See also:

• OPIUM (Gr. amov, dim. from Orbs, juice)

OPIUM (Gr. amov, dim. from Orbs, juice)  , a narcotic See also:

• DRUG
• DRUG (from Fr. drogue, a word common in Romance languages, cf. Span. and Ital. droga; the origin of the word is obscure, but may possibly be connected with Dutch droog, dry)

drug prepared from the juice of the See also:

• OPIUM (Gr. amov, dim. from Orbs, juice)

opium See also:

• POPPY

poppy, Papaver somniferum, a plant probably indigenous in the See also:

• SOUTH
• SOUTH, ROBERT (1634–1716)

south of See also:

• EUROPE

Europe and western See also:

• ASIA

Asia, but now so widely cultivated that its See also:

• ORIGINAL

original See also:

• HABITAT (a French word derived from habiter, Lat. habitare, to dwell)

habitat is uncertain . The medicinal properties of the juice have been recognized from a very See also:

• EARLY
• EARLY, JUBAL ANDERSON (1816-1894)

early See also:

• PERIOD
• PERIOD (Gr. irepioSos, a going or way round, circuit, aepi, round, and &Sis, way, road)

period . It was known to Theo- phrastus by the name of np c,viov, and appears in his See also:

• TIME (0. Eng. Lima, cf. Icel. timi, Swed. timme, hour, Dan. time; from the root also seen in " tide," properly the time of between the flow and ebb of the sea, cf. O. Eng. getidan, to happen, " even-tide," &c.; it is not directly related to Lat. tempus)
• TIME, MEASUREMENT OF
• TIME, STANDARD

time to have consisted of an See also:

• EXTRACT (from Lat. extrahere, to draw out)

extract of the whole plant, since Dioscorides, about A.D . 77, draws a distinction between µrlKWVecov, which he describes as an extract of the entire See also:

• HERB (Lat. herba, grass, food for cattle, generally taken to represent the Old Lat. forbea, Gr. 4op(3i1, pasture, <0p/3Ew, to feed, Sans. bharb, to eat)

herb, and the more active Orbs, derived from the capsules alone . From the 1st to the 12th See also:

• CENTURY (from Lat. centuria, a division of a hundred men)

century the opium of Asia See also:

• MINOR
• MINOR (Lat. for smaller, lesser)
• MINOR, ROBERT CRANNELL (1839-1904)

Minor appears to have been the only See also:

• KIND (O. E. ge-cynde, from the same root as is seen in " kin," supra)

kind known in See also:

• COMMERCE
• COMMERCE (Lat. commercium, from, cum, together, and rnerx, merchandise)

commerce . In the i3th century opium thebaicum is mentioned by See also:

• SIMON, ABRAHAM (1622-1692)
• SIMON, JULES FRANCOIS (1814–1896)
• SIMON, RICHARD (1638–1712)
• SIMON, SIR JOHN (1816–1904)
• SIMON, THOMAS (c. 1623-1665)

Simon Januensis, physician to See also:

• POPE (Gr. irarraas, post-classical Lat. papa, father)
• POPE, ALEXANDER (1688–1744)
• POPE, ALEXANDER (1763-1835)
• POPE, JANE (1742-1818)
• POPE, JOHN (1822-1892)
• POPE, SIR THOMAS (c. 1507-1559)

Pope See also:

• NICHOLAS
• NICHOLAS (1841– )
• NICHOLAS (or NICLAES), HENRY (or HENDRIK) (c. 1501-C. 158o)
• NICHOLAS, SIR EDWARD (1593-1669)
• NICHOLAS, ST

Nicholas IV., while meconium was still in use . In the 16th century opium is mentioned by Pyres (1516) as a See also:

• PRODUCTION (Lat. productionem, from producere, to pro-duce)

production of the See also:

• KINGDOM

kingdom of Cous (Kuch See also:

• BEHAR, or BIHAR

Behar, south-See also:

• WEST
• WEST, BENJAMIN (1738-1820)
• WEST, NICHOLAS (1461-1533)

west of See also:

• BHUTAN

Bhutan) in See also:

• BENGAL
• BENGAL, BAY OF

Bengal, and of See also:

• MALWA

Malwa.i Its introduction into See also:

• INDIA
• INDIA, FRENCH

India appears to have been connected with the spread of See also:

• ISLAM

Islam . The opium See also:

• MONOPOLY (Gr. govomeXla or govoircaXwv, exclusive sale, from govds, alone, and irwXeiv, to sell)

monopoly was the See also:

• PROPERTY

property of the See also:

• GREAT

Great See also:

• MOGUL, MOCHAL, or MIGHAL

Mogul and was regularly sold . In the 17th century See also:

• KAEMPFER, ENGELBRECHT (1651-1716)

Kaempfer describes the various kinds of opium prepared in See also:

• PERSIA

Persia, and states that the best sorts were flavoured with spices and called " theriaka." These preparations were held in great estimation during the See also:

• MIDDLE

middle ages, and probably supplied to a large extent the See also:

• PLACE (through Fr. from Lat. platea, street; Gr. IrAar6s, wide)

place of the pure drug . Opium is said to have been intro- duced into See also:

• CHINA

China by the See also:

• ARABS

Arabs probably in the 13th century, and it was originally used there as a See also:

• MEDICINE

medicine, the introduc- tion of opium-smoking being assigned to the 17th century . In a See also:

• CHINESE, JAPANESE AND

Chinese Herbal compiled before 1700 both the plant and its inspissated juice are described, together with the mode of See also:

• COLLECTING

collecting it, and in the See also:

• GENERAL
• GENERAL (Lat. generalis, of or relating to a genus, kind or class)

General See also:

• HISTORY

History of the See also:

• SOUTHERN

Southern Provinces of Yunnan, revised and republished in 1736, opium is noticed as a See also:

• COMMON

common product . The first See also:

• EDICT (Lat. edictum, from e, out, and dicere, to say, speak)

edict prohibiting opium-smoking was issued by the See also:

• EMPEROR (Fr. empereur, from the Lat. imperator)

emperor Yung See also:

• CHENG

Cheng in 1729 .

Up to that date the amount imported did not exceefl 200 chests, and was usually brought from India by junks as a return See also:

• CARGO (Span. for " loading," from Lat. carries, car)

cargo . In the See also:

• YEAR

year 1757 the monopoly of opium cultivation in India passed into the hands of the See also:

• EAST
• EAST, ALFRED (1849- )

East India See also:

• COMPANY

Company through the victory of See also:

• CLIVE, CAROLINE (1801-1873)
• CLIVE, CATHERINE [KITTY] (1711-1785)
• CLIVE, ROBERT CLIVE, BARON (1725-1774)

Clive at See also:

• PLASSEY (Palasi)

Plassey . Up to 1773 the See also:

• TRADE (O. Eng. trod, footstep, from tredan, to tread; in M. Eng. the forms teed, trod and trade appear, the last in the sense of a beaten track)
• TRADE, BOARD OF

trade with China had been in the hands of the Portuguese, but in that year the East India Company took the trade under their own See also:

• CHARGE
• CHARGE (through the Fr. from the Late Lat. carricare, to load in a carrus or wagon; cf. " cargo ")

charge, and in 1776 the See also:

• ANNUAL

annual export reached r000 chests, and 5054 chests in 1790 . Although the importation was forbidden by the Chinese imperial authorities in 1796, and opium-smoking punished with severe penalties (ultimately increased to trans- portation and See also:

• DEATH

death), the trade continued and had increased during 1820—1830 to 16,877 chests per annum . The trade was See also:

• CONTRABAND (Fr. contrebande, from contra, against, and bannum, Low Lat. for " proclamation ")

contraband, and the opium was bought by the Chinese from See also:

• DEPOT (from the Fr. depot, Lat. depositum, laid down; the French accent marks are usually dispensed with in English)

depot See also:

• SHIPS

ships at the ports . Up to 1839 no effort was made to stop the trade, but in that year the emperor Tao-Kwang sent a com- missioner, Lin Tsze-su, to See also:

• CANTON
• CANTON (borrowed from the Ital. cantone, a corner or angle)
• CANTON (more correctly KWANG-CHOW Fu)
• CANTON, JOHN (1718-1772)

Canton to put down the See also:

• TRAFFIC

traffic . Lin issued a See also:

• PROCLAMATION (Lat. proclamare, to make public by announcement)

proclamation threatening hostile See also:

• MEASURES

measures if the See also:

• BRITISH

British opium ships serving as depots were not sent away . The demand for removal not being complied with, 20,291 chests of opium (of 1493 lb each), valued at £2,000,000,,were destroyed by the Chinese See also:

• COMMISSIONER

commissioner Lin; but still the British sought to 1 Aromatum Historia (ed . Clusius, See also:

• ANT
• ANT (O. Eng. aemete, from Teutonic a, privative, and maitan, cut or bite off, i.e. " the biter off "; aemete in Middle English became differentiated in dialect use to (mete, then amte, and so ant, and also to emete, whence the synonym " emmet," now only u

Ant., 1574) . smuggle cargoes on See also:

• SHORE

shore, and some outrages committed oft both sides led to an open See also:

• WAR
• WAR (O. Eng. werre, Fr. guerre, of Teutonic origin; cf. O.H.G. werran, to confound)

war, which was ended by the treaty of See also:

• NANKING (" the southern capital ")

Nanking in 1842 . The importation of opium continued and was legalized in 1858 . From that time, in spite of the remonstrances of the Chinese See also:

• GOVERNMENT
• GOVERNMENT (0. Fr. governement, mod. gouvernement, O. Fr. governer, mod. gouverner, from Lat. gubernare, to steer a ship, guide, rule; cf. Gr. xv(3epvav)

government, the exportation of opium from India to China continued, increasing from 52,925 piculs (of 1333 lb) in 1850 to 96,839 piculs in 1880 .

While, however, the See also:

• COURT
• COURT (from the O. Fr. court, Late Lat. cortis, curtis, a popular form of class. Lat. cohors, gen. cohortis; the mod. Fr. form tour is due to the influence of the Lat. curia, the word used in medieval documents to translate " court " in the feudal sense)
• COURT, ANTOINE (1696-176o)

court of See also:

• PEKING, or PEKIN

Peking was honestly endeavouring to suppress the See also:

• FOREIGN

foreign trade in opium from 1839 to 1858 several of the provincial viceroys encouraged the trade, nor could the central government put a stop to the See also:

• HOME
• HOME, DANIEL DUNGLAS (1833-1886)
• HOME, EARLS OF

home cultivation of the drug . The cultivation increased so rapidly that at the beginning of the 20th century opium was produced in every See also:

• PROVINCE
• PROVINCE (Lat. provincia; perhaps a contraction of providentia)

province of China . The western provinces of Sze-ch'uen, Yun-nan and Kwei-chow yielded respectively 200,000, 30,000 and 15,000 piculs (of 1333 lb) See also:

• MANCHURIA

Manchuria 15,000; Shen-si, Chih-li and Shan-tung ro,000 each; and the other provinces from 5000 to 500 piculs each, the whole amount produced in China in 1906 being estimated at 330,000 piculs, of which the province of Sze-ch'uen produced nearly two-thirds . Of this amount China required for home See also:

• CONSUMPTION (Lat. consumere)

consumption 325,270 piculs, the See also:

• REMAINDER, REVERSION

remainder being chiefly exported to Indo-China, whilst 54,225 piculs of foreign opium were imported into China . Of the whole amount of opium used in China, equal to 22,588 tons, only about one-seventh came from India . The Chinese government regarding the use of opium as one of the most acute moral and economic questions which as a nation they have to See also:

• FACE (from Lat. fades, derived either from facere, to make, or from a root fa-, meaning " appear "; cf. Gr. cbatvstv)

face, representing an annual loss to the See also:

• COUNTRY (from the Mid. Eng. contre or contrie, and O. Fr. cuntree; Late Lat. contrata, showing the derivation from contra, opposite, over against, thus the tract of land which fronts the sight, cf. Ger. Gegend, neighbourhood)

country of 856,250,000 taels, decided in 1906 to put an end to the use of the drug within ten years, and issued an edict on the loth of See also:

• SEPTEMBER (Lat. septem, seven)

September 1906, forbidding the consumption of opium and the cultivation of the poppy . As an indication of their earnestness of purpose the government allowed officials a period of six months in which to break off the use of opium, under heavy penalties if they failed to do so . In See also:

• OCTOBER

October of the same year the See also:

• AMERICAN

American government in the Philippines, having to See also:

• DEAL

deal with the opium trade, raised the question of the taking of See also:

• JOINT (through Fr. from Lat. junctum, jungere, to join)

joint measures for its suppression by the See also:

• POWERS, HIRAM (1805-1873)

powers interested, and as a result a See also:

• CONFERENCE

conference met at See also:

• SHANGHAI

Shanghai on the 1st of See also:

• FEBRUARY

February 1909 to which China, the See also:

• UNITED

United States of See also:

• AMERICA

America, Great See also:

• BRITAIN (Gr. Hperavuml vi7vot, Bperravia; Lat. Britannia, rarely Britannia)

Britain, See also:

• AUSTRIA
• AUSTRIA, LOWER (Ger. Niederosterreich or Osterreich unter der Enns, " Austria below the river Enns ")
• AUSTRIA, UPPER (Ger. Oberosterreich or Osterreich ob der Enns, " Austria above the river Enns ")

Austria-See also:

• HUNGARY
• HUNGARY (Hungarian Magyarorszdg)

Hungary, See also:

• FRANCE
• FRANCE, ANATOLE (1844– )

France, See also:

• GERMANY
• GERMANY (Ger. Deutschland)

Germany, See also:

• ITALY
• ITALY (Italia)

Italy, See also:

• JAPAN

Japan, the See also:

• NETHERLANDS

Netherlands, Persia, See also:

• PORTUGAL

Portugal and See also:

• RUSSIA
• RUSSIA (Rossiya)

Russia sent delegates . At this See also:

• MEETING (from " to meet," to come together, assemble, 0. Eng. metals ; cf. Du. moeten, Swed. mota, Goth. gamotjan, &c., derivatives of the Teut. word for a meeting, seen in O. Eng. Wit, moot, an assembly of the people; cf. witanagemot)

meeting it was resolved that it was the See also:

• DUTY (from " due," that which is owing, O. Fr. deu, dil, past participle of devoir; Lat. debere, debitum; cf. " debt ")

duty of the respective governments to prevent the export of opium to any countries prohibiting its importation; that drastic measures should be taken against the use of See also:

• MORPHINE

morphine; that See also:

• ANTI, or CAMPA

anti-opium remedies should be investigated; and that all countries having concessions in China should See also:

• CLOSE
• CLOSE (from Lat. clausum, shut)
• CLOSE, MAXWELL HENRY (1822-1903)

close the opium divans in their possessions . The British government made an offer in 1907 to reduce the export of See also:

• INDIAN

Indian opium to countries beyond the seas by 5100 chests, i.e . - th of the amount annually taken by China, each year until the year 1910, and that if during these three years the Chinese government had carried out its arrangements for proportionally diminishing the production and consumption of opium in China, the British government were prepared to continue the same See also:

• RATE

rate of reduction, so that the export of Indian opium to China would cease in ten years; the restrictions of the imports of See also:

• TURKISH

Turkish, See also:

• PERSIAN
• PERSIAN, SYRIAN, EGYPTIAN AND TURKISH

Persian and other opiums being separately arranged for by the Chinese government, and carried out simultaneously . The above proposal was gratefully received by the Chinese government .

A non-See also:

• OFFICIAL (Late Lat. QJicialis, for class. Lat. apparitor, from officium, office, duty)

official See also:

• REPORT (O.Fr. report or raport, modern rapport, from O.Fr. reporter, mod. rap porter, Lat. reportare, to bring back, in poetical use only, of bringing back an account, news, &c.)

report by Mr E . S . Little, after travelling through western China, which appeared in the See also:

• NEWSPAPERS

newspapers in May 1910, stated that all over the province of Sze-ch'uen opium had almost ceased to be produced, except only in a few remote districts on the frontier (see further CHINA; § History) . The See also:

• AVERAGE

average annual import of Persian and Turkish opium into China is estimated at 1125 piculs, and if this quantity were to be reduced every year by one-ninth, beginning in 1909, in nine years the import into China would entirely cease, and the Indian, Persian and Turkish opiums no longer be articles of commerce in that country . One result of these regulations was that the See also:

• PRICE
• PRICE, BARTHOLOMEW (1818–1898)
• PRICE, BONAMY (1807-1888)
• PRICE, RICHARD (1723-1791)

price of foreign opium in China See also:

• ROSE
• ROSE (Rosa)
• ROSE, GEORGE (1744-1818)
• ROSE, HUGH JAMES (1795—1838)
• ROSE, WILLIAM STEWART (1775-1843)

rose, a circumstance which was calculated to reduce the loss to the Indian See also:

• REVENUE
• REVENUE (0. Fr. revenu, from revenir, to return)

revenue . somniferum) . Thus in 1909–1910, with only 350,000 acres under cultivation and 40,000 chests of opium in stock, the revenue was £4,420,600 as against £3,572,944 in 1905–1906 with 613,996 acres under cultivation and a stock of 76,063 chests . No opium See also:

• DENS, PETER (1690-1775)

dens have been allowed since 1907 in their possessions or leased territories in China by Great Britain, France, Germany, Russia or Japan . The difficulties of the task undertaken by the Chinese government to eradicate a See also:

• NATIONAL

national and popular See also:

• VICE

vice, in a country whose See also:

• POPULATION (Lat. populus, people; populare, to populate)

population is generally estimated at 400,000,000, are increased by the fact that the opium See also:

• HABIT (through the French from Lat. habitus, from habere, to have, hold, or, in a reflective sense, to be in a certain condition; in many of the English senses the French use habitude, not habit)

habit has been indulged in by all classes of society, that opium has been practically the See also:

• PRINCIPAL

principal if not the only national stimulant; that it must involve a considerable loss of revenue, which will have to be made up by other taxes, and by the fact that its cultivation is more profitable than that of cereals, for an See also:

• ENGLISH

English See also:

• ACRE
• ACRE, or AQUIRY

acre will on the average produce raw dry opium of the value of £5, 16s . 8d. while it will yield See also:

• GRAIN (derived through the French from Lat. granum, seed, from an Aryan root meaning " to wear down," which also appears in the common Teutonic word " corn ")

grain valued only at £4, 5s . 6d . Various remedies for the opium habit have been experimented with in China, but with doubtful success .

Under the name of anti-opium cure various remedies containing morphine in the See also:

• FORM (Lat. forma)

form of See also:

• POWDER (through O. Fr. puldre, modern poudre, from Lat. pulvis, pulveris, dust)

powder, or of little pills, have been introduced, as well as the subcutaneous injection of the See also:

• ALKALOID

alkaloid, so that the use of morphine is increasing in China to an alarming extent, and considerable difficulty is experienced in controlling the illicit traffic in it, especially that sent through the See also:

• POST

post . Its See also:

• COMPARATIVE

comparative cheapness, one See also:

• DOLLAR

dollar's See also:

• WORTH
• WORTH, CHARLES FREDERICK (1825-1895)

worth being equal to three dollars' worth of opium in the effect produced, its portability and the facilities offered in obtaining it, are all in its favour . A See also:

• GOOD, JOHN MASON (1764-1827)

good deal of morphine is exported to Japan from Europe, and generally passes into China by way of Manchuria, where See also:

• JAPANESE

Japanese products have a virtual monopoly . The effects of morphine are much more deleterious than those of opium-smoking . The See also:

• SMOKE (from O. Eng. smeocan, to smoke, reek, cf. Dutch meek, Ger. Schmauch, probably allied to Gr. vol9caiv)

smoke of opium, as shown by H . See also:

• MOISSAN, HENRI (1852-1907)

Moissan, contains only a trifling amount of morphia, and the effect produced by it is apparently due, not to that alkaloid, but to such decomposition products as See also:

• PYRROL, C4H5N

pyrrol, See also:

• ACETONE, or DIMETHYL KETONE

acetone and See also:

• PYRIDINE

pyridine and hydro-pyridine bases . F . See also:

• BROWNE
• BROWNE, EDWARD HAROLD (18,1–1891)
• BROWNE, ISAAC HAWKINS (1705-1760)
• BROWNE, JAMES (1793–1841)
• BROWNE, MAXIMILIAN ULYSSES, COUNT VON, BARON DE CAMUS AND MOUNTANY (1705-1757)
• BROWNE, PETER (?1665-1735)
• BROWNE, ROBERT (1550-1633)
• BROWNE, SIR JAMES (1839–1896)
• BROWNE, SIR THOMAS (1605-1682)
• BROWNE, WILLIAM (1591–1643)
• BROWNE, WILLIAM GEORGE (1768-1813)

Browne finds that after smoking " chandoo," containing 8.98 % of morphine, 7.63 % was See also:

• LEFT

left in the dross, so that only 1.35 % of morphia was carried over in the smoke or decomposed by the See also:

• HEAT (0. E. haktu, which like " hot," Old Eng. hat, is from the Teutonic type haita, hit, to be hot; cf. Ger. hitze, heiss; Dutch, hitte, heet, &c.)

heat . For many years two Scotch firms, Messrs J . D . Macfarlan and T. and H . See also:

• SMITH
• SMITH, ADAM (1723–1790)
• SMITH, ALEXANDER (183o-1867)
• SMITH, ANDREW JACKSON (1815-1897)
• SMITH, CHARLES EMORY (1842–1908)
• SMITH, CHARLES FERGUSON (1807–1862)
• SMITH, CHARLOTTE (1749-1806)
• SMITH, COLVIN (1795—1875)
• SMITH, EDMUND KIRBY (1824-1893)
• SMITH, G
• SMITH, GEORGE (1789-1846)
• SMITH, GEORGE (184o-1876)
• SMITH, GEORGE ADAM (1856- )
• SMITH, GERRIT (1797–1874)
• SMITH, GOLDWIN (1823-191o)
• SMITH, HENRY BOYNTON (1815-1877)
• SMITH, HENRY JOHN STEPHEN (1826-1883)
• SMITH, HENRY PRESERVED (1847– )
• SMITH, JAMES (1775–1839)
• SMITH, JOHN (1579-1631)
• SMITH, JOHN RAPHAEL (1752–1812)
• SMITH, JOSEPH, JR
• SMITH, MORGAN LEWIS (1822–1874)
• SMITH, RICHARD BAIRD (1818-1861)
• SMITH, ROBERT (1689-1768)
• SMITH, SIR HENRY GEORGE WAKELYN
• SMITH, SIR THOMAS (1513-1577)
• SMITH, SIR WILLIAM (1813-1893)
• SMITH, SIR WILLIAM SIDNEY (1764-1840)
• SMITH, SYDNEY (1771-1845)
• SMITH, THOMAS SOUTHWOOD (1788-1861)
• SMITH, WILLIAM (1769-1839)
• SMITH, WILLIAM (c. 1730-1819)
• SMITH, WILLIAM (fl. 1596)
• SMITH, WILLIAM FARRAR (1824—1903)
• SMITH, WILLIAM HENRY (1808—1872)
• SMITH, WILLIAM HENRY (1825—1891)
• SMITH, WILLIAM ROBERTSON (1846-'894)

Smith of See also:

• EDINBURGH

Edinburgh, and T .

Whiffen of See also:

• LONDON

London manufactured practically the See also:

• WORLD

world's See also:

• SUPPLY (through Fr. from Lat. supplere, to fill up)

supply of this alkaloid, but it is now made in the United States and Germany, although the largest amount is still probably made in Great Britain . A small amount of morphine and codeine is also manufactured in India for medicinal use . The See also:

• PROHIBITION (Lat. prohibere, to prevent)

prohibition of the general importation of morphia into China except on certain conditions was agreed to by the British government in See also:

• ACT (Lat. actus, actum)

Act XI. of the See also:

• MACKAY
• MACKAY, CHARLES (1814–1889)
• MACKAY, HUGH (c. 164o-169z)
• MACKAY, JOHN WILLIAM (1831–1902)

Mackay. treaty, but only came into force on the 1st of See also:

• JANUARY

January 1909 . Unless the indirect importation of morphine into China from Europe and the United States is stopped, a worse habit and more difficult to cure than any other (except perhaps that of See also:

• COCAINE, C17H21NO4

cocaine) may replace that of opium-smoking in China . It is worse even than opium-eating, in proportion as morphine is more active than opium . The See also:

• SALE
• SALE, GEORGE (c. 1697-1736)
• SALE, SIR ROBERT HENRY (1782—1845)

sale and use of morphine in India and See also:

• BURMA

Burma is now restricted . The quantity of morphine that any one may legally possess, and then only for medicinal purposes, is in India io grams, and in Burma five . The See also:

• POSSESSION
• POSSESSION (Lat. possessio, possidere, to possess)

possession of morphine by medical practitioners is also safeguarded by well-defined limitations . Production and Commerce.—Although the collection of opium is possible in all places where there is not an excessive rainfall and the See also:

• CLIMATE

climate is temperate or subtropical, the yield is smaller in temperate than in tropical regions and the See also:

• INDUSTRY (Lat. industria, from indu-, a form of the pre, position in, and either stare, to stand, or struere, to pile up)

industry can only be profitably carried on where labour and See also:

• LAND

land are sufficiently cheap and abundant; hence production on a large See also:

• SCALE
• SCALE (1) A

scale is limited to comparatively few countries . The varieties of poppy grown, the mode of cultivation adopted and the See also:

• CHARACTER (Gr. xapareri7p, from xap&crew, to scratch)

character of the opium produced differ so greatly that it will be convenient to consider the opiums of each country separately . See also:

• TURKEY

Turkey.—The poppy cultivated in Asia Minor is the variety glabrum, distinguished by the sub-globular shape of the See also:

• CAPSULE (from the Lat. capsula, a small box)

capsule and by the stigmata or rays at the See also:

• TOP (cf. Dan. top, Ger. Topf, also meaning pot)

top of the See also:

• FRUIT (through the French from the Lat. fructus; frui, to enjoy)

fruit being ten or twelve in number . The See also:

• FLOWERS, ARTIFICIAL

flowers are usually of a purplish See also:

• COLOUR (Lat. color, connected with celare, to hide, the root meaning, therefore, being that of a covering)

colour, but are sometimes See also:

• WHITE
• WHITE, ANDREW DICKSON (1832– )
• WHITE, GILBERT (1720–1793)
• WHITE, HENRY KIRKE (1785-1806)
• WHITE, HUGH LAWSON (1773-1840)
• WHITE, JOSEPH BLANCO (1775-1841)
• WHITE, RICHARD GRANT (1822-1885)
• WHITE, ROBERT (1645-1704)
• WHITE, SIR GEORGE STUART (1835– )
• WHITE, SIR THOMAS (1492-1567)
• WHITE, SIR WILLIAM ARTHUR (1824--1891)
• WHITE, SIR WILLIAM HENRY (1845– )
• WHITE, THOMAS (1628-1698)
• WHITE, THOMAS (c. 1550-1624)

white, and the seeds, like the petals, vary in tint from dark See also:

• VIOLET

violet to white .

The cultivation is carried on, both on the more elevated and See also:

• LOWER

lower lands, chiefly by See also:

• PEASANT (O. Fr. paysant, Mod. paysan; Lat. pagensis, belonging to the pagus or country; cf. " pagan ")

peasant proprietors . A naturally See also:

• LIGHT

light and See also:

• RICH, BARNABE (c. 1540-1617)
• RICH, CLAUDIUS JAMES (1787-1821)
• RICH, JOHN (1692-1761)
• RICH, PENELOPE, LADY (c. 1562–1607)
• RICH, RICHARD, 1ST BARON RICH (1490?-1567)

rich See also:

• SOIL

soil, further improved by manure, is necessary, and moisture is indispensable, although injurious in excess, so that after a wet See also:

• WINTER, JOHN STRANGE
• WINTER, PETER (c. 1755-1825)

winter the best crops are obtained on hilly ground, and in a dry See also:

• SEASON (0. Fr. seson, seison, mod. saison, Lat. satio, sowing time, the spring, from serere, to sow; in Late Lat. the word is found with its present meaning, the spring being considered as particularly the season of the year)

season on the plains . The land is ploughed twice, the second time crosswise, so that it may be thoroughly pulverized; and the See also:

• SEED (from the root seen in Lat. serere, to sow)

seed, mixed with four times its quantity of See also:

• SAND
• SAND, GEORGE (1804-1876)

sand, to prevent its being sown too thickly, is scattered broadcast, about to i lb being used for every toloom (1600 sq. yds.) . The See also:

• CROP (a word common. in various forms, such as Germ. Kropf, to many Teutonic languages for a swelling, excrescence, round head or top of anything; it appears also in Romanic languages derived from Teutonic, in Fr. as troupe, whence the English " crupper "

crop is very uncertain owing to droughts, See also:

• SPRING (from " to spring," " to leap or jump up," " burst out," O. Eng., springau, a common Teut. word, cf. Ger. springer, possibly allied to Gr. QnrFpxecOac, to move rapidly)

spring frosts and locusts, and, in See also:

• ORDER
• ORDER (through Fr. ordre, for earlier ordene, from Lat. ordo, ordinis, rank, service, arrangement; the ultimate source is generally taken to be the root seen in Lat. oriri, rise, arise, begin; cf. " origin ")
• ORDER, HOLY

order to avoid a See also:

• TOTAL

total failure and to allow time for collecting the produce, there are three sowings at intervals from October to See also:

• MARCH
• MARCH (1) (from Fr. marcher, to walk; the earliest sense in French appears to be " to trample," and the origin has usually been found in the Lat. marcus, hammer; Low Lat. marcare, to hammer; hence to beat the road with the regular tread of a soldier: cf.
• MARCH, AUZIAS (c. "1395-1458)
• MARCH, EARLS OF
• MARCH, FRANCIS ANDREW (1825– )

March —the crops thus coming to perfection in See also:

• SUCCESSION (Lat. successio, from succedere, to follow after)

succession . But notwithstanding these precautions quantities of the drug are wasted when the crop is a full one, owing to the difficulty of gathering the whole in the See also:

• SHORT, FRANCIS JOB (1857– )

short time during which collection is possible . The first See also:

• SOWING (from "to sow," O. Eng. shwan, cf. Du. zaaijen, Ger. saen, &c.; the root is seen in Lat. severe, cf. "seed")

sowing produces the hardiest See also:

• PLANTS

plants, the yield of the other two depending almost entirely on favourable See also:

• WEATHER (O. Eng. weder; the word is common to Teutonic languages; cf. Du. weder, Dan. veir, Icel. ve8r, and Ger. Wetter and Gewitter, storm; the root is wa- to blow, from which is derived " wind ")

weather . In localities where there is See also:

• HOAR, SAMUEL (1778-1856)

hoar See also:

• FROST (a common Teutonic word, cf. Dutch, vorst, Ger. Frost, from the common Teutonic verb meaning " to freeze," Dutch, vriezcn, Ger. frieren; the Indo-European root is seen in Lat. pruina, hoar-frost, cf. prurire, to itch, burn, pruna, burning coal, Sans
• FROST, WILLIAM EDWARD (1810–1877)

frost in autumn and spring the seed is sown in September or at latest in the beginning of October, and the yield of opium and seed is then greater than if sown later . After sowing, the land is harrowed, and the See also:

• YOUNG
• YOUNG, A
• YOUNG, ARTHUR (1741-1820)
• YOUNG, BRIGHAM (1801-1877)
• YOUNG, CHARLES MAYNE (1777–1856)
• YOUNG, EDWARD (1683–1765)
• YOUNG, JAMES (1811-1883)
• YOUNG, THOMAS (1773-1829)

young plants are hoed and weeded, chiefly by See also:

• WOMEN

women and See also:

• CHILDREN, LAW RELATING TO

children, from early spring until the time of flowering . In the plains the flowers expand at the end of May, on the uplands in See also:

• JULY

July . At this period See also:

• GENTLE (through the Fr. gentil, from Lat. gentilis, belonging to the same gens, or family)

gentle showers are of great value, as they cause an increase in the subsequent yield of opium . The'petals fall in a few See also:

• HOURS, CANONICAL

hours, and the capsules grow so rapidly that in a short time—generally from nine to fifteen days—the opium is See also:

• FIT

fit for collection . This period is known by the capsules yielding to pressure with the fingers, assuming a lighter See also:

• GREEN, A
• GREEN, ALEXANDER HENRY (1832—1896)
• GREEN, DUFF (1791—1875)
• GREEN, JOHN RICHARD (1837—1883)
• GREEN, MATTHEW (1696-1737)
• GREEN, THOMAS HILL (1836-1882)
• GREEN, VALENTINE (1739–1813)
• GREEN, WILLIAM HENRY (.1825–1900)

green tint and exhibiting a kind of See also:

• BLOOM (from A.S. bloma, a flower)

bloom called " cougak," easily rubbed off with the fingers; they are then about i in. in See also:

• DIAMETER (from the Cr. &a, through, µErpov, measure)

diameter .

The incisions are made by holding the capsule in the left See also:

• HAND
• HAND (a word common to Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Hand, Goth. handus)
• HAND, FERDINAND GOTTHELF (1786-185r)

hand and See also:

• DRAWING

drawing a See also:

• KNIFE (0. E. cuff, a word appearing in different forms in many Teutonic languages, cf. Du. knijf, Ger. Kneif, a shoe-maker's knife, Swed. knif; the ultimate origin is unknown; Skeat finds the origin in the root of " nip," formerly " knip "; Fr. canif is a

knife two-thirds See also:

• ROUND (O. Fr. rond, Lat. rotundus, the Fr. is the source also of Du. rond; Ger., Swed., Dan. and Nor. rond)

round it, or spirally beyond the starting-point (see fig . 2, a), great care being taken not to let the incisions penetrate to the interior lest the juice should flow inside and be lost . (In this See also:

• CASE
• CASE, JOHN (d. 1600)

case also it is said that the seeds will not ripen, and that no oil can be obtained from them.) The operation is usually performed after the heat of the See also:

• DAY (O. Eng. dreg, Ger. Tag; according to the New English Dictionary, " in no way related to the Lat. dies")
• DAY, JOHN (1574-1640?)
• DAY, THOMAS (1748-1789)

day, commencing early in the afternoon and continuing to nightfall, and the exuded juice is collected the next See also:

• MORNING

morning . This is done by scraping the capsule with a knife and transferring the concreted juice to a poppy-See also:

• LEAF (O. Eng. leaf, cf. Dutch loof, Ger. Laub, Swed. lof, &c.; possibly to be referred to the root seen in Gr. Ma-eta, to peel, strip)

leaf held in the left hand, the edges of the leaf being turned in to avoid spilling the juice, and the knife-blade moistened with saliva by drawing it through the mouth after every alternate scraping to prevent the juice from adhering to it . When as much opium has been collected as the See also:

• SIZE

size of the leaf will allow, another leaf is wrapped over the top of the lump, which is then placed in the shade to dry for several days . The pieces vary in size from about 2 oz. to over 2 lb, being made larger in some districts than in others . The capsules are generally incised only once but the See also:

• FIELDS, JAMES THOMAS (1817-1881)

fields are visited a second or third time to collect the opium from the poppy-Beads subsequently See also:

• DEVELOPED

developed by the branching of the See also:

• STEM (O. Eng. staefn, stemn, cf. Du. stain, Ger. Stamm, &c., probably related to " staff ")

stem . The yield of opium varies, even on the same piece of land, from a to 7+ chequis (of 1.62 lb) per toloom (i600 s q. yds.), the average being 12 chequis of opium and 4 bushels (of 50 lb) of seed . The seed, which yields 35 to 42 % of oil, is worth about two-thirds of the value of the opium . The whole of the operation must, of course, be completed in the few days—five to ten—during which the capsules are capable of yielding the drug . A See also:

• COLD (in O. Eng. cald and ceald, a word coming ultimately from a root cognate with the Lat. gelu, gelidus, and common in the Teutonic languages, which usually have two distinct forms for the substantive and the adjective, cf. Ger. Kolte, kalt, Dutch koude

cold See also:

• WIND
• WIND (a common Teut. word, cognate with Skt. vats, Lat. ventus, cf. " weather," to be of course distinguished from to " wind," to coil or twist, O.Eng. windan, cf. "wander," "wend," &c.)

wind or a chilly See also:

• ATMOSPHERE (Gr. fir µ6r, vapour; orkaipa, a sphere)

atmosphere at the time of collection lessens the yield, and See also:

• RAIN (O.E. regn; the word is common to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Regen, Swed. and Dan. regn; it has been connected with Lat. rigare, to wet, Gr. 13pixeav)

rain washes the opium off the capsules . Before the crop is all gathered in a meeting of buyers and sellers takes place in each See also:

• DISTRICT

district, at which the price to be asked is discussed and settled, and the opium handed to the buyers, who in many instances have advanced See also:

• MONEY

money on the See also:

• STANDING

standing crop .

When sufficiently solid the pieces of opium are packed in See also:

• COTTON
• COTTON (Fr. coton; from Arab. qutun)
• COTTON, CHARLES (163o–1687)
• COTTON, GEORGE EDWARD LYNCH (1813–1866)
• COTTON, JOHN (1585–1652)
• COTTON, SIR ROBERT BRUCE

cotton bags, a quantity of the fruits of a See also:

• SPECIES

species of Rumex being thrown in to pre-vent the cakes from adhering together . The bags are then sealed up, packed in oblong or circular baskets and sent to See also:

• SMYRNA (Ismir)

Smyrna or See also:

• ETHER, (C2H5)2O

ether ports on mules . On the arrival of the opium at its destination, in the end of July or beginning of See also:

• AUGUST (originally Sextilis)

August, it is placed in cool See also:

• WARE

ware-houses to avoid loss of See also:

• WEIGHT

weight until sold . The opium is then of a mixed character and is known as talequale . When transferred to the buyer's warehouses the bags are opened and each piece is examined by a public inspector in the presence of both buyer and seller, the quality of the opium being judged by See also:

• APPEARANCE (from Lat. apparere, to appear)

appearance, odour, colour and weight . It is then sorted into three qualities: (I) finest quality; (2) current or second; (3) chicanti or rejected pieces . A See also:

• FOURTH

fourth sort consists of the very See also:

• BAD, BCD

bad or wholly factitious pieces . The substances used to adulterate opium are See also:

• GRAPE

grape-juice thickened with See also:

• FLOUR

flour, fig-See also:

• PASTE (O. Fr. paste, modern pate, Late Lat. pasta, whence also in Span., Port. and Ital., from Gr. 1r&vrrl or 1raara, barley porridge, or salted pottage, ir&ao'ety, to sprinkle with salt)

paste, See also:

• LIQUORICE

liquorice, See also:

• HALF

half-dried apricots, inferior See also:

• GUM (Fr. gomme, Lat. gommi, Gr. Kµµ1, possibly a Coptic word; distinguish " gum," the fleshy covering of the base of a tooth, in O. Eng. gbma, palate, cf. Ger. Gaumen, roof of the mouth; the ultimate origin is probably the root gha, to open wide, seen in

gum tragacanth and sometimes See also:

• CLAY (from O. Eng. claeg, a word common in various forms to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Klei)
• CLAY, CASSIUS MARCELLUS (1810-1903)
• CLAY, CHARLES (1801–1893)
• CLAY, FREDERIC (1838–1889)
• CLAY, HENRY (1777–1852)

clay or pieces of See also:

• LEAD
• LEAD (pronounced iced)

lead or other metals . The chicanti is returned to the seller, who disposes of it at 20 to 30% See also:

• DISCOUNT

discount to See also:

• FRENCH
• FRENCH, DANIEL CHESTER (1850– )
• FRENCH, NICHOLAS (1604-1678)

French and See also:

• GERMAN
• GERMAN, DUTCH AND SCANDINAVIAN

German merchants . After inspection the opium is hermetically sealed in See also:

• TIN (Lat.- stannum, whence the chemical symbol " Sn "; atomic weight =117.6, 0=16)

tin-lined boxes containing about 150 lb . Turkey opium is principally used in medicine on See also:

• ACCOUNT
• ACCOUNT (through O. Fr. acont, Late Lat. comptum, cornputare, to calculate)

account of its purity and the large percentage of morphia that it contains, a comparatively small quantity being exported for smoking purposes . About three-quarters of the opium prepared in Turkey is produced in See also:

• ANATOLIA (Gr. avaroX,7, sunrise, i.e. eastern land)

Anatolia, and is exported by way of Smyrna, and the remainder is produced in the hilly districts of the provinces near the southern See also:

• COAST (from Lat. costa, a rib, side)

coast of the See also:

• BLACK
• BLACK, ADAM (1784-1874)
• BLACK, JEREMIAH SULLIVAN (1810–1883)
• BLACK, WILLIAM (1841-1898)

Black See also:

• SEA (in O. Eng. sae, a common Teutonic word; cf. Ger. See, Dutch Zee, &c.; the ultimate source is uncertain)
• SEA, COMMAND OF THE

Sea, and finds its way into See also:

• CONSTANTINOPLE
• CONSTANTINOPLE, COUNCILS OF

Constantinople, the commercial varieties bearing the name of the district where they are produced .

The Smyrna varieties include the produce of Afium Karahissar, Uschak, Akhissar, Taoushanli, Isbarta, See also:

• KONIA

Konia, Bulvadan, Hamid, See also:

• MAGNESIA

Magnesia and Yerli, the last name being applied to opium collected in the immediate See also:

• NEIGHBOUR (O. Eng. neahgebiir, from Walt, " nigh," " near ")

neighbour-See also:

• HOOD,
• HOOD, JOHN BELL (1831–1879)
• HOOD, SAMUEL HOOD, VISCOUNT (1724–1816)
• HOOD, SIR SAMUEL (1762-1814)
• HOOD, THOMAS (1799-1845)
• HOOD, TOM (1835–1874)

hood of Smyrna . The opium exported by way of Constantinople includes that of Hadjikeuy and See also:

• MALATIA (MALATIEH or Aspuzu)

Malatia; the See also:

• TOKAT (Armenian Evtoghia, anc. Dazimon)

Tokat kind, of good quality, including that produced in Yosgad, Sile and Niksar, and the current or second quality derived from See also:

• AMASIA (anc. Amasia)

Amasia and Oerek; the Karahissar kind including the produce of Mykalitch, Carabazar, Sivrahissar, Eskichehir and Nachlihan; the Balukesri sort, including that of Balukhissar and Bogaditch; also the produce of See also:

• BEYBAZAR

Beybazar and See also:

• ANGORA, or ENGURI

Angora . The average amount of Turkish opium exported is 7000 chests, but in rare seasons amounts to 12,000 chests, but the yield depends upon See also:

• FINE

fine weather in See also:

• HARVEST (A.S. hcerfest " autumn," O.H. Ger. herbist, possibly through an old Teutonic root representing Lat. car pere, " to pluck ")

harvest time, heavy rains washing the opium off the capsules, and lessening the yield to a considerable extent . These commercial varieties differ in appearance and quality, and are roughly classified as Soft or See also:

• SHIPPING

Shipping opium, Druggists' and Manufacturers' opium . Shipping opium is distinguished by its soft character and clean paste, containing very little debris, or See also:

• CHAFF (from the A.S. ceaf, allied to the O. High Ger. cheva, a husk or pod)

chaff, as it is technically called . The Hadjikeuy variety is at See also:

• PRESENT

present the best in the See also:

• MARKET (Lat. mercatus, trade or place of trade)

market . The Malatia, including that of See also:

• KHARPUT

Kharput, second, and the Sile, third in quality . The See also:

• CHIEF (from Fr. chef, head, Lat. caput)

chief markets for the soft or shipping varieties of opium are, China, See also:

• KOREA
• KOREA, or COREA (CH'AO HSIEN, DAI HAN)

Korea, the West Indian Islands, See also:

• CUBA (the aboriginal name)

Cuba, British See also:

• GUIANA (Guyana, Guayana')

Guiana, japan and See also:

• JAVA

Java; the United States also See also:

• PURCHASE

purchase for re-exportation as well as for home consumption . Druggists' opium includes the kinds See also:

• PURCHASED

purchased for use in medicine, which for Great Britain should, when dried and powdered, contain 922-Ic4 % of morphine . That generally sold in this country for the purpose includes the Karahissar and Adet, Balukhissar, Amasia and Akhissar kinds, and for making the See also:

• TINCTURE (Fr. teinture, Lat. tinctura, tingere, to dye, stain)

tincture and extract, that of Tokat . But the produce of Gheve, Biledjik, Mondourlan, Konia, Tauschanli, Kutahlia and See also:

• KARAMAN (anc. Laranda, a name still used by the Christian inhabitants)

Karaman is often mixed with the kinds first mentioned . The softer varieties of opium are preferred in the American market, as being richer in morphine .

In all Turkey opium the pieces vary much in size . On the See also:

• CONTINENT (from Lat. continere, "to hold together "; hence " connected," " continuous ")

continent of Europe, especially in See also:

• BELGIUM
• BELGIUM (Fr. Belgique; Flem. Belgic)

Belgium, Germany and Italy, where pieces of small size are preferred, the Gheve,' and the Yoghourma, i.e. opium remade into cakes, at the See also:

• PORT

port of shipment, to contain 7, 8, 9, or to % of morphine, are chiefly sold . Manufacturers' opium includes any grade yielding not less than Ioi % of morphine, but the Yoghourma or " See also:

• PUDDING

pudding " opium, on account of its paste being more difficult to See also:

• WORK

work, is not used for the extraction of the active principles . For the extraction of codeine, the Persian opium is preferred when Turkey opium is dear, as it contains on the average 21% of that alkaloid, whilst Turkey opium yields only 1-t % . But codeine can also be made from morphine . The See also:

• ORDINARY (med. Lat. ordinarius, Fr. ordinaire)

ordinary varieties of Turkish opium are recognized in commerce by the following characteristics: Hadjikeuy opium occurs in pieces of about z lb-I2 lb; it has an unusually See also:

• PALE (through Fr. pal, from Lat. palms, a stake, for paglus, from the stem pag- of pangere, to fix; " pole " is from the same original source)

pale-coloured paste of soft consistence, and is very rich in morphia . Malatia opium is in pieces of irregular size usually of a broadly conical shape, weighing from 1-2 lb . It has a soft paste with irregular layers of light and dark colour and is covered with unusually green poppy leaves . Tokat opium resembles that of Malatia, but the cakes are flatter, and the paste is similar in character, though the leaves covering it are of a yellower tint of green . Bogaditz opium occurs in smaller pieces, about 3 or 4 oz. in weight, but sometimes larger pieces of 1-1i lb in weight are met with, approaching more nearly to the Kurgagatsch and Balukissar varieties . The See also:

• SURFACE

surface is covered with a yellowish green leaf and many Rumex fruits . Karahissar opium, which usually includes the produce of Adet, Akhissar and Amasia, occurs in rather large shortly conical or more or less irregular lumps .

Angora opium is met with in small smooth pieces, has generally a pale paste and is rich in morphia . Yerli opium is of good quality, variable in size and shape; the surface is usually rough with Rumex capsules . Gheve opium formerly came over as a distinct kind, but is now mixed with other varieties; the pieces form small rounded cakes, smooth and shining like those of Angora, about 3-6 oz. in weight, with the midrib of the leaf they are wrapped in forming a median See also:

• LINE

line on the surface . The interior often shows layers of light and dark colour . In See also:

• MACEDONIA

Macedonia opium culture was begun in 1865 at Istip with seed obtained from Karahissar in Asia Minor, and extended subsequently to the adjacent districts of Kotchava, Stroumnitza, Tikvish and Kinprulu-veles, most of the produce being exported under the name of See also:

• SALONICA, SALONIKA

Salonica opium . Macedonian opium, especially that Gheve is the commercial name for opium from Geiveh on the See also:

• RIVER

river Sakaria, See also:

• RUNNING

running into the Black Sea . It appears to find its way to Constantinople via the port of See also:

• ISMID, or ISNIKMID (anc. Nicomedia)

Ismid, and hence is known also by the latter name.produced at Istip, is very pure, and is considered equal to the Malatia opium, containing about 11 % of morphine . The pieces vary from lb to ti lb in weight . For some years past, however, it has been occasionally mixed with pieces of infericr opium, like that of Yoghourma, recognizable on cutting by their solidity and heavy character . The Turkish government encourage the development of the industry by remitting the See also:

• TITHES

tithes on opium and poppy-seed for one year on lands sown for the first time, and by distributing printed instructions for cultivating the poppy and preparing the opium . In these directions it is pointed out that the opium crop is ten times as profitable as that of See also:

• WHEAT
• WHEAT (Triticum)

wheat . Four varieties of poppy are distinguished—two with white flowers, large See also:

• OVAL (Lat. ovum, egg)

oval capsules without holes under their " combs " (stigmas) and bearing respectively yellow and white seed, and the other two having red or See also:

• PURPLE

purple flowers and seeds of the same colour, one bearing small capsules perforated at the top, and the other larger oval capsules not perforated .

The white varieties are recommended as yielding a more abundant opium of See also:

• SUPERIOR

superior quality . The yellow seed is said to yield the best oil; that obtained by hot pressure is used for lamps and for paint, and the cold-pressed oil for culinary purposes . Opium is also grown in See also:

• BULGARIA
• BULGARIA, EASTERN

Bulgaria, but almost entirely for home consumption; any surplus produce is, however, bought by See also:

• JEWS
• JEWS (Heb. Y8hudi, man of Judah; Gr. 'Iovbaiot; Lat. Judaei)

Jews and See also:

• TURKS

Turks at See also:

• LOW, SETH (1850- )
• LOW, WILL HICOK (1853- )

low prices and sent to Constantinople, where it is sold as Turkish opium . It is produced in the districts of Kustendil, Lowtscha and Halitz, and is made into lumps weighing about 4 oz., of a light-See also:

• BROWN
• BROWN, CHARLES BROCKDEN (1771-181o)
• BROWN, FORD MADOX (1821-1893)
• BROWN, FRANCIS (1849- )
• BROWN, GEORGE (1818-188o)
• BROWN, HENRY KIRKE (1814-1886)
• BROWN, JACOB (1775–1828)
• BROWN, JOHN (1715–1766)
• BROWN, JOHN (1722-1787)
• BROWN, JOHN (1735–1788)
• BROWN, JOHN (1784–1858)
• BROWN, JOHN (1800-1859)
• BROWN, JOHN (1810—1882)
• BROWN, JOHN GEORGE (1831— )
• BROWN, ROBERT (1773-1858)
• BROWN, SAMUEL MORISON (1817—1856)
• BROWN, SIR GEORGE (1790-1865)
• BROWN, SIR JOHN (1816-1896)
• BROWN, SIR WILLIAM, BART
• BROWN, THOMAS (1663-1704)
• BROWN, THOMAS (1778-1820)
• BROWN, THOMAS EDWARD (1830-1897)
• BROWN, WILLIAM LAURENCE (1755–1830)

brown colour internally and containing a few seeds; it is covered with leaves which have not been identified . Samples have yielded from 7 to 19 % of morphia, and only 2 to 3 % of ash, and are therefore of excellent quality . India.—The poppy grown in India is usually the white-flowered variety, but in the Himalayas a red-flowered poppy with dark seeds is cultivated . The opium industry in Bengal is a government monopoly, under the See also:

• CONTROL (Fr. contrdle, older form contre rolle, from Med. Lat. contra-rotulus, a counter roll or copy of a document used to check the original; there is no instance in English of the use of " control " in this, its literal, meaning)

control of officials residing respectively at See also:

• PATNA

Patna and Ghazipore . Any one may undertake the industry, but 'cultivators are obliged to sell the opium exclusively to the government See also:

• AGENT (from Lat. agere, to act)

agent at a price fixed beforehand by the latter, which, although small, is said to fully remunerate the grower . It is considered that with greater freedom the See also:

• CULTIVATOR