See also:

• OMEN (a Latin word, either connected with os, mouth, or more probably with auris (Gr. ois, ear; apparently, meaning " a thing heard " or " spoken ")

OMEN (a Latin word, either connected with os, mouth, or more probably with auris (Gr. ois, See also:

• EAR (common Teut.; O.E. are, Ger. Ohr, Du. oor, akin to Lat. auris, Gr. ovs)

ear; apparently, meaning " a thing heard " or " spoken ")  , a sign in See also:

• DIVINATION
• DIVINATION, OMEN, ASTROLOGY

divination, favourable or unfavourable as the See also:

• CASE
• CASE, JOHN (d. 1600)

case may be (see DIVINATION, See also:

• AUGURS

AUGURS and See also:

• ORACLE (Lat. oraculum, from ora' to pray; the corresponding Greek word is uavreiov or Xpnuri7pwov)

ORACLE) . The taking of omens may be said to be a See also:

• PART

part of all systems of divination, in which the future is predicted by means of indications of one sort or another; and tradition has thus gathered See also:

• ROUND (O. Fr. rond, Lat. rotundus, the Fr. is the source also of Du. rond; Ger., Swed., Dan. and Nor. rond)

round many subjects—events, actions, See also:

• COLOURS, MILITARY

colours, See also:

• NUMBERS, BOOK OF
• NUMBERS, PARTITION OF

numbers, &c.—which are considered " ominous," an See also:

• ADJECTIVE (from the Lat. adjectives, added)

adjective which generally connotes See also:

• ILL

ill-See also:

• FORTUNE, ROBERT (1813-188o)

fortune . One of the See also:

• OLDEST

oldest and most widespread methods of See also:

• DIVINING

divining the future, both among See also:

• PRIMITIVE

primitive See also:

• PEOPLE

people and among several of the civilizations of antiquity, was the See also:

• READING

reading of omens in the signs noted on the See also:

• LIVER (O. Eng. lifer; cf. cognate forms, Dutch lever, Ger. Leber, Swed. lefver, &c.; the O. H. Ger. forms are libara, lipora, &c.; the Teut. word has been connected with Gr. i'prap and Lat. jecur)

liver of the See also:

• ANIMAL
• ANIMAL (Lat. animalis, from anima, breath, soul)

animal offered as a See also:

• SACRIFICE (from Lat. sacrificium; sacer, holy, and facere, to make)

sacrifice to some deity . The See also:

• CUSTOM (from O. Fr. costume, costume or coustume; Low Lat. costuma, a shortened form of consuetudo)

custom is vouched for by travellers as still observed in See also:

• BORNEO

Borneo, See also:

• BURMA

Burma, See also:

• UGANDA

Uganda and elsewhere, the animal chosen being a See also:

• PIG
• PIG (a word of obscure origin, connected with the Low Ger. and Dut. word of the same meaning, bigge)

pig or a See also:

• FOWL (Dan. Fugl, Ger. Vogel)

fowl . It constituted the most See also:

• COMMON

common See also:

• FORM (Lat. forma)

form of divination in See also:

• ANCIENT
• ANCIENT (also spelt ANTIENT; derived, through the Fr. ancien, old, from the late Lat. antianum, from ante, before)

ancient Babylonia, where it can be traced back to the 3rd See also:

• MILLENNIUM (a pseudo-Latin word formed on the analogy of biennium, triennium, from Lat. milk, a thousand, and armies, year)

millennium B.C . Among the Etruscans the prominence of the rite led to the liver being looked upon as the See also:

• TRADE (O. Eng. trod, footstep, from tredan, to tread; in M. Eng. the forms teed, trod and trade appear, the last in the sense of a beaten track)
• TRADE, BOARD OF

trade-See also:

• MARK
• MARK, CARL (1858– )
• MARK, GOSPEL OF ST
• MARK, ST

mark of the See also:

• PRIEST (Ger. Priester, Fr. pretre)

priest . From the Etruscans it made its way to the See also:

• ROMANS
• ROMANS, EPISTLE TO THE

Romans, though as we shall see it was also modified by them . The See also:

• EVIDENCE (Lat. evidentia, evideri, to appear clearly)

evidence for the rite among the Greeks is sufficient to See also:

• WARRANT (Med. Lat. warantum; O. Fr. garant, warant, derived from O.H.G. root represented in modern German bygewdhren)

warrant the conclusion of its introduction at a very See also:

• EARLY
• EARLY, JUBAL ANDERSON (1816-1894)

early See also:

• PERIOD
• PERIOD (Gr. irepioSos, a going or way round, circuit, aepi, round, and &Sis, way, road)

period and its persistence to a See also:

• LATE

late See also:

• DAY (O. Eng. dreg, Ger. Tag; according to the New English Dictionary, " in no way related to the Lat. dies")
• DAY, JOHN (1574-1640?)
• DAY, THOMAS (1748-1789)

day . The theory upon which the rite everywhere rests is clearly the belief, for which there is an abundance of concurrent testimony, that the liver was at one See also:

• TIME (0. Eng. Lima, cf. Icel. timi, Swed. timme, hour, Dan. time; from the root also seen in " tide," properly the time of between the flow and ebb of the sea, cf. O. Eng. getidan, to happen, " even-tide," &c.; it is not directly related to Lat. tempus)
• TIME, MEASUREMENT OF
• TIME, STANDARD

time regarded as the seat of vitality . This belief appears to be of a more primitive See also:

• CHARACTER (Gr. xapareri7p, from xap&crew, to scratch)

character than the view which places the seat of See also:

• LIFE

life in the See also:

• HEART
• HEART, LUNG

heart, though we are accustomed to think that the latter was the prevailing view in antiquity . The fact, however, appears to be that the prominence given to the heart in popular beliefs See also:

• DATES

dates from the time when in the course of the development of anatomical, knowledge the important See also:

• FUNCTION

function of the heart in animal life came to be recognized, whereas the supposition that the liver is the seat of vitality rests upon other factors than anatomical knowledge, and,. being See also:

• INDEPENDENT

independent of such knowledge, also antedates it . Among the reasons which led people to identify the liver with the very source of life, and hence as the seat of all affections and emotions, including what to us are intellectual functions, we may name the bloody See also:

• APPEARANCE (from Lat. apparere, to appear)

appearance of that See also:

• ORGAN

organ .

Filled with See also:

• BLOOD

blood, it was natural to regard it as the seat of the blood, and as a See also:

• MATTER

matter of fact one-See also:

• SIXTH

sixth of the entire blood of See also:

• MAN
• MAN, ISLE OF (anc. Mona)

man is in the liver, while in the case of some animals the proportion is even larger . Now blood was everywhere in antiquity associated with life, and the biblical passage, See also:

• GENESIS
• GENESIS (Gr. 'ybeo-es, becoming; the term being used in English as a synonym for origin or process of coming into being)

Genesis ix . 3, which identifies the blood with the soul of the animal and there-fore prohibits its use fairly represents the current conception both among primitive peoples as well as among those who had advanced along the road of culture and See also:

• CIVILIZATION

civilization . The liver being regarded as the seat of the blood, it was a natural and See also:

• SHORT, FRANCIS JOB (1857– )

short step to identify the liver with the soul as well as with the seat of life, and therefore as the centre of all manifestations of vitality and activity . In this See also:

• STAGE (Fr. 6/age; from Lat. stare, to stand)

stage of belief, therefore, the liver is the seat of all emotions and affections, as well as of intellectual functions, and it is only when with advancing anatomical know-ledge the functions of the heart and then of the See also:

• BRAIN (A.S. braegen)

brain come to be recognized that a differentiation of functions takes See also:

• PLACE (through Fr. from Lat. platea, street; Gr. IrAar6s, wide)

place which had its outcome in the See also:

• ASSIGNMENT, ASSIGNATION, ASSIGNEE

assignment of intellectual activity to the brain or See also:

• HEAD (in 0. Eng. heafad; the word is common to Teutonic languages; cf. Dutch hoofd, Ger. Haupt, generally taken to be in origin connected with Lat. caput, Gr. KerbOvi7)
• HEAD, SIR EDMUND WALKER, BART
• HEAD, SIR FRANCIS BOND, BART

head, of the higher emotions and affections (as love and courage) to the heart, while the liver was degraded to the See also:

• RANK (O.Fr. rant or rent, mod. rang, generally connected with the O.E. and O.H.G. bring, a ring)

rank of being regarded as the seat of the See also:

• LOWER

lower emotions and affections, such as See also:

• JEALOUSY (adapted from Fr. jalousie, formed from jaloux, jealous, Low Lat. zelosus, Gr. j'i os, ardour, zeal, from the root seen in '&u', to boil, ferment; cf. " yeast ")

jealousy, moroseness and the like . Hepatoscopy, or divination through the liver, belongs therefore to the primitive period when that organ summed up all vitality and was regarded as the seat of all the emotions and affections--the higher as well as the lower—and also as the seat of intellectualfunctions . The question, however, still remains to be answered how people came to the belief or to the See also:

• ASSUMPTION, FEAST OF

assumption that through the soul, or the seat of life of the sacrificial animal, the intention of the gods could be divined . There are two theories that may be put forward . The one is that the animal sacrificed was looked upon as a deity, and that, therefore, the liver represented the soul of the See also:

• GOD

god; the other theory is that the deity in accepting the sacrifice identified himself with the animal, and that, there-fore, the liver as the soul of the animal was the counterpart of the soul of the god . It is true that the killing of the god plays a prominent part in primitive cults, as has been shown more particularly through the valuable researches of J . G . Frazer (The See also:

• GOLDEN

Golden Bough) .

On the other See also:

• HAND
• HAND (a word common to Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Hand, Goth. handus)
• HAND, FERDINAND GOTTHELF (1786-185r)

hand, serious difficulties arise if we assume that every animal sacrificed represents a deity; and even assuming that such a belief underlies the rite of animal sacrifice, a modification of the belief must have been introduced when such sacrifices became a common rite resorted to on every occasion when a deity was to be approached . It is manifestly impossible to assume, e.g. that the daily sacrifices which form a feature of advanced cults involved the belief of the daily slaughter of some deity, and even before this stage was reached the primitive belief of the actual See also:

• IDENTIFICATION (Lat. idem, the same)

identification of the god with the animal must have yielded to some such belief as that the deity in accepting the sacrifice assimilates the animal to his own being, precisely as man assimilates the See also:

• FOOD
• FOOD (like the verb " to feed," from a Teutonic root, whence O. Eng. foda; cf. " fodder "; connected with Gr. lrareicOae, to feed)

food that enters into his See also:

• BODY

body . The animal is in a certain sense, indeed, the food of the god . The theory underlying hepatoscopy therefore consists of these two factors: the belief (I) that the liver is the seat of life, or, to put it more succinctly, what was currently regarded as the soul of the animal; and (2) that the liver of the sacrificial animal, by virtue of its See also:

• ACCEPTANCE (Lat. acceptare, frequentative form of accipere, to receive)

acceptance on the part of the god, took on the same character as the soul of the god to whom it was offered . The two souls acted in See also:

• ACCORD (from Fr. accorder, to agree)

accord, the soul of the animal becoming a reflection, as it were, of the soul of the god . If, therefore, one understood the signs noted on a particular liver, one entered, as it were, into the mind—as one of the manifestations of soul-life—of the deity who had assimilated the being of the animal to his own being . To know the mind of the god was See also:

• EQUIVALENT

equivalent to knowing what the god in question proposed to do . Hence, when one approached a deity with an inquiry as to the outcome of some undertaking, the reading of the signs on the liver afforded a See also:

• DIRECT

direct means of determining the course of future events, which was, according to current beliefs, in the See also:

• CONTROL (Fr. contrdle, older form contre rolle, from Med. Lat. contra-rotulus, a counter roll or copy of a document used to check the original; there is no instance in English of the use of " control " in this, its literal, meaning)

control of the gods . That there are defects in the logical See also:

• PROCESS

process as here outlined to See also:

• ACCOUNT
• ACCOUNT (through O. Fr. acont, Late Lat. comptum, cornputare, to calculate)

account for the curious rite constitutes no valid objection to the theory advanced, for, in the first place, primitive See also:

• LOGIC (Xoy1K7, sc. rixvrt, the art of reasoning)

logic in matters of belief is inherently defective and even contradictory, and, secondly, the strong See also:

• DESIRE

desire to See also:

• PIERCE, FRANKLIN (1804—1869)

pierce the mysterious future, forming an impelling See also:

• FACTOR (from Lat. facere, to make or do)

factor in all religions—even in the most advanced of our own day—would tend to obscure the weakness of any theory See also:

• DEVELOPED

developed to explain a rite which represents merely one endeavour among many to divine the intention and plans of the gods, upon the knowledge of which so much of man's happiness and welfare depended . Passing now to typical examples, the beginning must be made with Babylonia, which is also the richest source of our knowledge of the details of the rite . Hepatoscopy in the See also:

• EUPHRATES (Babylon. Purattu, Heb. Perath, Arab. Frdt or Furst, Old Pers. Ufratu, Gr. Eb4 parrls)

Euphrates valley can be traced back to the 3rd millennium before our era, which may be taken as sufficient evidence for its survival from the period of ,primitive culture, while the supreme importance attached to signs read on the livers of sacrificial animals—usually a See also:

• SHEEP
• SHEEP (from the Anglo-Saxon sceap, a word common in various forms to Teutonic languages; e.g. the German Schaf)

sheep—follows from the care with which omens derived from such inspection on occasions of See also:

• HISTORICAL

historical significance were pre-served as guides to later generations of priests . Thus we have a collection of the signs noted during the career of See also:

• SARGON

Sargon I. of Agade (c .

2800 B.C.), which in some way were handed down till the days of the See also:

• ASSYRIAN

Assyrian See also:

• KING
• KING (O. Eng. cyning, abbreviated into cyng, cing; cf. O. H. G. chun- kuning, chun- kunig, M.H.G. kiinic, kiinec, kiinc, Mod. Ger. Konig, O. Norse konungr, kongr, Swed. konung, kung)
• KING [OF OCKHAM], PETER KING, 1ST BARON (1669-1734)
• KING, CHARLES WILLIAM (1818-1888)
• KING, CLARENCE (1842–1901)
• KING, EDWARD (1612–1637)
• KING, EDWARD (1829–1910)
• KING, HENRY (1591-1669)
• KING, RUFUS (1755–1827)
• KING, THOMAS (1730–1805)
• KING, WILLIAM (1650-1729)
• KING, WILLIAM (1663–1712)

king See also:

• ASSUR
• ASSUR (Auth. Vera. Asshur)

Assur-bani-See also:

• PAL, KRISTO DAS (1839–1884)

pal (668–626 B.C.) . One of the See also:

• CHIEF (from Fr. chef, head, Lat. caput)

chief names for the priest was See also:

• BARE

bare—literally the " in-specter "—which was given to him because of the prominence of his function as an inspector of livers for the purpose of divining the intention of the gods . It is to the collections formed by these bare-priests as a guidance for themselves and as a basis of instruction for those in training for the priesthood that we owe our knowledge of the parts of the liver to which particular See also:

• ATTENTION (from Lat. ad-tendo, await, expect; the condition of being " stretched " or " tense ")

attention was directed, of the signs noted, and of the principles guiding the See also:

• INTERPRETATION (from Lat. interpretari, to expound, explain, inter pres, an agent, go-between, interpreter; inter, between, and the root pret-, possibly connected with that seen either in Greek 4 p4'ew, to speak, or irpa-rrecv, to do)

interpretation of the signs . The inspection of the liver for purposes of divination led to the study of the See also:

• ANATOMY
• ANATOMY (Gr. avaroyil, from ava-silo c', to cut up)

anatomy of the liver, and there are indeed See also:

• GOOD, JOHN MASON (1764-1827)

good reasons for believing that hepatoscopy represents the starting-point for the study of animal anatomy in See also:

• GENERAL
• GENERAL (Lat. generalis, of or relating to a genus, kind or class)

general . We find in the Babylonian-Assyrian See also:

• OMEN (a Latin word, either connected with os, mouth, or more probably with auris (Gr. ois, ear; apparently, meaning " a thing heard " or " spoken ")

omen-texts See also:

• SPECIAL

special designations for the three See also:

• MAIN (from the Aryan root which appears in " may " and " might," and Lat. magnus, great)
• MAIN (Lat. Moenus)

main lobes of the sheep's liver—the lobus See also:

• DEXTER, HENRY MARTYN (1821—1890)
• DEXTER, TIMOTHY (1747—1806)

dexter, the lobus sinister and the lobus caudatus; the first-named being called " the right wing of the liver," the second " the See also:

• LEFT

left wing of the liver," and the third " the See also:

• MIDDLE

middle of the liver." Whether the See also:

• DIVISION (from Lat. dividere, to break up into parts, separate)

division of the lobus dexter into two divisions—(r) lobus dexter proper and (2) lobus quadratus, as in See also:

• MODERN

modern anatomical nomenclature—was also assumed in Babylonian hepatoscopy, is not certain, but the groove separating the right See also:

• LOBE

lobe into two sections—the fossa venae umbilicalis—was recognized and distinguished by the designation of " See also:

• RIVER

river of the liver." The two appendixes attached to the upper lobe or lobus pyramidalis, and known in modern nomenclature as processus pyramidalis and processus papillaris, were described respectively as the "See also:

• FINGER

finger" of the liver and as the " offshoot." The former of these two appendixes plays an especially important part in hepatoscopy, and, according to its shape and peculiarities, furnishes a good or See also:

• BAD, BCD

bad omen . The See also:

• GALL (a word common to many Teutonic languages, cf. Dutch gal, and Ger. Galle; the Indo-European root appears in Gr. xoXi,, and Lat. fel; possibly connected with " yellow," with reference to the colour of bile)
• GALL, FRANZ JOSEPH (1758-1828)

gall-See also:

• BLADDER (from A.S. blaeddre, connected with bl¢wan, to blow, cf. Ger. blase)

bladder, appropriately designated as " the See also:

• BITTER, KARL THEODORE FRANCIS (1867– )

bitter," was regarded as a part of the liver, and the cystic duct (compared, apparently, to a " penis") to which it is joined, as well as the hepatic duct (pictured as an " outlet ") and the ductus choleductus (described as a " yoke "), all had their special designations . The depression separating the two lower lobes from the lobus caudatus, and known as the porta hepatis, was appropriately designated as the " crucible " of the liver . Lastly, to pass over unnecessary details, the markings of various kinds to be observed on the lobes of the livers of freshly-slaughtered animals, which are due mainly to the traces left by the subsidiary hepatic ducts and hepatic See also:

• VEINS

veins on the liver See also:

• SURFACE

surface, were described as " holes," " paths," " clubs " and the like . The constantly varying character of these markings, no two livers being alike in this respect, furnished a particularly large See also:

• FIELD (a word common to many West German languages, cf. Ger. Feld, Dutch veld, possibly cognate with O.E. f olde, the earth, and ultimately with root of the Gr. irAaror, broad)
• FIELD, CYRUS WEST (1819-1892)
• FIELD, DAVID DUDLEY (18o5-1894)
• FIELD, EUGENE (1850-1895)
• FIELD, FREDERICK (18o1—1885)
• FIELD, HENRY MARTYN (1822-1907)
• FIELD, JOHN (1782—1837)
• FIELD, MARSHALL (183 1906)
• FIELD, NATHAN (1587—1633)
• FIELD, STEPHEN JOHNSON (1816-1899)
• FIELD, WILLIAM VENTRIS FIELD, BARON (1813-1907)

field for the See also:

• FANCY (a shortened form, dating from the 15th century, of " fantasy," which is derived through the O. Fr. fantasie, modern fantaisie. from the Latinized form of the Gr. cbavraoia, Oavrai'ecv, Oat Pais, to show)

fancy of the bare-priest . In the interpretation of these signs the two chief factors were association of ideas and association of words . If, for example, the processus pyramidalis was abnormally small and the processus papillaris abnormally large, it pointed to a reversion of the natural See also:

• ORDER
• ORDER (through Fr. ordre, for earlier ordene, from Lat. ordo, ordinis, rank, service, arrangement; the ultimate source is generally taken to be the root seen in Lat. oriri, rise, arise, begin; cf. " origin ")
• ORDER, HOLY

order, to wit, that the servant should control the See also:

• MASTER (Lat. magister, related to tnagis, more, as the corresponding minister is to minus, less; the English form is due partly to the O. Eng. maegister, and partly to O. Fr. maistre, mod. maitre; cf. Du. meester, Ger. Meister, Ital. maestro)

master or that the son would be above the See also:

• FATHER

father . A. See also:

• LONG, GEORGE (1800-1879)
• LONG, JOHN DAVIS (1838– )

long cystic duct would point to a long reign of the king .

If the gall-bladder was swollen, it pointed to an See also:

• EXTENSION (Lat. ex, out ; tendere, to stretch)

extension or enlargement of some See also:

• KIND (O. E. ge-cynde, from the same root as is seen in " kin," supra)

kind . If the porta hepatis was torn it prognosticated a plundering of the enemy's See also:

• LAND

land . As among most people, a sign on the right See also:

• SIDE
• SIDE (mod. Eski Adalia)

side was favourable, but the same sign on the left side unfavourable . If, for example, the porta hepatis was long on the right side and short on the left side, it was a good sign for the king's See also:

• ARMY
• ARMY (from Fr. armee, Lat. armata)

army, but if short on the right side and long on the left, it was unfavourable; and similarly for a whole See also:

• SERIES (a Latin word from serere, to join)

series of phenomena connected with any one of the various subdivisions of the liver . Past experience constituted another important factor in establishing the interpretation of signs noted . If, for example, on a certain occasion when the liver of a sacrificial animal was examined, certain events of a favourable character followed, the conclusion was See also:

• DRAWN

drawn that the signs observed were favourable, and hence the recurrence of these signs on another occasion suggested a favourable See also:

• ANSWER (derived from and, against, and the same root as swear)

answer to the question put to the priests . With this in view, omens given in the reigns of prominent rulers were preserved with special care as guides to the priests . In the course of time the collections of signs and their interpretation made by the bare-priests See also:

• GREW, NEHEMIAH (1641-1712)

grew in number until elaborate series were produced in which the endeavour was made to exhaust so far as possible all the varieties and modifications of the many signs, so as to furnish a See also:

• COMPLETE

complete handbook both for purposesof instruction and as a basis for the See also:

• PRACTICAL

practical See also:

• WORK

work of divination . Divination through the liver remained in force among the Assyrians and Babylonians down to the end of the Babylonian See also:

• EMPIRE

Empire . Among the Greeks and Romans likewise it was the liver that continued throughout all periods to See also:

• PLAY

play the chief role in divination through the sacrificial animal . Blecher (De Extispicio Capita Tria, See also:

• GIESSEN

Giessen, 1905, pp . 3-22) has recently collected most of the references in See also:

• GREEK
• GREEK, ETRUSCAN AND

Greek and Latin authors to animal divination, and an examination of these shows conclusively that, alth nigh the general See also:

• TERM

term used for the inspection of the sacrificial animal was iera or iereia (i.e .

" victims " or " sacred parts ") in Greek, and exta in Latin, when specific illustrations are introduced, the reference is almost invariably to some sign or signs on the liver; and we have an interesting statement in See also:

• PLINY, THE ELDER
• PLINY, THE YOUNGER

Pliny (Hist . Nat. xi . § 186), furnishing the date (274 B.c.) when the examination of the heart was for the first time introduced by the side of the liver as a means of divining the future, while the lungs are not mentioned till we reach the days of See also:

• CICERO

Cicero (de Divinatione, i . 85) . We are justified in concluding, therefore, that among the Greeks and Romans likewise the examination of the liver was the basis of divination in the case of the sacrificial animal . It =" well known that the Romans borrowed their methods of hepatoscopy from the Etruscans, and, apart from the direct evidence for this in Latin writings, we have, in the case of the See also:

• BRONZE

bronze See also:

• MODEL (0. Fr. modelle, mod. modele; It. modello, pattern, mould; from Lat. modus, measure, standard)

model of a liver found near See also:

• PIACENZA (Lat. Placentia)

Piacenza in 1877, and of See also:

• ETRUSCAN

Etruscan origin, the unmistakable See also:

• PROOF (in M. Eng. preove, proeve, preve, &°c., from O. Fr . prueve, proeve, &c., mod. preuve, Late. Lat. proba, probate, to prove, to test the goodness of anything, probus, good)

proof that among the Etruscans the examination of the liver was the basis of animal divination . Besides this See also:

• OBJECT

object dating from about the 3rd See also:

• CENTURY (from Lat. centuria, a division of a hundred men)

century B.C., according to the latest investigator, G . Korte (" See also:

• DIE
• DIE (Fr. de, from Lat. datum, given)

Die Bronzeleber von Piacenza," in Mitt. d . K . D . Archaeol . Instituts, 1905, XX. pp .

348-379), there are other Etruscan monuments, e.g. the figure of an Etruscan augur holding a liver in his hand as his trade-mark (Korte, ib. pl. xiv.), which point in the same direction, and indicate that the model of the liver was used as an object See also:

• LESSON (through Fr. lecon from Lat. lectio, reading; legere, to read)

lesson to illustrate the method of divination through the liver . For further details the reader is referred to Thulin's monograph, Die Etruskische Disciplin, II Die Haruspicin (See also:

• GOTHENBURG (Swed. Goteborg)

Gothenburg, 1906) . As for the Greeks, it is still an open question whether they perfected their method of hepatoscopy under Etruscan See also:

• INFLUENCE (Late Lat. influentia, from influere, to flow in)

influence or through the Babylonians . In any case, since the Eastern origin of the Etruscans is now generally admitted, we may temporarily, at least, accept the conclusion that hepatoscopy as a method of divination owes its survival in advanced forms of culture to the elaborate See also:

• SYSTEM

system devised in the course of centuries by the Babylonian priests, and to the influence, direct and indirect, exerted by this system in the ancient See also:

• WORLD

world . But for this system hepatoscopy, the theoretic basis of which as above set forth falls within the See also:

• SPHERE (Gr. vclsa?pa, a ball or globe)

sphere of ideas that belong to primitive culture, would have passed away as higher stages of civilization were reached; and as a matter of fact it plays no part in the See also:

• EGYPTIAN

Egyptian culture or in the civilization of See also:

• INDIA
• INDIA, FRENCH

India, while among the See also:

• HEBREWS, EPISTLE TO THE

Hebrews only faint traces of the primitive See also:

• IDEA (Gr. Ibia, connected with i&eiv, to see; cf. Lat. species from specere, to look at)

idea of the liver as the seat of the soul are to be met with in the Old Testament, among which an allusion in the indirect form of a protest against the use of the sacrificial animal for purposes of divination in the See also:

• ORDINANCE
• ORDINANCE, or ORDONNANCE

ordinance (See also:

• EXODUS, BOOK OF
• EXODUS, THE

Exodus See also:

• XXIX

xxix . 13, 22; See also:

• LEVITICUS

Leviticus iii . 4, 10, 15, &c.) to See also:

• BURN, RICHARD (1709-1785)

burn the processus pyramidalis of the liver, which played a particularly significant role in hepatoscopy, calls for special mention . In modern times hepatoscopy still survives among primitive peoples in Borneo, Burma', Uganda, &c . It but remains to See also:

• CALL (from Anglo-Saxon ceallian, a common Teutonic word, cf. Dutch kallen, to talk or chatter)

call attention to the fact that the earlier view of the liver as the seat of the soul gave way among many ancient nations to 'the theory which, reflecting the growth of anatomical knowledge, assigned that function to the heart, while, with the further See also:

• CHANGE (derived through the Fr. from the Late Lat. cambium, cambiare, to barter; the ultimate derivation is probably from the root which appears in the Gr. «a urmu', to bend)

change which led to placing the seat of soul-life in the brain, an See also:

• ATTEMPT (Lat. adtemptare, attentare, to try)

attempt was made to See also:

• PARTITION

partition the various functions of manifestations of See also:

• PERSONALITY (from Lat. persona, originally an actor's mask, from personare,1 to sound through)

personality among the three See also:

• ORGANS

organs, brain, heart and liver, the intellectual activity being assigned to the first-named; the higher emotions, as love and courage, to the second; while the liver, once the master of the entire domain of soul-life as understood in antiquity, was degraded to serve as the seat of the lower emotions, such as jealousy, anger and the like . This is substantially the view set forth in the See also:

• TIMAEUS (c. 345—c. 250 B.e.)

Timaeus of See also:

• PLATO

Plato (§ 71 c) . The addition of the heart to the liver as an organ of the See also:

• REVELATION, BOOK OF

revelation of the divine will, reflects the stage which assigned to the heart the position once occupied by the liver . By the time the third stage, which placed the seat of soul-life in the brain, was reached through the further advance of anatomical knowledge, the religious See also:

• RITES

rites of See also:

• GREECE

Greece and See also:

• ROME
• ROME (Roma)

Rome were too deeply incrusted to admit of further See also:

• RADICAL (Lat. radix, a root)

radical changes, and faith in the gods had already declined too far to bring new elements into the See also:

• RELIGION
• RELIGION, FOLKLORE, CUSTOM

religion .

In See also:

• PHRENOLOGY, (from Gr. OOP, mind, and Xbyos, discourse)

phrenology, however, as popularly carried on as an unofficial cult, we may recognize a modified form of divination, co-See also:

• ORDINATE

ordinate with the third stage in the development of beliefs regarding the seat of soul and based on the assumption that this organ is—as were its predecessors—a See also:

• MEDIUM

medium of revelation of otherwise hidden knowledge . (M .