H.G. kiinic, kiinec, kiinc, Mod. Ger. Konig, O. Norse konungr, kongr, Swed. konung, kung)
• KING [OF OCKHAM], PETER KING, 1ST BARON (1669-1734)
• KING, CHARLES WILLIAM (1818-1888)
• KING, CLARENCE (1842–1901)
• KING, EDWARD (1612–1637)
• KING, EDWARD (1829–1910)
• KING, HENRY (1591-1669)
• KING, RUFUS (1755–1827)
• KING, THOMAS (1730–1805)
• KING, WILLIAM (1650-1729)
• KING, WILLIAM (1663–1712)

king's pay . Mercenaries, and See also:

• GREAT

great See also:

• NUMBERS, BOOK OF
• NUMBERS, PARTITION OF

numbers of mercenaries, had always existed, and their captains were not feudal magnates . But the See also:

• BOND
• BOND, SIR EDWARD AUGUSTUS (1815-1898)

bond between mercenaries and their captains was entirely See also:

• PERSONAL

personal, and the bond between the See also:

• CAPTAIN (derived from Lat. ca put, head, through the Low Lat. capitanus)

captain and the See also:

• SOVEREIGN

sovereign was of the nature of a See also:

• CONTRACT
• CONTRACT (Lat. contract us, from contrahere, to draw together, to bind)

contract . The non-See also:

• MERCENARY (Lat. mercenarius, from merces, reward, gain)

mercenary portion of the older armies was feudal in character . It was the See also:

• LORD
• LORD (O. Eng. hldford, i.e. hldfweard, the warder or keeper of bread, hlIf, loaf; the word is not represented in any other Teutonic language)
• LORD, JOHN (1810-1894)

lord and not a king's officer who commanded it, and he commanded in virtue of his rights, not of a See also:

• WARRANT (Med. Lat. warantum; O. Fr. garant, warant, derived from O.H.G. root represented in modern German bygewdhren)

warrant or See also:

• COMMISSION (from Lat. commissio, committere)

commission . See also:

• EUROPEAN

European See also:

• HISTORY

history in the late 15th century is the See also:

• STORY, JOHN (c. 1510-1571)
• STORY, JOSEPH (1779-1845)
• STORY, ROBERT HERBERT (1835-1907)
• STORY, WILLIAM WETMORE (1819—1895)

story of the victory of the See also:

• CROWN

crown over the feudatories . The See also:

• INSTRUMENT (Lat. instrumentum, from insincere, to build up, furnish, arrange, prepare)

instrument of the crown was its See also:

• ARMY
• ARMY (from Fr. armee, Lat. armata)

army, raised and commanded by its deputies . But these deputies were still largely soldiers of See also:

• FORTUNE, ROBERT (1813-188o)

fortune and, in the higher ranks, feudal personages, who created the armies them-selves by their personal See also:

• INFLUENCE (Late Lat. influentia, from influere, to flow in)

influence with the would-be soldier or the unemployed professional fighting See also:

• MAN
• MAN, ISLE OF (anc. Mona)

man . Thus the first See also:

• SYSTEM

system to replace the obsolete See also:

• COMBINATION (Lat. combinare, to combine)

combination of See also:

• FEUDALISM
• FEUDALISM (from Late Lat. feodum or feudum, a fee or fiel; see FEE)

feudalism and " See also:

• FREE

free companies " was what may be called the proprietary system .

Under this the See also:

• COLONEL (derived either from Lat. column, Fr. colonne, column, or Lat. corona, a crown)

colonel was the proprietor of his See also:

• REGIMENT (from Late Latin regimentum, rule, regere, to rule, govern, direct)

regiment, the captain the proprietor of his See also:

• COMPANY

company . The king accepted them as his officers, and armed them with authority to raise men, but they themselves raised the men as a See also:

• RULE

rule from experienced soldiers who were in See also:

• SEARCH, or VISIT AND SEARCH

search of employment, although, like ' This See also:

• SECTION
• SECTION (Lat. sectio, cutting, secare, to cut)

section also disqualifies colonial See also:

• GOVERNORS

governors and See also:

• DEPUTY (through the Fr. from a Late Lat. use of deputare, to cut off, allot; putare having the original sense of to trim, prune)

deputy governors and holders of certain other offices . 2 At See also:

• SEA (in O. Eng. sae, a common Teutonic word; cf. Ger. See, Dutch Zee, &c.; the ultimate source is uncertain)
• SEA, COMMAND OF THE

sea the relatively clear See also:

• PARTITION

partition of actual duties amongst the authorities of a See also:

• SHIP

ship brought about the See also:

• ADOPTION (Lat. adoptio, for adoptalio, from adoptare, to choose for oneself)

adoption of the See also:

• TERM

term " officer " somewhat earlier . Falstaff, some captains and colonels " misused the King's See also:

• PRESS (through Fr. presse from Lat. pressare, frequentative of premere, to crush, squeeze, press)

press damnably." All alike were most rigorously watched lest by showing imaginary men on their pay-sheets they should make undue profits . A " See also:

• MUSTER (Mid. Eng. mostre, moustre, adapted from the similar O. Fr. forms; Lat. monstrare)

muster " was the See also:

• PRODUCTION (Lat. productionem, from producere, to pro-duce)

production of a number of living men on See also:

• PARADE (Fr. parade, an adaptation from Ital. parada; cf. Span. parada, from Lat. parade, to prepare, equip, furnish)

parade corresponding to the number shown on the pay-See also:

• ROLL (O. Fr. rolle, roulle, mod. role, Lat. rotulus, dim. of rota, wheel)
• ROLL, ALFRED PHILIPPE (1846– )

roll . An inspection was an inspection not so much of the efficiency as of the numbers and the accounts of See also:

• UNITS, DIMENSIONS OF
• UNITS, PHYSICAL

units . A full See also:

• ACCOUNT
• ACCOUNT (through O. Fr. acont, Late Lat. comptum, cornputare, to calculate)

account of these practices, which were neither more nor less prevalent in See also:

• ENGLAND
• ENGLAND, THE CHURCH OF

England than elsewhere, will be found in J . W . See also:

• FORTESCUE, SIR JOHN (c. 1394-c. 1476)
• FORTESCUE, SIR JOHN (c. 1531-1607)

Fortescue's History of the See also:

• BRITISH

British Army, vol. i . So faithfully was the See also:

• CUSTOM (from O. Fr. costume, costume or coustume; Low Lat. costuma, a shortened form of consuetudo)

custom observed of requiring the showing of a man for a man's pay, that the See also:

• GRANT (from A.-Fr. graunter, O. Fr. greanter for creanter, popular Lat. creantare, for credentare, to entrust, Lat. credere, to believe, trust)
• GRANT, ANNE (1755-1838)
• GRANT, CHARLES (1746-1823)
• GRANT, GEORGE MONRO (1835–1902)
• GRANT, JAMES (1822–1887)
• GRANT, JAMES AUGUSTUS (1827–1892)
• GRANT, ROBERT (1814-1892)
• GRANT, SIR ALEXANDER
• GRANT, SIR FRANCIS (1803-1878)
• GRANT, SIR JAMES HOPE (1808–1895)
• GRANT, SIR PATRICK (1804-1895)
• GRANT, U
• GRANT, ULYSSES SIMPSON (1822-1885)

grant of a See also:

• SPECIAL

special See also:

• ALLOWANCE (from "allow,' derived through 0. Fr. alouer from the two Lat. origins adlaudare, to praise, and allocare, to assign a place; so that the English word combined the general idea of "assigning with approval")

allowance to officers administering companies was often made in the See also:

• FORM (Lat. forma)

form of allowing them to show imaginary See also:

• JOHN
• JOHN (1167–1216)
• JOHN (1290-c. 1320)
• JOHN (1296-1346)
• JOHN (1371–1419)
• JOHN (1468-1532)
• JOHN (1801-1873)
• JOHN (Heb. llni')
• JOHN (ZAPOLYA) (1487-1540)
• JOHN, 4TH MARQUESS OF TWEEDDALE (c. 1695-1762)
• JOHN, DON (1545-1578)
• JOHN, DON (1629–1679)
• JOHN, GOSPEL OF ST
• JOHN, or HAYS (1513–1571)
• JOHN, THE APOSTLE
• JOHN, THE EPISTLES OF

John Does and See also:

• RICHARD
• RICHARD (d. 1184)
• RICHARD, FRANCOIS MARIE BENJAMIN (18,9-1908)
• RICHARD, HENRY (1812-1888)
• RICHARD, ST

Richard Roes on the pay-sheets . The next step was taken when armies, instead of being raised for each See also:

• CAMPAIGN

campaign and from the qualified men who at each recruiting time offered themselves, became " standing " armies fed by untrained recruits . During the late 17th and the 18th centuries the crown supplied the recruits, and also the See also:

• MONEY

money for maintaining the forces, but the colonels and captains retained in a more or less restricted degree their proprietorship .

Thus, the profits of military See also:

• OFFICE (from Lat. officium, " duty," " service," a shortened form of opifacium, from facere, " to do," and either the stem of opes, " wealth," " aid," or opus, " work ")

office without its earlier burdens were in time of See also:

• PEACE
• PEACE, BREACH OF THE

peace considerable, and an officer's commission had therefore a " surrender value." The practice of buying and selling commissions was a natural consequence, and this continued See also:

• LONG, GEORGE (1800-1879)
• LONG, JOHN DAVIS (1838– )

long after the system of proprietary regiments and companies had disappeared . In England " See also:

• PURCHASE

purchase " endured until 1873, nearly a See also:

• HUNDRED

hundred years after it had ceased on the See also:

• CONTINENT (from Lat. continere, "to hold together "; hence " connected," " continuous ")

continent of See also:

• EUROPE

Europe and more than fifty after the clothing, feeding and See also:

• PAYMENT (Fr. paiement, from payer, to pay; Lat. pacare, to appease, pax, peace)

payment of the soldiers had been taken out of the colonels' hands . The purchase system, it should be mentioned, did not affect See also:

• ARTILLERY (the O. Fr. artiller, to equip with engines of war, probably comes from Late Lat. articulum, dim. of ars, art, cf. " engine " from ingenium, or of artus, joint)

artillery and engineer officers, either in England or in the See also:

• REST (O. Eng. rest, reste, bed, cognate with other Teutonic forms, e.g. Ger. Rast, Riiste, rest, and probably Gothic Rasta, league, i.e. resting or stopping place)

rest of Europe . These officers, who were rather semi-See also:

• CIVIL

civil than military officials until about 1715, executed an office rather than a command—superintended See also:

• GUN

gun-making, built fortresses and so on . As late as 1780 the right of a See also:

• GENERAL
• GENERAL (Lat. generalis, of or relating to a genus, kind or class)

general officer promoted from the Royal Artillery to command troops of other arms was challenged . In its See also:

• ORIGINAL

original form, therefore, the proprietary system was a most serious See also:

• BAR
• BAR (0. Fr. barre, Late Lat. barra, origin unknown)
• BAR, CONFEDERATION OF
• BAR, FRANCOIS DE (1538-1606)
• BAR, THE

bar to efficiency . So long as See also:

• WAR
• WAR (O. Eng. werre, Fr. guerre, of Teutonic origin; cf. O.H.G. werran, to confound)

war was chronic, and self-trained recruits were forthcoming, it had been a See also:

• GOOD, JOHN MASON (1764-1827)

good working method of devolving responsibility . But when See also:

• DRILL

drill' and the handling of arms became more complicated, and, above all, when the See also:

• SUPPLY (through Fr. from Lat. supplere, to fill up)

supply of trained men died away, the state took recruiting out of the colonels' and captains' hands, and, as the individual officer had now nothing to offer the crown but his own potential military capacity (See also:

• PART

part of which resided in his social status, but by no means all), the crown was able to make him, in the full sense of the word, an officer of itself . This was most fully seen in the reorganization of the See also:

• FRENCH
• FRENCH, DANIEL CHESTER (1850– )
• FRENCH, NICHOLAS (1604-1678)

French army by See also:

• LOUIS
• LOUIS (804–876)
• LOUIS (893–911)
• LOUIS, JOSEPH DOMINIQUE, BARON (1755-1837)
• LOUIS, or LEWIS (from the Frankish Chlodowich, Chlodwig, Latinized as Chlodowius, Lodhuwicus, Lodhuvicus, whence-in the Strassburg oath of 842-0. Fr. Lodhuwigs, then Chlovis, Loys and later Louis, whence Span. Luiz and—through the Angevin kings—Hungarian

Louis XIV. and See also:

• LOUVOIS, FRANCOIS MICHEL LE TELLIER, MARQUIS DE (1641–1691)

Louvois . The colonelcies and captaincies of See also:

• HORSE (a word common to Teutonic languages in such forms as hors, hros, ros; cf. the Ger. ross)

horse and See also:

• FOOT

foot remained proprietary offices in the hands of the nobles but these offices were sinecures or almost sinecures . The colonels, in peace at any See also:

• RATE

rate, were not expected to do regimental duty . They were at See also:

• LIBERTY (Lat. libertas, from liber, free)

liberty to make such profits as they could make under a stringent inspection system .

But they were expected to be the influential figure-heads of their regiments and to pay large sums for the See also:

• PRIVILEGE

privilege of being proprietors . This See also:

• CLASSIFICATION (Lat. classis, a class, probably from the root cal-, cla-, as in Gr. icaMce, clamor)

classification of officers into two bodies, the poorer which did the whole of the See also:

• WORK

work, and the richer upon which the holding of a commission conferred an See also:

• HONOUR (Lat. honos or lwnor, honoris; in English the word was spelled with or without the u indifferently until the 17th century, but during the 18th century it became fashion-able to spell the word " honor "; Johnson's and Webster's Dictionaries stereoty

honour that See also:

• BIRTH (a word common in various forms to Teutonic languages from the root of the verb " to bear ")

birth or See also:

• WEALTH

wealth did not confer, marks two very notable advances in the history of army organization, the professionalization of the officer and the creation of the See also:

• PRESTIGE

prestige attaching to the holder of a commission because he holds it and not for any extraneous See also:

• REASON (Lat. ratio, through French raison)

reason . The distinction between working and quasi-honorary officers was much older, of course, than Louvois's reorganization . Moreover it extended to the highest ranks . About 1600 the " general " of a European army' was always a king, See also:

• PRINCE
• PRINCE (Lat. princeps, from primus capio, " I am the first to take "; Ital. principe, Fr. prince)

prince or nobleman . The See also:

• LIEUTENANT

lieutenant-general, by custom the See also:

• COMMANDER

commander of the See also:

• CAVALRY (Fr. cavalerie, Ger. Kavallerie or Reiterei, derived ultimately from late Lat. caballus, horse)

cavalry, was also, as a rule, a See also:

• NOBLE, SIR ANDREW (1832- )

noble, in 1 Except in the See also:

• ITALIAN

Italian republics . virtue of his command of the aristocratic See also:

• ARM (a common Teutonic word; the Indo-European root is ar, to join or fit; cf. the Lat. armus, shoulder, and the plural word arma, weapons, Gr. apphs, joint, and the reduplicated apapilKSV, to join)

arm . But the commander of the foot, the " sergeant-See also:

• MAJOR
• MAJOR (Lat. for " greater ")
• MAJOR (or MAIR), JOHN (1470-1550)

major-general " or " major-general," was invariably a professional soldier . It was his duty to draw up the army (not merely the foot) for See also:

• BATTLE

battle, and in other respects to See also:

• ACT (Lat. actus, actum)

act as See also:

• CHIEF (from Fr. chef, head, Lat. caput)

chief of See also:

• STAFF (O. Eng. staef, cf. Du. staf, Ger. Stab, &c.; Icel. stafr meant also a written letter, and O. Eng. stafas, the letters of the alphabet; " stave," one of the thin pieces of wood of which a cask is made, is a doublet)

staff to the general . In the See also:

• INFANTRY

infantry regiment, the " sergeant-major " or " major was second-in-command and See also:

• ADJUTANT (from Lat. adjutare, to aid)

adjutant combined . Often, if not always, he was promoted from amongst the lieutenants and not the (proprietary) captains . The lieutenants were the back-See also:

• BONE (a word common in various forms to Teutonic languages, in many of which it is confined to the shank of the leg, as in the German Bein)
• BONE, HENRY (1755-1834)

bone of the army .

Seventy years later, on the organization of the first great standing army by Louvois, the " proprietors," as mentioned above, were reduced to a minimum both in numbers and in military importance . The word " major " in its various meanings had come, in the French service, to imply staff functions . Thus the sergeant-major of infantry became the " adjudant-major." The sergeant-major-general, as commander of the foot, had disappeared and given See also:

• PLACE (through Fr. from Lat. platea, street; Gr. IrAar6s, wide)

place to numerous lieutenant-generals and " brigadiers," but as chief of the staff he survived for two hundred years . As late as 1870 the chief of staff of a French army See also:

• BORE

bore the See also:

• TITLE (0. Fr. title, mod. titre, from Lat. titulus)

title of " the major-general." Moreover a new title had come into prominence, that of " See also:

• MARSHAL (med. Lat. marescalcus, from O.H.Ger. marah, horse, and scalc, servant)

marshal " or " See also:

• FIELD (a word common to many West German languages, cf. Ger. Feld, Dutch veld, possibly cognate with O.E. f olde, the earth, and ultimately with root of the Gr. irAaror, broad)
• FIELD, CYRUS WEST (1819-1892)
• FIELD, DAVID DUDLEY (18o5-1894)
• FIELD, EUGENE (1850-1895)
• FIELD, FREDERICK (18o1—1885)
• FIELD, HENRY MARTYN (1822-1907)
• FIELD, JOHN (1782—1837)
• FIELD, MARSHALL (183 1906)
• FIELD, NATHAN (1587—1633)
• FIELD, STEPHEN JOHNSON (1816-1899)
• FIELD, WILLIAM VENTRIS FIELD, BARON (1813-1907)

field marshal." This marks one of the most important points in the See also:

• EVOLUTION

evolution of the military officer, his classification by See also:

• RANK (O.Fr. rant or rent, mod. rang, generally connected with the O.E. and O.H.G. bring, a ring)

rank and not by the actual command he holds . In the 16th century an officer was a lieutenant of, not in, a particular regiment, and the higher officers were general, lieutenant-general and major-general of a particular army . When their army was disbanded they had no command and possessed therefore no rank—except of course when, as was usually the See also:

• CASE
• CASE, JOHN (d. 1600)

case, they were colonels of permanent regiments or governors of fortresses . Thus in the British army it was not until late in the 18th century that general officers received any pay as such . The introduction of a distinctively military rank 2 of " marshal " or " field marshal," which took place in See also:

• FRANCE
• FRANCE, ANATOLE (1844– )

France and the See also:

• EMPIRE

empire in the first years of the 17th century, meant the See also:

• ESTABLISHMENT (0. Fr. establissement, Fr. etablissement, late Norm. Fr. establishement, from O. Fr. establir, Fr. etablir, Lat. stabilire, to make stable)

establishment of a See also:

• LIST (O.E. lisle, a Teutonic word, cf. Dut. lust, Ger. Leiste, adapted in Ital. lista and Fr. lisle)
• LIST, FRIEDRICH (1789-1846)

list of general officers, and the list spread downwards through the various regimental ranks, in proportion as the See also:

• CLOSE
• CLOSE (from Lat. clausum, shut)
• CLOSE, MAXWELL HENRY (1822-1903)

close proprietary system See also:

• BROKE, or BROOKE, ARTHUR (d. 1563)
• BROKE, SIR PHILIP BOWES VERE, BART

broke up, until it became the general army list of an army of to-day . At first field marshals were merely officers of high rank and experience, eligible for See also:

• APPOINTMENT, POWER OF

appointment to the offices of general, lieutenant-general, &c., in a particular army . On an army being formed, the list of field marshals was See also:

• DRAWN

drawn upon, and the necessary number appointed . Thus an army of Gustavus See also:

• ADOLPHUS, JOHN LEYCESTER (1795-1862)

Adolphus's time often included 6 or 8 field marshals as subordinate general officers . But soon armies See also:

• GREW, NEHEMIAH (1641-1712)

grew larger, more See also:

• MOBILE

mobile and more flexible and more general officers were needed .

Thus fresh grades of general arose . The next rank below that of marshal, in France, was that of lieutenant-general, which had formerly implied the second-in-command of an army, and a little further back in history the king's lieutenant-general or military See also:

• VICEROY (from O. Fr. viceroy, mod. viceroi, i.e. Lat. vice, in place of, and roy or roi, king)

viceroy.3 Below the lieutenant-general was the marechal de See also:

• CAMP (from Lat. campus, field)

camp, the See also:

• HEIR (Lat. heres, from a root meaning to grasp, seen in heres or erus, master of a house, Gr. xeip, hand, Sans. hat ana, hand)

heir of the sergeant-major-general . In the imperial service the ranks were field marshal and lieutenant field marshal (both of which survive to the See also:

• PRESENT

present day) and major-general . A further grade of general officer was created by Louis XIV., that of brigadier, and this completes the See also:

• PROCESS

process of evolution, for the regimental system had already provided the See also:

• LOWER

lower titles . The ranks of a See also:

• MODERN

modern army, with slight See also:

• VARIATIONS
• VARIATIONS, CALCULUS
• VARIATIONS, CALCULUS OF

variations in title, are therefore as follows: (a) Field marshal: in See also:

• GERMANY
• GERMANY (Ger. Deutschland)

Germany, Generalfeldmarschall; in See also:

• SPAIN
• SPAIN (Espana)

Spain " captain-general "; in France (though the rank is in See also:

• ABEYANCE (O. Fr. abeance, " gaping")

abeyance) " marshal." The marshals of France, however, were neither so few in number nor so restricted to the highest commands as are marshals elsewhere . In Germany a new rank, " colonel-general " 2 The title was, of course, far older . 2In England, until after See also:

• MARLBOROUGH
• MARLBOROUGH, EARLS AND DUKES OF
• MARLBOROUGH, JOHN CHURCHILL, 1ST DUKE OF (1650-1722)

Marlborough's See also:

• DEATH

death, rank followed command and not See also:

• VICE

vice versa . The first field marshals were the See also:

• DUKE (corresponding to Fr. duc, Ital. duca, Ger. Herzog)

duke of See also:

• ARGYLL, EARLS AND DUKES OF

Argyll and the See also:

• EARL

earl of See also:

• CADOGAN, WILLIAM CADOGAN

Cadogan . Marlborough's title, or rather office, was that of captain-general . (Generaloberst), has come into existence—or rather has been revived' —of late years . Most of the holders of this rank have the honorary See also:

• STYLE
• STYLE (from Gr. a-6'1ms, a column; a different word from that used in literature, see below)

style of general-field-marshal ? (b) General: in Germany and See also:

• RUSSIA
• RUSSIA (Rossiya)

Russia, " general of infantry," " general of cavalry," " general of artillery." In See also:

• AUSTRIA
• AUSTRIA, LOWER (Ger. Niederosterreich or Osterreich unter der Enns, " Austria below the river Enns ")
• AUSTRIA, UPPER (Ger. Oberosterreich or Osterreich ob der Enns, " Austria above the river Enns ")

Austria generals of artillery and infantry were known by the historic title of Feldzeugmeister (See also:

• ORDNANCE (a syncopated form of " ordinance " or " ordonnance," so spelt in this sense since the 17th century)

ordnance-See also:

• MASTER (Lat. magister, related to tnagis, more, as the corresponding minister is to minus, less; the English form is due partly to the O. Eng. maegister, and partly to O. Fr. maistre, mod. maitre; cf. Du. meester, Ger. Meister, Ital. maestro)

master) up to 1909, but the grade of general of infantry was created in that See also:

• YEAR

year, the old title being now restricted to generals of artillery .

In France the highest grade of general officer is the " general of See also:

• DIVISION (from Lat. dividere, to break up into parts, separate)

division." In the See also:

• UNITED

United States army the grade of full " general " has only been held by See also:

• WASHINGTON
• WASHINGTON (or WASHINGTON COURT HOUSE)
• WASHINGTON, BOOKER TALIAFERRO (c. 1859– )
• WASHINGTON, BUSHROD (1762-1829)
• WASHINGTON, GEORGE (1732-1799)

Washington, Grant, See also:

• SHERMAN
• SHERMAN, JOHN (x823-1900)
• SHERMAN, ROGER (1721–1793)

Sherman and See also:

• SHERIDAN
• SHERIDAN, PHILIP HENRY (1831-1888)

Sheridan . (c) Lieutenant-general (except in France) : in Austria the old title of lieutenant field marshal is retained . In the United States army the title " lieutenant-general," except within See also:

• RECENT

recent years, has been almost as rare as " general." See also:

• WINFIELD

Winfield See also:

• SCOTT, ALEXANDER (fl. 1550)
• SCOTT, DAVID (18o6-1849)
• SCOTT, MICHAEL (1789-1835)
• SCOTT, ROBERT (1811-1887)
• SCOTT, SIR GEORGE GILBERT (1811-1878)
• SCOTT, SIR WALTER, BART
• SCOTT, WILLIAM BELL (1811-1890)
• SCOTT, WINFIELD (1786-1866)

Scott was a See also:

• BREVET (a diminutive of the Fr. bref)

brevet lieutenant-general . The substantive rank was revived for Grant when he was placed in command of the See also:

• UNION
• UNION (known locally as Union Hill and officially as Town of Union)

Union Army in 1864 . It was abolished as an See also:

• AMERICAN

American rank in 1907 . (d) Major-general (in France, general of See also:

• BRIGADE (Fr. and Ger. brigade, Ital. brigata, Span. brigada; the English use of the word dates from the early 17th century)

brigade) : this is the highest grade normally found in the United States Army, generals and lieutenant-generals being promoted for special service only.3 (e) Brigadier-general, in the United States and (as a temporary rank only) in the British services . The above are the five grades of higher officers . To all intents and purposes, no nation has more than four of these five ranks, while France and the United States, the great republics, have only two . The See also:

• CORRESPONDENCE
• CORRESPONDENCE (from med. scholastic Lat. correspondentia, corrcspondere, compounded of Lat. cum, with, and respond ere, to answer; cf. Fr. correspondance)

correspondence between rank and functions cannot be exactly laid down, but in general an officer of the rank of lieutenant-general commands an army See also:

• CORPS (pronounced as in French, from which it is taken, being a late spelling of tors, from Lat. corpus, a body; cf. " corpse ")

corps and a major-general a division . Brigades are commanded by major-generals, brigadier-generals or colonels . Armies are as a rule commanded by field marshals or full generals . In France generals of division command divisions, corps, armies and See also:

• GROUPS
• GROUPS, THEORY

groups of armies .

The above are classed as general officers . The " field officers " (French officiers superieurs, See also:

• GERMAN
• GERMAN, DUTCH AND SCANDINAVIAN

German Stabsoffiziere) are as follows: (a) Colonel.—This rank exists in its See also:

• PRIMITIVE

primitive significance in every army . It denotes a regimental commander, or an officer of corresponding status on the staff . In Great See also:

• BRITAIN (Gr. Hperavuml vi7vot, Bperravia; Lat. Britannia, rarely Britannia)

Britain, with the " linked See also:

• BATTALION

battalion " system, regiments of infantry do not work as units, and the executive command of battalions, regiments of cavalry and brigades of field artillery is in the hands of lieutenant-colonels . Colonels of British regiments who are quasi-honorary (though no longer proprietary) chiefs are royal personages or general officers . Colonels in active employment as such are either on the staff, commanders of brigades or corresponding units, or otherwise extra-regimentally employed . (b) Lieutenant-colonel: in Great Britain " the commanding officer " of a unit . Elsewhere, where the regiment and not the battalion is the executive unit, the lieutenant-colonel sometimes acts as second in command, sometimes commands one of the battalions . In Russia all the battalion leaders are lieutenant-colonels . (c) Major.—This rank does not exist in Russia, and in France is replaced by chef de bataillon or chef d'escadron, colloquially commandant . In the British infantry he preserves some of the characteristics of the See also:

• ANCIENT
• ANCIENT (also spelt ANTIENT; derived, through the Fr. ancien, old, from the late Lat. antianum, from ante, before)

ancient " sergeant-major, as a second in command with certain administrative duties . The junior majors command companies .

In the cavalry the majors, other than the second-incommand, command squadrons; in the artillery they command batteries . In armies which have the regiment as the executive unit, majors command battalions (" wings " of cavalry, " groups" of artillery) . Lastly the " company officers " (called in France and Germany subaltern officers) are as follows: (a) Captain (Germany and Austria, Hauplmann, cavalry Riltmeister) : in the infantry of all countries, the company commander . In Russia there is a lower grade of captain called " staff-captain," and in See also:

• BELGIUM
• BELGIUM (Fr. Belgique; Flem. Belgic)

Belgium there is the rank of " second-captain." In all countries except Great Britain captains command squadrons and batteries . Under the captain, with such commands and powers as are delegated to them, are the subalterns, usually graded as The 16th-century " colonel-general " was the commander of a whole section of the armed forces . In France there were several colonels-general, each of whom controlled several regiments, or indeed the whole of an " arm." Their functions were rather those of a war office than those of a See also:

• TROOP (an adaptation of Fr. troupe, O. Fr. trope; cf. Ital. troppa, troppa; Med. Lat. truppus; the origin is doubtful; suggestions have been made that it represents a German conception of Latin turba, crowd, or is an adaptation of Norw. tarp, flock)

troop-See also:

• LEADER, BENJAMIN WILLIAMS (1831– )

leader . If they held high commands in a field army, it was by special appointment ad hoc . Colonels-general were also proprietors in France of one company in each regiment, whose services they accepted . 2 In Russia the rank of marshal has been long in abeyance . In the Confederate service the grades were general for army commanders, lieutenant-general for corps commanders, major-general for divisional commanders and brigadier-general for brigade commanders . (b) Lieutenant (first lieutenant in U.S.A., Oberleutnant in Germany and Austria) . (c) Sub-lieutenant (second-lieutenant in Great Britain and U.S.A., Leutnant in Germany and Austria) .

(d) Aspirants, or probationary See also:

• YOUNG
• YOUNG, A
• YOUNG, ARTHUR (1741-1820)
• YOUNG, BRIGHAM (1801-1877)
• YOUNG, CHARLES MAYNE (1777–1856)
• YOUNG, EDWARD (1683–1765)
• YOUNG, JAMES (1811-1883)
• YOUNG, THOMAS (1773-1829)

young officers, not of full commissioned status . The See also:

• CONTINENTAL

continental officer is on an See also:

• AVERAGE

average considerably older, rank for rank, than the British; but he is neither younger nor older in respect of command . In the huge " universal service " armies of to-day, the regimental officer of France or Germany commands, in war, on an average twice the number of men that are placed under the British officer of equal rank . Thus a German or French major of infantry has about goo rifles to See also:

• DIRECT

direct, while a British major may have either See also:

• HALF

half a battalion, 450, or a See also:

• DOUBLE
• DOUBLE (from the Mid. Eng. duble, the form which gives the present pronunciation, through the Old Er. duble, from Lat. duplus, twice as much)

double company, 220; a German captain commands a company of 250 rifles as against an See also:

• ENGLISH

English captain's r ro and so on . At the same time it must be remembered that at peace strength the continental battalion and company are maintained at little more than half their war strength, and the under-officering of European armies only makes itself seriously See also:

• FELT (cognate with Ger. Filz, Du. vilt, Swed. and Dan. fill; the root is unknown; the word has given Med. Lat. filtrum, " filter ")

felt on mobilization . It is different with the questions of pay and promotion, which chiefly affect the See also:

• LIFE

life of an army in peace . As to the former (see also See also:

• PENSIONS

PENSIONS) the Continental officer is paid at a lower rate than the British, as shown by the table of See also:

• ORDINARY (med. Lat. ordinarius, Fr. ordinaire)

ordinary pay per annum (without special pay or allowances) below: Great France . Germany . Britain . Lieutenant-colonel' . . 328 263 292 Major ' 248 224 292 Captain ' . 210 139 to 200 150 to 195 Oberleutnant (Lieutenant) ' .

118 101 to 120 78 Second Lieutenant (Leutnant, 94 93 45 to 6o Sous-lieutenant) ' . . . ' Infantry, lowest See also:

• SCALE
• SCALE (1) A

scale, other arms and branches higher, often considerably higher . It must be noted that in France and Germany the major is a battalion commander, corresponding to the British lieutenant-colonel . But the significance of this table can only be realized when it is remembered that promotion is rapid in the British army and very slow in the others . The See also:

• SENIOR, NASSAU WILLIAM (1790-1864)

senior Oberleutnants bf the German army are men of 37 to 38 years of See also:

• AGE (Fr. age, through late Lat. aetaticum, from aetas)

age; the senior captains 47 to 48 . In 1908 the youngest captains were 36, the youngest majors 45 years of age . As another See also:

• ILLUSTRATION

illustration, the captain's maximum pay in the French army, £ro per annum less than a British captain's, is only given after 12 years' service' in that rank, i.e. to a man of at least twenty years' service . The corresponding times for British See also:

• REGULAR

regular officers in 1905 (when the effects of rapid promotions during the See also:

• SOUTH
• SOUTH, ROBERT (1634–1716)

South See also:

• AFRICAN

African War were still felt) were 6 to 72 years from first commission to promotion to captain, and 14 to 19 years from first commission to promotion to major . In 1908, under more normal conditions, the times were 7 to 82 years to captain, 15 to 20 to major . In the Royal See also:

• ENGINEERS, MILITARY

Engineers and the See also:

• INDIAN

Indian army a subaltern is automatically promoted captain on completing 9 years' commissioned service, and a captain similarly promoted major after 18 . The process of development in the case of naval officers (seeNAvv) presents many points of similarity, but also considerable See also:

• DIFFERENCES, CALCULUS OF (Theory of Finite Differences)

differences .

For from the first the naval officer could only offer to serve on the king's ship: he did not build a ship as a colonel raised a regiment, and thus there was no proprietary system . On the other See also:

• HAND
• HAND (a word common to Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Hand, Goth. handus)
• HAND, FERDINAND GOTTHELF (1786-185r)

hand the naval officer was even more of a See also:

• SIMPLE

simple office-holder than his comrade ashore . He had no rank apart from that which he held in the See also:

• ECONOMY

economy of the ship, and when the ship went out of commission the officers as well as the See also:

• CREW (sometimes explained as a sea term of Scandinavian origin, cf. O. Icel. kris, a swarm or crowd, but now regarded as a shortened form of accrue, accrewe, used in the 16th century in the sense of a reinforcement, O. Fr. acreue, from accrofire, to grow,
• CREW, NATHANIEL CREW, 3RD BARON (1633–1721)

crew were disbanded . One feature of the proprietary system, however, appears in the See also:

• NAVY

navy organization; there was a marked distinction between the captain and the lieu-See also:

• TENANT (from Lat. tenere, to hold)

tenant who led the combatants and the master and the master's See also:

• MATE (a corruption of make, from O. Eng. gemaca, a " comrade ")
• MATE, or PARAGUAY TEA

mate who sailed the ship . But here there were fewer " vested interests," and instead of remaining in the See also:

• CONDITION (Lat. condicio, from condicere, to agree upon, arrange; not connected with conditio, from condere, conditum, to put together)

condition, so to speak, of distinguished passengers, until finally eliminated by the " levelling up " of the working class of officers, the lieutenants and captains were (in . England) required to educate themselves thoroughly in the subjects of the sea officer's profession . When this process had gone on for two generations, that is, about 167o, the formation of a permanent staff of naval officers was begun by the institution of half-pay for the captains, and very soon afterwards the methods of See also:

• ADMISSION

admission and See also:

• EARLY
• EARLY, JUBAL ANDERSON (1816-1894)

early training of naval officers were systematized . The ranks in the British Royal Navy are shown with the relative ranks of the army in the following table (taken from King's Regulations), which also gives some See also:

• IDEA (Gr. Ibia, connected with i&eiv, to see; cf. Lat. species from specere, to look at)

idea of the complexity of. the non-combatant branches of naval officers . Training of British Army Officers.-This may be conveniently Army . Navy . T . Field Marshals .

Admirals of the See also:

• FLEET

Fleet Engineer-in-Chief; if Engineer Vice-See also:

• ADMIRAL

Admiral . 2 . Generals . Admirals Inspectors-General of Hospitals and Fleets . 3 . Lieutenant-Generals Vice-Admirals . . Engineer-in-Chief, if Engineer See also:

• REAR

Rear-Admiral . 4 . Major-Generals . Rear-Admirals . . Engineer Rear-Admiral . 5 .

Brigadier-Generals Commodores Deputy Inspectors-General of Hospitals and Fleets . 6 . Colonels . . Captains of 3 years' seniority . Secretaries to Admirals of the Fleet . 7 . Lieutenant-Colonels Captains under 3 years' seniority . Paymasters-in-Chief . 8 . Majors Commanders, but junior of that rank . Engineer Captains of 8 years'senierity in that rank . 9 .

Captains . . Lieutenants of 8 years' seniority . . Staff Captains of 4 years' seniority . io . Lieutenants Lieutenants under 8 years' seniority . Staff Captains under 4 years' seniority (navigating TT . Second Lieutenants . Sub-Lieutenants . See also:

• BRANCH (from the Fr. branche, late Lat. branca, an animal's paw)

branch) . 12 . Higher ranks of Warrant Officers . Secretaries to Commanders-in-Chief, of 5 years' service as such . Engineer Captains under 8 years' seniority in that rank .

Fleet-Surgeons.' Secretaries to Commanders-in-Chief under 5 years' service.' Fleet Paymasters.' Engineer Commanders.' Naval Instructors of 15 years' seniority.' Engineer Lieutenants of 8 years' seniority, qualified and selected . Staff-Surgeons . Secretaries to Junior See also:

• FLAG (or " FLAGGE," a common Teutonic word in this sense, but apparently first recorded in English)

Flag Officers, Commodores,tst Class . Staff Paymasters and Paymaster . Naval Instructors of 8 years' seniority . See also:

• CARPENTER, LANT (1780-1840)
• CARPENTER, MIRY (1807-1877)
• CARPENTER, WILLIAM BENJAMIN (1813-1885)

Carpenter Lieutenant of 8 years' seniority . Surgeons . Secretaries to Commodores, 2nd Class . Naval Instructors under 8 years' seniority . Engineer Lieutenant under 8 years' seniority, or over if not duly qualified and selected . Assistant Paymasters of 4 years' seniority . Carpenter Lieutenant under 8 years' seniority .

Assistant Paymasters under 4 years' seniority . Engineer Sub-Lieutenants . Chief See also:

• GUNNER, or MASTER GUNNER

Gunner.' Chief See also:

• BOATSWAIN (pronounced " bo'sun "; derived from " boat " and " swain," a servant)

Boatswain.' Chief Carpenter.' Chief Artificer Engineer.' Chief Schoolmaster.' Midshipmen.' Clerks.' Gunners.' Boatswains.' Carpenters.' Artificer Engineer.' See also:

• HEAD (in 0. Eng. heafad; the word is common to Teutonic languages; cf. Dutch hoofd, Ger. Haupt, generally taken to be in origin connected with Lat. caput, Gr. KerbOvi7)
• HEAD, SIR EDMUND WALKER, BART
• HEAD, SIR FRANCIS BOND, BART

Head Schoolmaster.' Head Wardmaster.' by the Civil Service Commissioners as to their educational qualifications . This examination is competitive in so far that vacancies at the Royal Military See also:

• COLLEGE (Collegium)

College at See also:

• SANDHURST

Sandhurst (for Cavalry, Infantry and Army Service Corps), or the Royal Military See also:

• ACADEMY, GREEK
• ACADEMY, ROYAL

Academy at See also:

• WOOLWICH

Woolwich (for Engineers and Artillery), go to those who pass highest, if physic-ally See also:

• FIT

fit . Before presenting himself for this examination, the See also:

• CANDIDATE

candidate must produce a " leaving certificate " from the school at which he was educated, showing that he already possesses a See also:

• FAIR

fair knowledge Corresponding Ranks . ' But junior of the army rank . divided into two parts: (I.) that which precedes the appointment to a commission; (II.) that which succeeds it . I . Omitting those officers who obtain their commissions from the ranks, the training which precedes the appointment to a commission is subdivided into: (a) General See also:

• EDUCATION

Education; (b) Technical Instruction . (a) General Education.—A fairly high See also:

• STANDARD
• STANDARD, BATTLE OF THE

standard of education is considered essential . Candidates from See also:

• UNIVERSITIES

universities approved by the Army See also:

• COUNCIL (Lat. concilium, from cum, together, and the root cal, to call)

Council must have resided for three See also:

• ACADEMIC

academic years at their university, and have taken a degree in any subject or See also:

• GROUP

group of subjects other than See also:

• THEOLOGY

Theology, See also:

• MEDICINE

Medicine, See also:

• MUSIC

Music and See also:

• COMMERCE
• COMMERCE (Lat. commercium, from, cum, together, and rnerx, merchandise)

Commerce . A university candidate for a commission in the Royal Artillery must further be qualified in See also:

• MATHEMATICS (Gr. /saBnµar1Kil, Sc. vOcvn or E7rlQTt'µn; from p iN.La, "learning" or "science ")

Mathematics .

The obtaining of first-class honours is considered See also:

• EQUIVALENT

equivalent to one year's extra service in the army, and an officer can See also:

• COUNT (Lat. comes, gen. comitis, Fr. comte, Ital. conte, Span. conde)

count that year for calculating his service towards his See also:

• PENSION (Lat. pensio, a payment, from pendere, to weigh, to pay)

pension . University candidates are eligible for commissions in the Cavalry, Royal Artillery, Infantry, Indian Army and Army Service Corps . For other branches of the service special regulations are, in force . Those candidates who have not been at a university are examined2 But senior of the army rank . of the subjects of examination . Candidates who fail to secure admission to these institutions, but satisfy the examiners that they are sufficiently well educated, can obtain commissions in the Special Reserve . Candidates for commissions in the Royal Army Medical Corps and the Army Veterinary Corps are not required to pass an educational examination, the ordinary course of medical or veterinary education being deemed sufficient, but the Army Council may reject a candidate who shows any deficiency in his general education . Officers of the Colonial military forces wishing to obtain commissions in the British Army must either produce a school or college " leaving certificate " or pass an examination held by the Army Qualifying See also:

• BOARD (O. Eng. bord)

Board, or must show that they have passed one of certain recognized See also:

• EXAMINATIONS

examinations . (b) Technical Instruction.—In addition to general educational attainments, a fair knowledge of technical matters is expected from candidates . For Cavalry, Infantry, Royal Engineers, Royal Artillery and Army Service Corps, an examination must be passed in See also:

• ADMINISTRATION (Lat. administrare, to serve)

administration and organization; military history, See also:

• STRATEGY

strategy and See also:

• TACTICS (Gr. TaeTOc*, sc. TEXvnI, from TavQecv, to arrange in order of battle)

tactics; military See also:

• TOPOGRAPHY
• TOPOGRAPHY (Gr. Toros, place, -partied', to write)

topography, See also:

• ENGINEERING

engineering and See also:

• LAW
• LAW (0. Eng. lagu, M. Eng. lawe; from an old Teutonic root lag, " lie," what lies fixed or evenly; cf. Lat. lex, Fr. loi)
• LAW, JOHN (1671—1729)
• LAW, WILLIAM (1686-1761)

law . In addition, the following conditions must be complied with: (I) .University candidates are required to be members of the Senior Division of the Officers' Training Corps (see UNITED See also:

• KINGDOM

KINGDOM: Army) should there be a unit of that corps at the university to which they belong . They are further required to be attached for six See also:

• WEEKS, EDWIN LORD (1849-1903)

weeks to a Regular unit during their See also:

• RESIDENCE (Latin residere, to remain behind, to dwell, reside)

residence at the university .

If there is no Officers' Training Corps at his university, the candidate is attached to • a Regular unit for twelve weeks (consecutively or in two stages) . The final examination in military subjects is competitive . (2) Cadets of the Royal Military College are instructed in the following additional subjects: sanitation, French or German (or both), See also:

• RIDING

riding and horse management, musketry, See also:

• PHYSICAL

physical training, drill and signalling . . Hindustani may be taken instead of French or German . (3) Cadets of the Royal Military Academy are instructed in the same subjects as the cadets at the Royal Military College, with the addition of artillery, advanced mathematics, See also:

• CHEMISTRY
• CHEMISTRY (formerly "chymistry"; Gr. xvµela; for derivation see ALCHEMY)

chemistry, See also:

• LIGHT

light, See also:

• HEAT (0. E. haktu, which like " hot," Old Eng. hat, is from the Teutonic type haita, hit, to be hot; cf. Ger. hitze, heiss; Dutch, hitte, heet, &c.)

heat, See also:

• ELECTRICITY

electricity and workshop practice . Cadets who pass highest in the final examination for commissions are as a rule appointed to the Royal Engineers, the See also:

• REMAINDER, REVERSION

remainder to the Royal Artillery . (4) Officers of the Special Reserve, Territorial Force and certain other forces must have completed a continuous See also:

• PERIOD
• PERIOD (Gr. irepioSos, a going or way round, circuit, aepi, round, and &Sis, way, road)

period of See also:

• ATTACHMENT

attachment of twelve months to a Regular unit of Cavalry, Artillery, Engineers or Infantry, and have served and been trained for at least one year in the force to which they belong, before presenting them-selves at the competitive examination in military subjects . The period of attachment to Regular units may be reduced if certain certificates are obtained . Candidates for commissions in the artillery must belong to the artillery branches of the above forces and have a certificate in riding and mathematics . They are not eligible for the Royal Engineers . (5) The conditions for Officers of the Colonial Military Forces are similar to those for the Special Reserve, &c., except that only two months' attachment to a Regular unit, or unit of the Permanent Colonial Forces, is required . (6) Commissions are also given to Cadets of the Royal Military College, See also:

• KINGSTON
• KINGSTON, ELIZABETH, DUCHESS OF (1720-1788)
• KINGSTON, WILLIAM HENRY GILES (1814-188o)

Kingston, See also:

• CANADA

Canada; the training of that establishment being similar to that at the Royal Military College and the Royal Military Academy .

Candidates for commissions in the Royal Army Medical Corps and Army Veterinary Corps are not examined in military subjects, but must pass in the appropriate technical subjects; those for the Royal Army Medical Corps passing two written and two oral examinations, one each in medicine and See also:

• SURGERY
• SURGERY (Fr. chirurgie, from Gr. Xetpoupyfa, i.e. hand-work)

surgery; those for the Army Veterinary Corps passing a written and an oral examination in veterinary medicine, surgery and See also:

• HYGIENE (Fr. hygiene, from Gr. ir'taivety, to be healthy)

hygiene . Candidates for the Royal Army Medical Corps have further to proceed to the Royal Army Medical College for instruction in recruiting duties, hygiene, See also:

• PATHOLOGY (from Gr. raBos, suffering)

pathology, tropical medicine, military surgery and military medical administration . Royal Engineers attend the School of Military Engineering at See also:

• CHATHAM
• CHATHAM, WILLIAM PITT

Chatham, where long and elaborate courses of instruction are given in all subjects appertaining to the work of the corps, including See also:

• PRACTICAL

practical work in the field and in fortresses . II . The training which succeeds the appointment to a commission consists partly of more detailed instruction in the subjects already learned, partly of the practical application of those subjects, and partly of more advanced instruction with its practical application . On first joining his unit the young officer is put through a course of preliminary drills, lasting, as a rule, for from three months (infantry) to six months (cavalry), though the time depends upon the individual officer's rate of progress . During this period, and for some considerable time afterwards, officers are instructed in " regimental duties," consisting of the interior economy of a regiment, such as See also:

• FINANCIAL

financial accounts, stores, correspondence, the See also:

• MINOR
• MINOR (Lat. for smaller, lesser)
• MINOR, ROBERT CRANNELL (1839-1904)

minor points of military law in their actual working, customs of the service, the management of regimental institutes, &c., with, in the case of the mounted branches, equitation and the care and management of horses . They are required to attend a number of courts-See also:

• MARTIAL (MARCUS VALERIUS MARTIALIS)

martial, as supernumerary members, before being permitted to attend one in the effective and official capacities of member or prosecutor, although from a legal point of view their qualification depends simply upon their rank and length of service . A course of musketry, theoretical and practical, is then gone through . Field training begins with lectures on the various evolutions of the See also:

• SQUADRON

squadron, See also:

• BATTERY (Fr. batterie, from battles, to beat)

battery or company, followed by actual practice in the field, arranged by the commanders of squadrons, batteries or companies . Before promotion from the rank of second-lieutenant to lieutenant, an examination must be passed in " Regimental Duties " (practical, oral and written) and " Drill and Field Training " (practical only) . The officer is then taken in hand by the commanding officer of his regiment, battalion or brigade .

He is frequently examined in the subjects in which he has already been instructed, and is practically taught the more advanced stages of topography, engineering, tactics, law and organization . The next See also:

• STAGE (Fr. 6/age; from Lat. stare, to stand)

stage consists of regimental drills, which include every See also:

• KIND (O. E. ge-cynde, from the same root as is seen in " kin," supra)

kind of practical work in the field which can be done by a unit under the command of a lieutenant-colonel . After this come brigade, division and army manoeuvres . Officers have to pass examinations in military subjects for promotion until they attain the rank of major . The chief of these subjects are tactics, military topography, military engineering, military law, administration and military history . For majors, before promotionto lieutenant-colonel, an examination in " See also:

• TACTICAL

Tactical Fitness for Command " has to be passed . This examination is a test of ability in commanding the " three arms " in the field ; a course of attachment to the two arms to which the officer does not belong being a necessary preliminary . Army Service Corps.—The officers of this corps have usually served for at least one year in the cavalry, infantry or Royal See also:

• MARINES (from Lat. mare, sea)

Marines, though commissions are also given to cadets of the Royal Military College . On joining, the officer first spends nine months on See also:

• PROBATION

probation, during which he attends lectures and practical demonstrations in the following subjects: military administration and organization generally; and as regards Army Service Corps work, in detail; organization of the Field Army and Lines of Communication; war organization and duties of the A.S.C.; registry and care of correspondence; contracts; special purchases; precautions in receiving supplies, and care and issue of same; accounts, forms, vouchers and office work in general and in detail; barrack duties (including all p