See also:

• COUNT (Lat. comes, gen. comitis, Fr. comte, Ital. conte, Span. conde)

COUNT ANDREI IVANOVICH See also:

• COUNT ANDREI IVANOVICH OSTERMAN (1686—1747)

OSTERMAN (1686—1747)  , See also:

• RUSSIAN

Russian statesman, was See also:

• BORN, IGNAZ, EDLER VON (1742–1791)

born at See also:

• BOCHUM

Bochum in See also:

• WESTPHALIA (Ger. Westfalen)
• WESTPHALIA, TREATY OF

Westphalia, of See also:

• MIDDLE

middle-class parents, his name being originally Heinrich Johann See also:

• FRIEDRICH, JOHANN (1836— )

Friedrich Ostermann . He became secretary to See also:

• VICE

Vice-See also:

• ADMIRAL

Admiral Cornelis Kruse, who had a See also:

• STANDING

standing See also:

• COMMISSION (from Lat. commissio, committere)

commission from See also:

• PETER
• PETER (Lat. Petrus from Gr. irfpos, a rock, Ital. Pietro, Piero, Pier, Fr. Pierre, Span. Pedro, Ger. Peter, Russ. Petr)
• PETER (PEDRO)
• PETER, EPISTLES OF
• PETER, ST

Peter the See also:

• GREAT

Great to pick up promising See also:

• YOUNG
• YOUNG, A
• YOUNG, ARTHUR (1741-1820)
• YOUNG, BRIGHAM (1801-1877)
• YOUNG, CHARLES MAYNE (1777–1856)
• YOUNG, EDWARD (1683–1765)
• YOUNG, JAMES (1811-1883)
• YOUNG, THOMAS (1773-1829)

young men, and in 1767 entered the See also:

• TSAR, or CZAR

tsar's service . His knowledge of the See also:

• PRINCIPAL

principal See also:

• EUROPEAN

European See also:

• LANGUAGES

languages made him the right See also:

• HAND
• HAND (a word common to Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Hand, Goth. handus)
• HAND, FERDINAND GOTTHELF (1786-185r)

hand of Vice-See also:

• CHANCELLOR (M. Eng. and Anglo-Fr. canceler, chanceler, Fr. chancelier, Lat. cancellarius)

Chancellor See also:

• SHAFIROV, PETER PAVLOVICH, BARON (1670-1739)

Shafirov, whom he materially assisted during the troublesome negotiations which terminated in the See also:

• PEACE
• PEACE, BREACH OF THE

peace of the Pruth (1711) . See also:

• OSTERMAN, ANDREI IVANOVICH, COUNT (1686—1747)

Osterman, together with See also:

• GENERAL
• GENERAL (Lat. generalis, of or relating to a genus, kind or class)

General See also:

• BRUCE
• BRUCE, ALEXANDER BALMAIN (1831-1899)
• BRUCE, JAMES (1930-1794)
• BRUCE, MICHAEL (1746-1767)

Bruce, represented See also:

• RUSSIA
• RUSSIA (Rossiya)

Russia at the Aland peace See also:

• CONGRESS (Lat. congressus, coming together, from congredi; cum, with, and gradus, step)

congress of 1718 . Shrewdly guessing that See also:

• SWEDEN
• SWEDEN [Sverige]
• SWEDEN, NORWAY AND

Sweden was at exhaustion point, and that See also:

• GORTZ, GEORG HEINRICH VON, BARON VON SCHUTZ (1668-1719)

Gortz, the See also:

• SWEDISH

Swedish plenipotentiary, was acting ultra vires, he advised Peter to put additional pressure on Sweden to force a peace . In 1721 Osterman concluded the peace of Nystad with Sweden, and was created a See also:

• BARON
• BARON (1835-1895)
• BARON, MICHEL (1653—1729)

baron for his services . In 1723 he was made vice-See also:

• PRESIDENT (Fr. president, from Lat. praesidens, post-Augustan Lat. for praeses, director, ruler, from praesidere, to sit in front of, preside)

president of the See also:

• MINISTRY

ministry of See also:

• FOREIGN

foreign affairs for bringing about a very advantageous commercial treaty with See also:

• PERSIA

Persia . Peter also constantly consulted him in domestic affairs, and he introduced many administrative novelties, e.g . " the table of degrees," and the reconstruction of the See also:

• COLLEGE (Collegium)

College of Foreign Affairs on more See also:

• MODERN

modern lines . During the reign of See also:

• CATHERINE
• CATHERINE, SAINT

Catherine I . (1725—1727) Osterman's authority still further increased . The conduct of foreign affairs was See also:

• LEFT

left entirely in his hands, and he held also the posts of See also:

• MINISTER (Lat. minister, servant)

minister of See also:

• COMMERCE
• COMMERCE (Lat. commercium, from, cum, together, and rnerx, merchandise)

commerce and postmaster-general .

On the See also:

• ACCESSION (from Lat. accedere, to go to, to approach)

accession of Peter II . Osterman was appointed See also:

• GOVERNOR (from the Fr. gouverneur, from gouverner, O. Fr. governer, Lat. gubernare, to steer a ship, to direct, guide)

governor to the young See also:

• EMPEROR (Fr. empereur, from the Lat. imperator)

emperor, and on his See also:

• DEATH

death (1730) he refused to participate in the See also:

• ATTEMPT (Lat. adtemptare, attentare, to try)

attempt of See also:

• DEMETRIUS

Demetrius See also:

• GOLITSUIN, BORIS ALEKSYEEVICH (1654–1714)
• GOLITSUIN, VASILY VASILEVICH (1643-1714)

Golitsuin and the Dolgorukis to convert Russia into a limited constitutional See also:

• MONARCHY (Fr. monarchic, from Lat. monarchia, Gr. uovapXia, rule of one, µbvos, alone, apXi7, rule)

monarchy . He held aloof till the empress See also:

• ANNE (1665-1714)
• ANNE (1693-1740)

Anne was firmly established on the See also:

• THRONE

throne as autocrat . Then he got his See also:

• REWARD

reward . His unique knowledge of foreign affairs made him indispensable to the empress and her counsellors, and even as to See also:

• HOME
• HOME, DANIEL DUNGLAS (1833-1886)
• HOME, EARLS OF

home affairs his See also:

• ADVICE (Fr. avis, from Lat. ad, to, and visum, viewed)

advice was almost invariably357 followed . It was at his See also:

• SUGGESTION

suggestion that the See also:

• CABINET

cabinet See also:

• SYSTEM

system was introduced into Russia . All the useful reforms introduced between 1730 and 1740 are to be attributed to his initiative . He improved the See also:

• STATE
• STATE, GREAT OFFICERS OF

state of See also:

• TRADE (O. Eng. trod, footstep, from tredan, to tread; in M. Eng. the forms teed, trod and trade appear, the last in the sense of a beaten track)
• TRADE, BOARD OF

trade, lowered See also:

• TAXATION
• TAXATION (from " tax," derived, through the French, from Lat. taxare, to appraise, which again is connected with the same root as tangere, to touch)

taxation, encouraged See also:

• INDUSTRY (Lat. industria, from indu-, a form of the pre, position in, and either stare, to stand, or struere, to pile up)

industry and promoted See also:

• EDUCATION

education, ameliorated the judicature and materially raised the See also:

• CREDIT (Lat. credere, to believe)

credit of Russia . As foreign minister he was cautious and circumspect, but when See also:

• WAR
• WAR (O. Eng. werre, Fr. guerre, of Teutonic origin; cf. O.H.G. werran, to confound)

war was necessary he prosecuted it vigorously and left nothing to See also:

• CHANCE (through the O. Fr. cheance, from the Late Lat. cadentia, things happening, from cadere, to fall out, happen; cf. " case ")

chance . The successful conclusions of the War of the See also:

• POLISH

Polish See also:

• SUCCESSION (Lat. successio, from succedere, to follow after)

Succession (1733—1735) and of the war with See also:

• TURKEY

Turkey (1736—39) were entirely due to his See also:

• DIPLOMACY (Fr. diplomatic)

diplomacy . During the brief regency of See also:

• ANNA
• ANNA (Hindustani ana)
• ANNA, BALDASARRE

Anna Leopoldovna (See also:

• OCTOBER

October 1740—See also:

• DECEMBER (Lat. decent, ten)

December 1741) Osterman stood at the height of his See also:

• POWER [WILLIAM GRATTAN] TYRONE (1797-1841)

power, and the See also:

• FRENCH
• FRENCH, DANIEL CHESTER (1850– )
• FRENCH, NICHOLAS (1604-1678)

French See also:

• AMBASSADOR (also EMBASSADOR, the form sometimes still used in America; from the Fr. ambassadeur, with which compare Ital. ambasciatore and Span. embajador, all variants of the Med. Lat. ambassiator, ambassiator, ambasator, &c., derived from Med. Lat. amba

ambassador, La Chetardie, reported to his See also:

• COURT
• COURT (from the O. Fr. court, Late Lat. cortis, curtis, a popular form of class. Lat. cohors, gen. cohortis; the mod. Fr. form tour is due to the influence of the Lat. curia, the word used in medieval documents to translate " court " in the feudal sense)
• COURT, ANTOINE (1696-176o)

court that " it is not too much to say that he is tsar of all Russia." Osterman's foreign policy was based upon the See also:

• AUSTRIAN

Austrian See also:

• ALLIANCE

alliance . He had, therefore, guaranteed the Pragmatic See also:

• SANCTION (Lat. sanctia, from sancire, to decree or ordain)

Sanction with the deliberate intention of defending it .

Hence the determination of See also:

• FRANCE
• FRANCE, ANATOLE (1844– )

France to remove him at any cost . Russia, as the natural ally of See also:

• AUSTRIA
• AUSTRIA, LOWER (Ger. Niederosterreich or Osterreich unter der Enns, " Austria below the river Enns ")
• AUSTRIA, UPPER (Ger. Oberosterreich or Osterreich ob der Enns, " Austria above the river Enns ")

Austria, was very See also:

• OBNOXIOUS (Lat. obnoxiosus, from ob, over, against, and noxa, harm)

obnoxious to France; indeed it was only the See also:

• ACCIDENT
• ACCIDENT (from Lat. accidere, to happen)

accident of the Russian alliance which, in 1741, seemed to stand between Maria See also:

• THERESA, ST (1515-1582)

Theresa and See also:

• ABSOLUTE (Lat. absolvere, to loose, set free)

absolute ruin . The most obvious method of rendering the Russian alliance unserviceable to the See also:

• QUEEN
• QUEEN (O.E. cwen, wife, related to "quean," O.E. cwene, a hussy; cf. Gr. yvvi7: from root gan-, to produce; cf. genus, " kin," &c.)

queen of See also:

• HUNGARY
• HUNGARY (Hungarian Magyarorszdg)

Hungary was by implicating Russia in hostilities with her See also:

• ANCIENT
• ANCIENT (also spelt ANTIENT; derived, through the Fr. ancien, old, from the late Lat. antianum, from ante, before)

ancient See also:

• RIVAL

rival, Sweden, and this was brought about, by French See also:

• INFLUENCE (Late Lat. influentia, from influere, to flow in)

influence and French See also:

• MONEY

money, when in See also:

• AUGUST (originally Sextilis)

August 1741 the Swedish See also:

• GOVERNMENT
• GOVERNMENT (0. Fr. governement, mod. gouvernement, O. Fr. governer, mod. gouverner, from Lat. gubernare, to steer a ship, guide, rule; cf. Gr. xv(3epvav)

government, on the most frivolous pretexts, declared war against Russia . The dispositions previously made by Osterman enabled him, however, to See also:

• COUNTER

counter the See also:

• BLOW, JOHN (1648-1708)

blow, and all danger from Sweden was over when, See also:

• EARLY
• EARLY, JUBAL ANDERSON (1816-1894)

early in See also:

• SEPTEMBER (Lat. septem, seven)

September, See also:

• FIELD (a word common to many West German languages, cf. Ger. Feld, Dutch veld, possibly cognate with O.E. f olde, the earth, and ultimately with root of the Gr. irAaror, broad)
• FIELD, CYRUS WEST (1819-1892)
• FIELD, DAVID DUDLEY (18o5-1894)
• FIELD, EUGENE (1850-1895)
• FIELD, FREDERICK (18o1—1885)
• FIELD, HENRY MARTYN (1822-1907)
• FIELD, JOHN (1782—1837)
• FIELD, MARSHALL (183 1906)
• FIELD, NATHAN (1587—1633)
• FIELD, STEPHEN JOHNSON (1816-1899)
• FIELD, WILLIAM VENTRIS FIELD, BARON (1813-1907)

Field-See also:

• MARSHAL (med. Lat. marescalcus, from O.H.Ger. marah, horse, and scalc, servant)

Marshal See also:

• LACY, FRANZ MORITZ, COUNT (1725-1801)
• LACY, HARRIETTE DEBORAH (1807-1874)
• LACY, MICHAEL ROPHINO (1795–1867)

Lacy routed the Swedish general See also:

• WRANGEL, FRIEDRICH HEINRICH ERNST, COUNT VON (1784–1877)
• WRANGEL, KARL GUSTAV VON (1613-1676)

Wrangel under the walls of the frontier-fortress of Villmanstrand, which was carried by See also:

• ASSAULT (from Lat. ad, to or on, and saltare, to leap)

assault . It now became evident to La Chetardie that only a revolution would overthrow Osterman, and this he proposed to promote by elevating to the throne the tsesarevna See also:

• ELIZABETH
• ELIZABETH (1533-1603)
• ELIZABETH (1596-1662)
• ELIZABETH (1635–1650)
• ELIZABETH [ AMELIE EUGENIE ] (1837—1898)
• ELIZABETH [1lisabeth Philippine Marie Helene of France] (1764—1794)
• ELIZABETH [PAULINE ELIZABETH OTTILIE LOUISE] (1843– )
• ELIZABETH [PETROVNA] (1709-1762), EMPRESS
• ELIZABETH, SAINT (1207-1231)

Elizabeth, who hated the vice-chancellor because, though he owed everything to her See also:

• FATHER

father, he had systematically neglected her . Osterman was therefore the first and the most illustrious victim of the coup d'etat of the 6th of December 1741 . Accused, among other things, of contributing to the See also:

• ELEVATION

elevation of the empress Anne by his cabals and of suppressing a supposed will of Catherine I. made in favour of her daughter Elizabeth, he threw himself on the clemency of the new empress . He was condemned first to be broken on the See also:

• WHEEL (0. Eng. hweol, hweohl, &c., cognate with Icel. hjol, Dan. hiul, the Indo-European root is seen in Sanskrit chakra, Gr. r in Aos, circle, whence " cycle ")
• WHEEL, BREAKING ON THE

wheel and then beheaded; but, reprieved on the See also:

• SCAFFOLD
• SCAFFOLD, SCAFFOLDING (from the O. Fr. escafaut, originally escafalt, modern echafaud, a corruption of the Italian or Spanish calafalco, a platform, especially a canopy over a bier, a catafalque; this word is composed of O. Span. altar, O. Ital. catare, t

scaffold, his See also:

• SENTENCE (Lat. sententia, a way of thinking, opinion, judgment; vote, sentire, to feel, think)

sentence was commuted to lifelong banishment, with his whole See also:

• FAMILY

family, to See also:

• BEREZOV

Berezov in See also:

• SIBERIA

Siberia, where he died six years later . See S . Shubinsky, " See also:

• COUNT (Lat. comes, gen. comitis, Fr. comte, Ital. conte, Span. conde)

Count A . I . Osterman " (Rus.) in Syevernoye Siyanie, vol. ii .

(St See also:

• PETERSBURG

Petersburg, 1863) ; D . Korsakov, From the Lives of Russian Statesmen of the X VIIIth See also:

• CENTURY (from Lat. centuria, a division of a hundred men)

Century (Rus.) (Kazan, 1891) ; A . N . Filippov, " Documents See also:

• RELATING

relating to the Cabinet Ministers of the Empress Anne " (Rus.) (St Petersburg, 1898) in the collections of the Russ . Hist . See also:

• SOC

Soc. vol . 104; A . A . Kochubinsky, Count A . I . Osterman and the proposed See also:

• PARTITION

Partition of Turkey (Rus.) (See also:

• ODESSA

Odessa, 1889) ; Hon . C .

See also:

• FINCH
• FINCH (Ger. Fink, Lat. Fringilla)

Finch, See also:

• DIPLOMATIC

Diplomatic Despatches from Russia, 1740—1742 (St Petersburg, 1893—1894) in the collections of the Russ . Hist . Soc. vols . 85 and 91; R . Nisbet See also:

• BAIN, ALEXANDER (1818-1903)
• BAIN, ANDREW GEDDES (1797-1864)

Bain, The Pupils of Peter the Great (See also:

• LONDON

London, 1897) ; and The Daughter of Peter the Great (London, 1899), chapters 1-3 . (R . N .