PALAEOLOGUS  , a See also:

• BYZANTINE

Byzantine See also:

• FAMILY

family name which first appears in See also:

• HISTORY

history about the See also:

• MIDDLE

middle of the 11th See also:

• CENTURY (from Lat. centuria, a division of a hundred men)

century, when See also:

• GEORGE
• GEORGE, 8TH MARQUESS OF TWEEDDALE (1787-1876)
• GEORGE, HENRY (1839—1897)
• GEORGE, LAKE
• GEORGE, SAINT (d. 303)

George Palaeologus is mentioned among the prominent supporters of Nicephorus Botaniates, and afterwards as having helped to raise Alexius I . See also:

• COMNENUS

Comnenus to the See also:

• THRONE

throne in Io81; he is also noted for his brave See also:

• DEFENCE
• DEFENCE (Lat. defendere, to defend)

defence of Durazzo against the See also:

• NORMANS

Normans in that See also:

• YEAR

year . See also:

• MICHAEL
• MICHAEL (1596-1645)
• MICHAEL (Hebrew Sn,q, " Who is like God? ")

Michael Palaeologus, probably his son, was sent by See also:

• MANUEL, EUGENE (1823–1901)
• MANUEL, JACQUES ANTOINE (1775-1827)
• MANUEL, LOUIS PIERRE (1751-1793)

Manuel II . Comnenus into See also:

• ITALY
• ITALY (Italia)

Italy as See also:

• AMBASSADOR (also EMBASSADOR, the form sometimes still used in America; from the Fr. ambassadeur, with which compare Ital. ambasciatore and Span. embajador, all variants of the Med. Lat. ambassiator, ambassiator, ambasator, &c., derived from Med. Lat. amba

ambassador to the See also:

• COURT
• COURT (from the O. Fr. court, Late Lat. cortis, curtis, a popular form of class. Lat. cohors, gen. cohortis; the mod. Fr. form tour is due to the influence of the Lat. curia, the word used in medieval documents to translate " court " in the feudal sense)
• COURT, ANTOINE (1696-176o)

court of See also:

• FREDERICK
• FREDERICK (Mod. Ger. Friedrich; Ital. Federigo; Fr. Frederic and Federic; M.H.G. Friderich; O.H.G. Fridurih, " king or lord of peace," from O.H.G. fridu, A.S. frith, " peace," and rfh " rich," " a ruler," for derivation of which see HENRY)

Frederick I. in 1154; in the following year he took See also:

• PART

part in the See also:

• CAMPAIGN

campaign against See also:

• WILLIAM
• WILLIAM (1143-1214)
• WILLIAM (1227-1256)
• WILLIAM (1J33-1584)
• WILLIAM (A.S. Wilhelm, O. Norse Vilhidlmr; O. H. Ger. Willahelm, Willahalm, M. H. Ger. Willehelm, Willehalm, Mod.Ger. Wilhelm; Du. Willem; O. Fr. Villalme, Mod. Fr. Guillaume; from " will," Goth. vilja, and " helm," Goth. hilms, Old Norse hidlmr, meaning
• WILLIAM (c. 1130-C. 1190)
• WILLIAM, 13TH

William of See also:

• SICILY (Ital. Sicilia)

Sicily, and died at See also:

• BARI
• BARI (anc. Barium)

Bari in 1155 . A son or See also:

• BROTHER

brother of Michael, named George, received from the See also:

• EMPEROR (Fr. empereur, from the Lat. imperator)

emperor Manuel the See also:

• TITLE (0. Fr. title, mod. titre, from Lat. titulus)

title of Sebastos, and was entrusted with several important See also:

• MISSIONS (Lat. missio, a sending)

missions; it is uncertain whether he ought to be identified with the George Palaeologus who took part in the See also:

• CONSPIRACY (from Lat. conspirare, literally to breathe together, to agree, combine, and especially to form a secret plot)

conspiracy which dethroned See also:

• ISAAC (Hebrew for " he laughs," on explanatory references to the name, see ABRAHAM)

Isaac See also:

• ANGELUS

Angelus in favour of Alexius Angelus in 1195 . Andronicus Palaeologus Comnenus was See also:

• GREAT

Great Domestic under See also:

• THEODORE
• THEODORE (602-690)
• THEODORE (Fedor) GRIGORIEVICH ORLOV, COUNT (1741–1796)
• THEODORE (Rus. Fedor, or Feodor)

Theodore See also:

• LASCARIS, CONSTANTINE (d. 1493 or 1500)
• LASCARIS, JOANNES [JOHN], or JANUS (c. 1445-1535)

Lascaris and See also:

• JOHN
• JOHN (1167–1216)
• JOHN (1290-c. 1320)
• JOHN (1296-1346)
• JOHN (1371–1419)
• JOHN (1468-1532)
• JOHN (1801-1873)
• JOHN (Heb. llni')
• JOHN (ZAPOLYA) (1487-1540)
• JOHN, 4TH MARQUESS OF TWEEDDALE (c. 1695-1762)
• JOHN, DON (1545-1578)
• JOHN, DON (1629–1679)
• JOHN, GOSPEL OF ST
• JOHN, or HAYS (1513–1571)
• JOHN, THE APOSTLE
• JOHN, THE EPISTLES OF

John Vatatzes; his eldest son by See also:

• IRENE

Irene Palaeologina, Michael (q.v.), became the eighth emperor of that name in 126o, and was in turn followed by his son Andronicus II . (1282-1328) . Michael, the son of Andronicus, and associated with him in the See also:

• EMPIRE

empire, died in 1320, but See also:

• LEFT

left a son, Andronicus III., who reigned from 1328 to 1341; John VI . (1355-1391), Manuel II . (1391-1425) and John VII . (1425-1448) then followed in lineal See also:

• SUCCESSION (Lat. successio, from succedere, to follow after)

succession; See also:

• CONSTANTINE

Constantine XI. or XII., the last emperor of the See also:

• EAST
• EAST, ALFRED (1849- )

East (1448-1453), was the younger brother of John VII . Other See also:

• BROTHERS, RICHARD (1757-1824)

brothers were See also:

• DEMETRIUS

Demetrius, See also:

• PRINCE
• PRINCE (Lat. princeps, from primus capio, " I am the first to take "; Ital. principe, Fr. prince)

prince of the Morea until 146o, and See also:

• THOMAS
• THOMAS (c. 1654-1720)
• THOMAS (d. 110o)
• THOMAS, ARTHUR GORING (1850-1892)
• THOMAS, CHARLES LOUIS AMBROISE (1811-1896)
• THOMAS, GEORGE (c. 1756-1802)
• THOMAS, GEORGE HENRY (1816-187o)
• THOMAS, ISAIAH (1749-1831)
• THOMAS, PIERRE (1634-1698)
• THOMAS, SIDNEY GILCHRIST (1850-1885)
• THOMAS, ST
• THOMAS, THEODORE (1835-1905)
• THOMAS, WILLIAM (d. 1554)

Thomas, prince of Achaia, who died at See also:

• ROME
• ROME (Roma)

Rome in 1465 .

A daughter of Thomas, Zoe by name, married See also:

• IVAN (JOHN)

Ivan III. of See also:

• RUSSIA
• RUSSIA (Rossiya)

Russia . A younger See also:

• BRANCH (from the Fr. branche, late Lat. branca, an animal's paw)

branch of the Palaeologi held the principality of Monferrat from 1305 to 1533, when it became See also:

• EXTINCT

extinct . See See also:

• ROMAN

ROMAN EMPIRE, LATER, and articles on the See also:

• SEPARATE

separate rulers . PALAEONTOLOGY (Gr . 7raXat6s, See also:

• ANCIENT
• ANCIENT (also spelt ANTIENT; derived, through the Fr. ancien, old, from the late Lat. antianum, from ante, before)

ancient, neut. pl. ilvra, beings, and Xoyia, discourse, See also:

• SCIENCE (Lat. scientia, from scire; to learn, know)

science), the science of extinct forms of See also:

• LIFE

life . Like many other natural sciences, this study dawned among the Greeks . It was retarded and took false directions until the revival of learning in Italy . It became established as a distinct branch in the beginning of the 19th century, and some-what later received the appellation " palaeontology," which was given independently by De See also:

• BLAINVILLE
• BLAINVILLE, HENRI MARIE DUCROTAY DE (1777–1850)

Blainville and by See also:

• FISCHER
• FISCHER, EMIL (1852– )
• FISCHER, ERNST KUNO BERTHOLD (1824–1907)

Fischer von Waldheim about 1834 . In See also:

• RECENT

recent years the science of See also:

• VEGETABLE

vegetable palaeontology has been given the distinct name of See also:

• PALAEOBOTANY

Palaeobotany (q.v.), so that " palaeontology " among biologists mainly refers to See also:

• ZOOLOGY (from Gr. Nov, a living thing, and ?byos, theory)

zoology; but historically the two cannot be disconnected . Palaeontology both borrows from and sheds See also:

• LIGHT

light upon See also:

• GEOLOGY (from Gr. yp7, the earth, and Abyor, science)

geology and other branches of the See also:

• PHYSICAL

physical history of the See also:

• EARTH
• EARTH (a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Erde, Dutch aarde, Swed. and Dan. jord; outside Teutonic it appears only in the Gr. 'pq'e, on the ground; it has been connected by some etymologists with the Aryan root ar-, to plough, which is seen in
• EARTH, FIGURE OF
• EARTH, FIGURE OF THE

earth, each of which, such as palaeogeography or palaeometeorology, is the more fascinating because of the large See also:

• ELEMENT (Lat. elementum)

element of the unknown, the need for constructive See also:

• IMAGINATION

imagination, the See also:

• APPEAL

appeal to other branches of biological and physical investigation for supplementary See also:

• EVIDENCE (Lat. evidentia, evideri, to appear clearly)

evidence, and the See also:

• NECESSITY (Lat. necessitas)

necessity of See also:

• CONSTANT, BENJAMIN (1845-1902)

constant comparison with the See also:

• PRESENT

present aspects of nature . The task of the palaeontologist thus begins with the See also:

• APPEARANCE (from Lat. apparere, to appear)

appearance of life on the globe, and ends in See also:

• CLOSE
• CLOSE (from Lat. clausum, shut)
• CLOSE, MAXWELL HENRY (1822-1903)

close relation to the studies of the archaeologist and historian as well as of the zoologist and botanist . That See also:

• WEALTH

wealth of evidence which the zoologist enjoys, including environment in all its aspects and See also:

• ANATOMY
• ANATOMY (Gr. avaroyil, from ava-silo c', to cut up)

anatomy in its perfection of See also:

• ORGANS

organs and tissues, the palaeontologist finds partially or wholly destroyed, and his highest See also:

• ART

art is that of See also:

• COMPLETE

complete restoration of both the past forms and past environments of life (see Plates I. and II.; See also:

• FIGS

figs .

1, 2, 3, 4, 5) . The degree of accuracy in such anatomical and physiographic restorations from relatively imperfect evidence will always represent the See also:

• STATE
• STATE, GREAT OFFICERS OF

state of the science and the degree of its approach toward being exact or complete . Progress in the science also depends upon the pursuit of palaeontology as zoology and not as geology, because it was a See also:

• MERE
• MERE, ADALBERT (1838-1909)

mere See also:

• ACCIDENT
• ACCIDENT (from Lat. accidere, to happen)

accident of See also:

• BIRTH (a word common in various forms to Teutonic languages from the root of the verb " to bear ")

birth which connected palaeontology so closely with geology . In See also:

• ORDER
• ORDER (through Fr. ordre, for earlier ordene, from Lat. ordo, ordinis, rank, service, arrangement; the ultimate source is generally taken to be the root seen in Lat. oriri, rise, arise, begin; cf. " origin ")
• ORDER, HOLY

order to illustrate the grateful services which palaeontology through restoration may render to the related earth sciences let us imagine a vast See also:

• CONTINENT (from Lat. continere, "to hold together "; hence " connected," " continuous ")

continent of the past wholly unknown in its physical features, See also:

• ELEVATION

elevation, See also:

• CLIMATE

climate, configuration, but richly represented by fossil remains . All the fossil See also:

• PLANTS

plants and animals of every See also:

• KIND (O. E. ge-cynde, from the same root as is seen in " kin," supra)

kind are brought from this continent into a great museum; the See also:

• LATITUDE (Lat. latitudo, latus, broad)

latitude, See also:

• LONGITUDE (from Lat. longitudo, " length ")

longitude and relative elevation of each specimen are precisely recorded; a See also:

• CORPS (pronounced as in French, from which it is taken, being a late spelling of tors, from Lat. corpus, a body; cf. " corpse ")

corps of investigators, having the most exact and thorough training in zoology and See also:

• BOTANY (from Gr. l3or6v17, plant; ,66vicety, to graze)

botany, and gifted with imagination, will soon begin to restore the geographic and physiographic outlines of the continent, its fresh, brackish and See also:

• SALT (a common Teutonic word, cf. Dutch zout, Ger. Salz, Scand. salt; cognate with Gr. &Xs, Lat. sal)
• SALT, SIR TITUS, BART

salt-See also:

• WATER

water confines, its seas, See also:

• RIVERS
• RIVERS, ANTHONY WOODVILLE, or WYDEVILLE, 2ND EARL (c. 1442—1483)
• RIVERS, EARL
• RIVERS, RICHARD SAVAGE, 4TH EARL (c. 1660—1712)

rivers and lakes, its forests, uplands, plains, meadows and swamps, also to a certain extent the See also:

• COSMIC (from Gr. Kovµos, order or universe)

cosmic relations of this continent, the amount and duration of its See also:

• SUNSHINE

sunshine, as well as something of the chemical constitution of its See also:

• ATMOSPHERE (Gr. fir µ6r, vapour; orkaipa, a sphere)

atmosphere and the See also:

• WATERS, TERRITORIAL

waters of its rivers and seas; they will trace the progressive changes which took See also:

• PLACE (through Fr. from Lat. platea, street; Gr. IrAar6s, wide)

place in the outlines of the continent and its surrounding oceans, following the invasions of the See also:

• LAND

land by the See also:

• SEA (in O. Eng. sae, a common Teutonic word; cf. Ger. See, Dutch Zee, &c.; the ultimate source is uncertain)
• SEA, COMMAND OF THE

sea and the re-emergence of the land and retreatal of the seashore; they will outline the shoals and deeps of its border seas, and trace the barriers which pre-vented intermingling of the inhabitants of the various provinces of the continent and the surrounding seas . From a study of remains of the See also:

• MOLLUSCA

mollusca, See also:

• BRACHIOPODA

brachiopoda and other marine organisms they will determine the shallow water (littoral) and deep water (abyssal) regions of the surrounding oceans, and the clear or muddy, salt, brackish or fresh See also:

• CHARACTER (Gr. xapareri7p, from xap&crew, to scratch)

character of its inland and marginal seas; and even the physical conditions of the open sea at the See also:

• TIME (0. Eng. Lima, cf. Icel. timi, Swed. timme, hour, Dan. time; from the root also seen in " tide," properly the time of between the flow and ebb of the sea, cf. O. Eng. getidan, to happen, " even-tide," &c.; it is not directly related to Lat. tempus)
• TIME, MEASUREMENT OF
• TIME, STANDARD

time will be ascertained . In such manner Johannes See also:

• WALTHER, BERNHARD (1430-15o4)

Walther (See also:

• DIE
• DIE (Fr. de, from Lat. datum, given)

Die See also:

• FAUNA

Fauna der Solnhofener Flatten Kalke Bionomisch betrachtet . Festschrift zum 7oterl Geburtstage von See also:

• ERNST, HEINRICH WILHELM (1814–1865)

Ernst See also:

• HAECKEL, ERNST HEINRICH (1834- )

Haeckel, 1904) has restored the conditions existing in the lagoons and See also:

• ATOLL (native name atollon in the Maldive Islands)

atoll reefs of the See also:

• JURASSIC

Jurassic sea of Solnhofen in See also:

• BAVARIA (Ger. Bayern)

Bavaria; he has traced the See also:

• PROCESS

process of See also:

• GRADUAL (Med. Lat. gradualis, of or belonging to steps or degrees; gradus, step)

gradual See also:

• ACCUMULATION (from Lat. accumulare, to heap up)

accumulation of the See also:

• CORAL

coral mud now constituting the See also:

• FINE

fine litho-graphic stones in the inter-See also:

• REEF (1)

reef region, and has recognized the periodic laying See also:

• BARE

bare of the mud surfaces thus formed; he has determined the winds which carried the dust particles from the not far distant land and brought the See also:

• INSECTS

insects from the adjacent Jurassic forests . Finally the presence of the flying lizards (Pterydactylus, Rhamphorhynchus) and the ancient birds (See also:

• ARCHAEOPTERYX

Archaeopteryx) is determined from remains in a most wonderful state of preservation in these ancient deposits . Still another example of restoration, See also:

• RELATING

relating to the See also:

• SURFACE

surface of a continent, may be cited . It has been discovered that at the beginning of the See also:

• EOCENE (Gr. *In, dawn, icauvos, recent)

Eocene the See also:

• LAKE
• LAKE, GERARD LAKE, 1ST VISCOUNT (1744-1808)

lake of Rilly occupied a vast See also:

• AREA

area east of the present site of See also:

• PARIS
• PARIS (also called ALEXANDROS)
• PARIS, ALEXIS PAULIN (1800-x881)
• PARIS, BRUNO PAULIN GASTON (1839-1903)
• PARIS, FRANCOIS DE (169o-1727)
• PARIS, LOUIS PHILIPPE ALBERT
• PARIS, TREATIES OF (1814-1815)

Paris; a water-course See also:

• FELL
• FELL, JOHN (1625-1686)

fell there in cascades, and Munier-Chalmas has reconstructed all the details of that singular locality; plants which loved moist places, such as Marchantia, Asplenium, the covered See also:

• BANKS, GEORGE LINNAEUS (1821-1881)
• BANKS, NATHANIEL PRENTISS (1816–1894)
• BANKS, SIR JOSEPH
• BANKS, THOMAS (1735-1805)

banks overshadowed bylindens, laurels, magnolias and palms; there also were found the See also:

• VINE

vine and the See also:

• IVY (A.S. ifig, Ger. Epheu, perhaps connected with apium, anent)

ivy; mosses (Fontinalisj and Chara sheltered the See also:

• CRAYFISH (Fr. ecrevisse)

crayfish (Astacus); insects and even See also:

• FLOWERS, ARTIFICIAL

flowers have left their delicate impressions in the travertine which formed the See also:

• BORDERS, THE

borders of this lake . The Oligocene lake See also:

• BASIN, or BASON (the older form bacin is found in many of the Romanic languages, from the Late Lat. baccinus or bacchinus, probably derived from bacca, a bowl)
• BASIN, THOMAS (1412—1491)

basin of Florissant, See also:

• COLORADO

Colorado, has been reconstructed similarly by See also:

• SAMUEL

Samuel Hubbard Scudder and T .

D . A . See also:

• COCKERELL, CHARLES ROBERT (1788-1863)

Cockerell, including the plants of its shores, the insects which lived upon them, the fluctuations of its level, and many other characteristics of this extinct water See also:

• BODY

body, now in the See also:

• HEART
• HEART, LUNG

heart of the arid region of the Rocky Mountains . Such restorations are possible because of the intimate fitness of animals and plants to their environment, and because such fitness has distinguished certain forms of life from the See also:

• CAMBRIAN

Cambrian to the present time; the See also:

• SPECIES

species have altogether changed, but the See also:

• LAWS

laws governing the life of certain kinds of organisms have remained exactly the same for the whole See also:

• PERIOD
• PERIOD (Gr. irepioSos, a going or way round, circuit, aepi, round, and &Sis, way, road)

period of time assigned to the duration of life; in fact, we read the conditions of the past in a See also:

• MIRROR (through O. Fr. mirour, mod. miroir, from a sup-posed Late Lat. miratorium, from mirari, to admire)

mirror of See also:

• ADAPTATION (from Lat. adaptare. to fit to)

adaptation, often sadly tarnished and incomplete owing to breaks in the palaeontological See also:

• RECORD (Lat. recordari, to recall to mind, from cor, heart or mind)

record, but constantly becoming more polished by discoveries which increase the understanding of life and its all-pervading relations to the non-life . Therefore adaptation is the central principle of See also:

• MODERN

modern palaeontology in its most comprehensive sense . This conception of the science and its possibilities is the result of very gradual advances since the beginning of the 19th century in what is known as the method of palaeontology . The history of this science, like that of all physical sciences, covers two parallel lines of development which have acted and reacted upon each other—namely, progress in exploration, See also:

• RESEARCH (O. Fr. recerche, from recercher, re- and cercer, mod. chercher, to search; Late Lat. circare, to go round in a circle, to explore)

research and See also:

• DISCOVERY

discovery, and progress in philosophic See also:

• INTERPRETATION (from Lat. interpretari, to expound, explain, inter pres, an agent, go-between, interpreter; inter, between, and the root pret-, possibly connected with that seen either in Greek 4 p4'ew, to speak, or irpa-rrecv, to do)

interpretation . Progress in these two lines is by no means See also:

• UNIFORM

uniform; while, for example, palaeontology enjoyed a sudden advance See also:

• EARLY
• EARLY, JUBAL ANDERSON (1816-1894)

early in the 19th century through the discoveries and researches of See also:

• CUVIER, GEORGES LEOPOLD CHRETIEN FREDERIC DAGOBERT, BARON (1769-1832)

Cuvier, guided by his See also:

• GENIUS (from Lat. genere, gignere)

genius as a See also:

• COMPARATIVE

comparative anatomist, it was checked by his failure as a natural philosopher . The great philosophical impulse was that given by See also:

• DARWIN, CHARLES ROBERT (1809-1882)
• DARWIN, ERASMUS (1731-1802)

Darwin in 1859 through his demonstration of the theory of descent, which gave tremendous zest to the See also:

• SEARCH, or VISIT AND SEARCH

search for pedigrees (phylogeny) of the existing and extinct types of See also:

• ANIMAL
• ANIMAL (Lat. animalis, from anima, breath, soul)

animal and plant life . In future the philosophic method of palaeontology must continue to advance step by step with exploration; it would be a reproach to later generations if they did not progress as far beyond the philosophic status of Cuvier, See also:

• OWEN, JOHN (1616-1683)
• OWEN, JOHN [OVENUS Or AUDOENUS] (c. 1560-1622)
• OWEN, ROBERT (1771-1858)
• OWEN, SIR HUGH (1804-1881)
• OWEN, SIR RICHARD (1804–1892)

Owen and even of See also:

• HUXLEY, THOMAS HENRY (1825–1895)

Huxley and See also:

• COPE
• COPE (M.E. cape, cope, from Med. Lat. capa, cappa)
• COPE, EDWARD DRINKER (1840-1897)
• COPE, EDWARD MEREDITH (1818-1873)

Cope, as the new materials represent an advance upon the material opportunities which came to them through exploration . To set forth how best to do our thinking, rather than to follow the triumphs achieved in any particular See also:

• LINE

line of exploration, and to present the point we have now reached in the method or principles of palaeontology, is the See also:

• CHIEF (from Fr. chef, head, Lat. caput)

chief purpose of this See also:

• ARTICLE (from Lat. articulus, a joint)

article . The illustrations will be See also:

• DRAWN

drawn both from vertebrate and invertebrate palaeontology .

In the latter branch the author is wholly indebted to See also:

• PROFESSOR (the Latin noun formed from the verb profiteri, to declare publicly, to acknowledge, profess)

Professor Amadeus W . Grabau of See also:

• COLUMBIA

Columbia University . The subject will be treated in its biological aspects, because the relations of palaeontology to See also:

• HISTORICAL

historical and strati-graphic geology are more appropriately considered under the article GEOLOGY . See also, for botany, the article PALAEOBOTANY . We may first trace in outline the history of the birth of palaeontological ideas, from the time of their first adumbration . But for full details reference must be made to the See also:

• TREATISES

treatises on the history of the science cited in the bibliography at the end of the article . I.-FIRST HISTORIC PERIOD The scientific recognition of fossils as connected with the past history of the earth, from See also:

• ARISTOTLE
• ARISTOTLE (384-322 B.C.)

Aristotle (384-322 B.C.) to the beginning of the 19th century, in connexion with the rise of comparative anatomy and geology.—The See also:

• DAWN (the 16th-century form of the earlier " Jawing " or " dawning," from an old verb " daw," O. Eng. dagian, to become day; cf. Dutch dagen, and Ger. tagen)

dawn of the science covers the first observation of facts and the rudiments of true interpretation . Among the Greeks, Aristotle (384-322 B.C.) See also:

• XENOPHON

Xenophon (430-357 B.C.) and Straho (63 B.C.-A.D . 24) knew of the existence of fossils and surmised in a crude way their relation to earth history . Similar prophetic views are found among certain Roman writers . The pioneers of the science in the 16th and r 7th centuries put forth anticipations of some of the well-known modern principles, often followed by recantations, through deference to prevailing religious or traditional beliefs . There were the retarding influences of the See also:

• MOSAIC (corresponding to Lat. opus musivum, from Gr. µovoeiov, an artificial grotto often decorated with mosaics; the word is only found in the sense of mosaic in late Greek, which generally uses k oXI yrlµa)

Mosaic See also:

• ACCOUNT
• ACCOUNT (through O. Fr. acont, Late Lat. comptum, cornputare, to calculate)

account of sudden creation, and the belief that fossils represented See also:

• RELICS (Lat, reliquiae, the equivalent of the English " remains " in the sense of a dead body)

relics of a universal See also:

• DELUGE, THE (through the Fr. from Lat. diluvium, flood, diluere, to wash away)

deluge .

There were crude See also:

• MEDIEVAL

medieval notions that fossils were " freaks " or " See also:

• SPORTS
• SPORTS, THE BOOK OF

sports " of nature (lusus naturae), or that they represented failures of a creative force within the earth (a notion of See also:

• GREEK
• GREEK, ETRUSCAN AND

Greek and Arabic origin), or that larger and smaller fossils represented the remains of races of giants or of pygmies (the mythical See also:

• IDEA (Gr. Ibia, connected with i&eiv, to see; cf. Lat. species from specere, to look at)

idea) . As early as the middle of the 15th century Leonardo da See also:

• VINCI, LEONARDO (1690-173o)

Vinci (1452–1519) recognized in seashells as well as in the See also:

• TEETH (O.E. Eel); plural of tooth, O.E. top)

teeth of marine fishes proofs of ancient sea-levels on what are now the summits of the See also:

• APENNINES (Gr. 'A1T- vvLvos, Lat. Appenninus—in both cases used in the singular)

Apennines . Successive observers in Italy, notably See also:

• FRACASTORO [FRACASTORIUS], GIROLAMO

Fracastoro (1483–1553), Fabio See also:

• COLONNA
• COLONNA, GIOVANNI PAOLO (circa 1637—1695)
• COLONNA, VITTORIA (1490-1547)

Colonna (1567–1640 or 165o) and Nicolaus See also:

• STENO, NICOLAUS (1631-1686)

Steno (1638–c . 1687), a Danish anatomist, professor in See also:

• PADUA (Lat. Patavium ; Ital. Padova)

Padua, advanced the still embryonic science and set forth the principle of comparison of fossil with living forms . Near the end of the 17th century See also:

• MARTIN (Martinus)
• MARTIN, BON LOUIS HENRI (1810-1883)
• MARTIN, CLAUD (1735-1800)
• MARTIN, FRANCOIS XAVIER (1762-1846)
• MARTIN, HOMER DODGE (1836-1897)
• MARTIN, JOHN (1789-1854)
• MARTIN, LUTHER (1748-1826)
• MARTIN, SIR THEODORE (1816-1909)
• MARTIN, SIR WILLIAM FANSHAWE (1801–1895)
• MARTIN, ST (c. 316-400)
• MARTIN, WILLIAM (1767-1810)

Martin See also:

• LISTER, JOSEPH LISTER
• LISTER, MARTIN (c. 1638-1712)

Lister (1638–1712), examining the Mesozoic See also:

• SHELL
• SHELL (O. Eng. scell, scyll, cf. Du. sceel, shell, Goth. skalja, tile; the word means originally a thin flake,. cf. Swed. skalja, to peel off; it is allied to " scale " and " skill," from a root meaning to cleave, divide, separate)

shell types of See also:

• ENGLAND
• ENGLAND, THE CHURCH OF

England, recognized the great similarity as well as the See also:

• DIFFERENCES, CALCULUS OF (Theory of Finite Differences)

differences between these and modern species, and insisted on the need of close comparison of fossil and living shells, yet he clung to the old view that fossils were sports of nature . In Italy, where shells of the sub-Apennine formations were discovered in the extensive See also:

• QUARRYING

quarrying for the fortifications of cities, the close similarity between these See also:

• TERTIARY

Tertiary and the modern species soon led to the established recognition of their organic origin . In England See also:

• ROBERT
• ROBERT (1275—1343)
• ROBERT, HUBERT (1753-1808)
• ROBERT, LOUIS LEOPOLD (1794-1835)

Robert See also:

• HOOKE, ROBERT (1635–1703)

Hooke (1635–1703) held to the theory of extinction of fossil forms, and advanced the two most fertile ideas of deriving from fossils a See also:

• CHRONOLOGY (Gr. xpovo?oyfa, computation of time, xp6vos)

chronology, or See also:

• SERIES (a Latin word from serere, to join)

series of time intervals in the earth's history, and of See also:

• PRIMARY

primary changes of climate, to account for the former existence of tropical species in England . The 18th century witnessed the development of these suggestions and the birth of many additional theories . See also:

• SIR

Sir A . See also:

• GEIKIE
• GEIKIE, JAMES (1839- )
• GEIKIE, SIR ARCHIBALD (1835- )

Geikie assigns high See also:

• RANK (O.Fr. rant or rent, mod. rang, generally connected with the O.E. and O.H.G. bring, a ring)

rank to See also:

• JEAN

Jean See also:

• ETIENNE, CHARLES GUILLAUME (1778-1845)

Etienne See also:

• GUETTARD, JEAN ETIENNE (1715–1786)

Guettard (1715–1786) for his treatises on fossils, although admitting that he had no clear idea of the sequence of formations . The theory of successive formations was soundly developing in the treatises of John See also:

• WOODWARD, JOHN
• WOODWARD, SAMUEL (179o-1838)

Woodward (1665–1728) in England, of See also:

• ANTONIO
• ANTONIO (1429—1498)
• ANTONIO, NICOLAS (1617-1684)

Antonio Vallisnieri (1661–1730) in Italy, and of Johann Gottlob See also:

• LEHMANN, JOHANN GOTTLOB (?-1767)
• LEHMANN, PETER MARTIN ORLA (1810-187o)

Lehmann (d . 1767) in See also:

• GERMANY
• GERMANY (Ger. Deutschland)

Germany, who distinguished between the primary, or unfossiliferous, and secondary or fossiliferous, formations .

The beginnings of palaeogeography followed those of palaeometeorology . The See also:

• ITALIAN

Italian geologist Soldani distinguished (1758) between the fossil fauna of the deep sea and of the See also:

• SHORE

shore-lines . In the same year Johann See also:

• GESNER
• GESNER, ABRAHAM (1797-1864)
• GESNER, JOHANN MATTHIAS (1691—1761)

Gesner (1709–1790) set forth the theory of a great period of time, which he estimated at 8o,000 years, for the elevation of the shell-bearing levels of the Apennines to their present height above the sea . The brilliant See also:

• FRENCH
• FRENCH, DANIEL CHESTER (1850– )
• FRENCH, NICHOLAS (1604-1678)

French naturalist Georges See also:

• LOUIS
• LOUIS (804–876)
• LOUIS (893–911)
• LOUIS, JOSEPH DOMINIQUE, BARON (1755-1837)
• LOUIS, or LEWIS (from the Frankish Chlodowich, Chlodwig, Latinized as Chlodowius, Lodhuwicus, Lodhuvicus, whence-in the Strassburg oath of 842-0. Fr. Lodhuwigs, then Chlovis, Loys and later Louis, whence Span. Luiz and—through the Angevin kings—Hungarian

Louis Leclerc, See also:

• COMTE, AUGUSTE [ISIDORE AUGUSTE MARIE FRANCOIS XAVIER] (1798-1857)

comte de See also:

• BUFFON, GEORGE LOUIS LECLERC, COMTE DE (1707-1788)

Buffon (1707–1788), in See also:

• LES

Les Epoques de la nature, included in his vast speculations the theory of alternate submergence and emergence of the continents . See also:

• ABRAHAM, or ABRAM (Hebrew for " father is high ")

Abraham Gottlob See also:

• WERNER, ABRAHAM GOTTLOB (1750-1817)
• WERNER, ANTON ALEXANDER VON (1843– )
• WERNER, FRIEDRICH LUDWIG ZACHARIAS (1768–1823)

Werner (1750-1817), the famous exponent of the aqueous theory of earth formation, observed in successive See also:

• GEOLOGICAL

geological formations the gradual approach to the forms of existing species . II.—SECOND HISTORIC PERIOD Invertebrate palaeontology founded by See also:

• LAMARCK,

Lamarck, vertebrate palaeontology by Cuvier . Palaeontology connected with comparative anatomy by Cuvier . Invertebrate fossils employed for the definite See also:

• DIVISION (from Lat. dividere, to break up into parts, separate)

division of all the great periods of time.—Although pre-evolutionary, this was the heroic period of the science, extending from the close of the 18th century to the publication of Darwin's Origin of Species in 1859 . Among the pioneers of this period were the vertebrate zoologists and comparative anatomists See also:

• PETER
• PETER (Lat. Petrus from Gr. irfpos, a rock, Ital. Pietro, Piero, Pier, Fr. Pierre, Span. Pedro, Ger. Peter, Russ. Petr)
• PETER (PEDRO)
• PETER, EPISTLES OF
• PETER, ST

Peter See also:

• SIMON, ABRAHAM (1622-1692)
• SIMON, JULES FRANCOIS (1814–1896)
• SIMON, RICHARD (1638–1712)
• SIMON, SIR JOHN (1816–1904)
• SIMON, THOMAS (c. 1623-1665)

Simon See also:

• PALLAS, PETER SIMON (1741–1811)

Pallas, Pieter See also:

• CAMPER, PETER (1722-1789)

Camper and Johann See also:

• FRIEDRICH, JOHANN (1836— )

Friedrich See also:

• BLUMENBACH, JOHANN FRIEDRICH (1752–1840)

Blumenbach . Pallas (1741–1811) in his great See also:

• JOURNEY (through O. Fr. jornee or journee, mod. Fr. journee, from med. Lat. diurnata, Lat. diurnus, of or belonging to dies, day)

journey (1768–1774) through See also:

• SIBERIA

Siberia discovered the vast deposits of extinct mammoths and rhinoceroses . Camper (1722–1789) contrasted (1777) the See also:

• PLEISTOCENE

Pleistocene and recent species of elephants and Blumenbach (1752–1840) separated (178o) the See also:

• MAMMOTH
• MAMMOTH (0. Russ. mammot, mod. mamant; the Tatar word mama, earth, from which it is supposed to be derived, is not known to exist)

mammoth from the existing species as Elephas primigenius . In 1793 Thomas See also:

• PENNANT, THOMAS (1726-1798)

Pennant (1726–1798) distinguished the See also:

• AMERICAN

American See also:

• MASTODON (Gr. µavTos, breast, &bobs, tooth)

mastodon as Elephas americanus .

See also:

• POLITICAL

Political troubles and the dominating See also:

• INFLUENCE (Late Lat. influentia, from influere, to flow in)

influence of Werner's speculations checked palaeontology in Germany, while under the leadership of Lamarck and Cuvier See also:

• FRANCE
• FRANCE, ANATOLE (1844– )

France came to the fore . J . B . Lamarck (1744–1829) was the founder of invertebrate palaeontology . The See also:

• TREATISE

treatise which laid the See also:

• FOUNDATION (Lat. fundatio, from fundare, to found)

foundation for all subsequent invertebrate palaeontology was his memoir, Sur les fossiles See also:

• DES

des environs de Paris . . . (1802–1806) . Beginning in 1793 he boldly advocated See also:

• EVOLUTION

evolution, and further elaborated five great principles--namely, the method of comparison of extinct and existing forms, the broad sequence of formations and succession of epochs, the correlation of geological horizons by means of fossils, the See also:

• CLIMATIC

climatic or environmental changes as influencing the development of species, the See also:

• INHERITANCE

inheritance of the bodily modifications caused by See also:

• CHANGE (derived through the Fr. from the Late Lat. cambium, cambiare, to barter; the ultimate derivation is probably from the root which appears in the Gr. «a urmu', to bend)

change of See also:

• HABIT (through the French from Lat. habitus, from habere, to have, hold, or, in a reflective sense, to be in a certain condition; in many of the English senses the French use habitude, not habit)

habit and See also:

• HABITAT (a French word derived from habiter, Lat. habitare, to dwell)

habitat . As a natural philosopher he radically opposed Cuvier and was distinctly a precursor of uniformitarianism, advocating the See also:

• HYPOTHESIS (from Gr. inrorcOivat, to put under; cf. Lat. suppositio, from sub-ponere)

hypothesis of slow changes and See also:

• VARIATIONS
• VARIATIONS, CALCULUS
• VARIATIONS, CALCULUS OF

variations, both in living forms and in their environment . His speculations on phylogeny, or the descent of invertebrates and vertebrates, were, however, most fantastic and See also:

• BORE

bore no relation to palaeontological evidence . It is most interesting to See also:

• NOTE
• NOTE (Lat. nota, mark, sign, from noscere, to know)

note that William See also:

• SMITH
• SMITH, ADAM (1723–1790)
• SMITH, ALEXANDER (183o-1867)
• SMITH, ANDREW JACKSON (1815-1897)
• SMITH, CHARLES EMORY (1842–1908)
• SMITH, CHARLES FERGUSON (1807–1862)
• SMITH, CHARLOTTE (1749-1806)
• SMITH, COLVIN (1795—1875)
• SMITH, EDMUND KIRBY (1824-1893)
• SMITH, G
• SMITH, GEORGE (1789-1846)
• SMITH, GEORGE (184o-1876)
• SMITH, GEORGE ADAM (1856- )
• SMITH, GERRIT (1797–1874)
• SMITH, GOLDWIN (1823-191o)
• SMITH, HENRY BOYNTON (1815-1877)
• SMITH, HENRY JOHN STEPHEN (1826-1883)
• SMITH, HENRY PRESERVED (1847– )
• SMITH, JAMES (1775–1839)
• SMITH, JOHN (1579-1631)
• SMITH, JOHN RAPHAEL (1752–1812)
• SMITH, JOSEPH, JR
• SMITH, MORGAN LEWIS (1822–1874)
• SMITH, RICHARD BAIRD (1818-1861)
• SMITH, ROBERT (1689-1768)
• SMITH, SIR HENRY GEORGE WAKELYN
• SMITH, SIR THOMAS (1513-1577)
• SMITH, SIR WILLIAM (1813-1893)
• SMITH, SIR WILLIAM SIDNEY (1764-1840)
• SMITH, SYDNEY (1771-1845)
• SMITH, THOMAS SOUTHWOOD (1788-1861)
• SMITH, WILLIAM (1769-1839)
• SMITH, WILLIAM (c. 1730-1819)
• SMITH, WILLIAM (fl. 1596)
• SMITH, WILLIAM FARRAR (1824—1903)
• SMITH, WILLIAM HENRY (1808—1872)
• SMITH, WILLIAM HENRY (1825—1891)
• SMITH, WILLIAM ROBERTSON (1846-'894)

Smith (1769–1839), now known as the " See also:

• FATHER

father of historical geology," was See also:

• BORN, IGNAZ, EDLER VON (1742–1791)

born in the same year as Cuvier . Observing for himself (1794–18co) the stratigraphic value of fossils, he began to distinguish the great Mesozoic formations of England (18or) .

Cuvier (1769–1832) is famous as the founder of vertebrate palaeontology, and with See also:

• ALEXANDRE, NOEL (NATALIS ALEXANDER) (1639-1724)

Alexandre See also:

• BRONGNIART, ADOLPHE THEODORE (1801–1876)
• BRONGNIART, ALEXANDRE (1770-1847)

Brongniart (177o–1847) as the author of the first exact contribution to stratigraphic geology . Early trained as a comparative anatomist, the discovery of Upper Eocene mammals in the See also:

• GYPSUM

gypsum quarries of Montmartre found him fully prepared (1798), and in 1812 appeared his Recherches sur les ossemens fossiles, brilliantly written and constituting the foundation of the modern study of the extinct vertebrates . Invulnerable in exact anatomical description and comparison, he failed in all his philosophical generalizations, even in those strictly within the domain of anatomy . His famous " See also:

• LAW
• LAW (0. Eng. lagu, M. Eng. lawe; from an old Teutonic root lag, " lie," what lies fixed or evenly; cf. Lat. lex, Fr. loi)
• LAW, JOHN (1671—1729)
• LAW, WILLIAM (1686-1761)

law of correlation;" which by its apparent brilliancy added enormously to his See also:

• PRESTIGE

prestige, is not supported by modern philosophical anatomy, and his services to stratigraphy were diminished by his generalizations as to a succession of sudden extinctions and renovations of life . His See also:

• JOINT (through Fr. from Lat. junctum, jungere, to join)

joint See also:

• MEMOIRS

memoirs with Brongniart, Essai sur la geographie mineralogique des environs de Paris aver une See also:

• CARTE, THOMAS (1686-1754)

carte geognostique et des coupes de terrain (18o8) and Description geologique des environs de Paris (1835) were based on the wonderful succession of Tertiary faunas in the rocks of the Paris basin . In Cuvier's defence See also:

• CHARLES
• CHARLES (1270-1325)
• CHARLES (1421-1461)
• CHARLES (1525-1574)
• CHARLES (c. 1319-1364)
• CHARLES (Fr. Charles; Span. Carlos; Ital. Carlo; Ger. Karl; derived from O.H.G. Charal,latinized as Carolus, meaning originally " man ": cf. Mod.Ger., Kerl," fellow," A.S. ceorl, Mod. Eng. " churl ")
• CHARLES (KARL EITEL ZEPHYRIN LUDWIG; in Rum. CAROL)
• CHARLES [KARL ALEXANDER] (1712-1780)
• CHARLES, ELIZABETH (1828-1896)
• CHARLES, JACQUES ALEXANDRE CESAR (1746-1823)
• CHARLES, THOMAS (1755-1814)

Charles Deperet maintains that the extreme theory of successive extinctions followed by a succession of creations is attributable to Cuvier's followers rather than to the See also:

• MASTER (Lat. magister, related to tnagis, more, as the corresponding minister is to minus, less; the English form is due partly to the O. Eng. maegister, and partly to O. Fr. maistre, mod. maitre; cf. Du. meester, Ger. Meister, Ital. maestro)

master himself . Deperet points also that we owe to Cuvier the first clear expression of the idea of the increasing organic perfection of all forms of life from the See also:

• LOWER

lower to the higher horizons, and that, while he believed that extinctions were due to sudden revolutions on the surface of the earth, he also set forth the pregnant ideas that the renewals of animal life were by See also:

• MIGRATION

migration from other regions unknown, and that these migrations were favoured by alternate elevations and depressions which formed various land routes between great continents and islands . Thus Cuvier, following Buffon, clearly anticipated the modern See also:

• DOCTRINE

doctrine of faunal migrations . His reactionary and retarding ideas as a See also:

• SPECIAL

special creationist and his advocacy of the cataclysmic theory of change exerted a baneful influence until overthrown by the uniformitarianism of See also:

• JAMES
• JAMES (Gr. 'IlrKw,l3or, the Heb. Ya`akob or Jacob)
• JAMES (JAMES FRANCIS EDWARD STUART) (1688-1766)
• JAMES, 2ND EARL OF DOUGLAS AND MAR(c. 1358–1388)
• JAMES, DAVID (1839-1893)
• JAMES, EPISTLE OF
• JAMES, GEORGE PAYNE RAINSFOP
• JAMES, HENRY (1843— )
• JAMES, JOHN ANGELL (1785-1859)
• JAMES, THOMAS (c. 1573–1629)
• JAMES, WILLIAM (1842–1910)
• JAMES, WILLIAM (d. 1827)

James See also:

• HUTTON, CHARLES (1737-1823)
• HUTTON, JAMES (1726-1797)
• HUTTON, RICHARD HOLT (1826-1897)

Hutton (1726–1797) and Charles See also:

• LYELL, SIR CHARLES (1797-1875)

Lyell (1797–1875) and the evolutionism of Darwin . The chief contributions of Cuvier's great philosophical opponent, Etienne See also:

• GEOFFROY
• GEOFFROY, ETIENNE FRANCOIS (1672-1731)
• GEOFFROY, JULIEN LOUIS (1743-1814)

Geoffroy St Hilaire (1772–1844), are to be found in his See also:

• MAINTENANCE (Fr. maintenance, from maintenir, to maintain, support, Lat. manu tenere, to hold in the hand)

maintenance with Lamarck of the doctrine of the mutability of species . In this connexion he See also:

• DEVELOPED

developed his special theory of saltations, or of sudden modifications of structure through changes of environment, especially through the See also:

• DIRECT

direct influences of temperature and atmosphere . He clearly set forth also the phenomena of analogous or parallel adaptation .

It was Alcide Dessalines d'See also:

• ORBIGNY, ALCIDE DESSALINES

Orbigny (1802—1857) who pushed to an extreme Cuvier's ideas of the fixity of species and of successive extinctions, and finally developed the See also:

• WILD, JONATHAN (c. 1682-1725)

wild hypothesis of twenty-seven distinct Creations . While these views were current in France, exaggerating and surpassing the thought of Cuvier, they were strongly opposed in Germany by such authors as Ernst Friedrich von See also:

• SCHLOTHEIM, ERNST FRIEDRICH, BARON VON (1764-1832)

Schlotheim (1764—1832) and Heinrich Georg See also:

• BRONN, HEINRICH GEORG (1800-1862)

Bronn (18o0—1862); and the latter demonstrated that certain species actually pass from one formation to another . In the meantime the See also:

• FOUNDATIONS

foundations of palaeobotany were being laid (1804) by Ernst Friedrich von Schlotheim (1764—1832), (1811) by Kaspar Maria See also:

• STERNBERG

Sternberg (1761—1838) and (1838) by See also:

• THEOPHILE

Theophile Brongniart (180x—1876) . Following Cuvier's Recherches sur les ossemens fossiles, the See also:

• RICH, BARNABE (c. 1540-1617)
• RICH, CLAUDIUS JAMES (1787-1821)
• RICH, JOHN (1692-1761)
• RICH, PENELOPE, LADY (c. 1562–1607)
• RICH, RICHARD, 1ST BARON RICH (1490?-1567)

rich succession of Tertiary mammalian life was gradually revealed to France through the explorations and descriptions of such authors as Croizet, Jobert, de Christol, Eymar, Pomel and Lartet, during a period of rather dry, systematic See also:

• WORK

work, which included, however, the broader generalizations of See also:

• HENRI

Henri See also:

• MARIE

Marie Ducrotay de Blainville (1778—1850), and culminated in the comprehensive treatises on Tertiary palaeontology of See also:

• PAUL
• PAUL (PAULUS)

Paul See also:

• GERVAIS, PAUL (1816-1879)

Gervais (1816—1879) . Extending the knowledge of the extinct mammals of Germany, the See also:

• PRINCIPAL

principal contributors were Georg See also:

• AUGUST (originally Sextilis)

August See also:

• GOLDFUSS, GEORG AUGUST (1782-1848)

Goldfuss (1782—1848), Georg Friedrich von Jaegar (1785—1866), See also:

• FELIX
• FELIX, ANTONIUS
• FELIX, LIA (1830– )

Felix F . Plieninger (1807—1873) and Johann See also:

• JACOB
• JACOB, JOHN (1812-1858)

Jacob See also:

• KAUP, JOHANN JAKOB (1803-1873)

Kaup (1803—1873) . As Cuvier founded the palaeontology of mammals and See also:

• REPTILES (Lat. Reptilia, creeping things, from reptilis; ref ere, to creep; Gr. Ep7rety, whence the term " herpetology," for the science dealing with them)

reptiles, so Louis See also:

• AGASSIZ, ALEXANDER EMANUEL (1835-191o)
• AGASSIZ, JEAN LOUIS RODOLPHE (1807-1893)

Agassiz's See also:

• EPOCH (Gr. E7roxij, holding in suspense, a pause, from E1rxav, to hold up, to stop)

epoch-making See also:

• WORKS

works Recherches sur les poissons fossiles (1833—1845) laid the secure foundations of palaeichthyology, and were followed by See also:

• CHRISTIAN
• CHRISTIAN, WILLIAM (1608-1663)

Christian Heinrich Pander's (1794—1865) classic memoirs on the fossil fishes of Russia . In See also:

• PHILOSOPHY (Gr. gthos, fond of, and vo4 (a, wisdom)

philosophy Agassiz was distinctly a See also:

• DISCIPLE

disciple of Cuvier and supporter of the doctrine of special creation, and to a more limited extent of cataclysmic extinctions . Animals of the next higher order, the amphibians of the See also:

• COAL

coal See also:

• MEASURES

measures and the See also:

• PERMIAN

Permian, were first comprehensively treated in the masterly memoirs of Christian Erich See also:

• HERMANN, JOHANN GOTTFRIED JAKOB (1772–1848)
• HERMANN, KARL FRIEDRICH (1804–1855)

Hermann von See also:

• MEYER, CHRISTIAN ERICH HERMANN VON (18or-1869)
• MEYER, HEINRICH AUGUST WILHELM (1800-1873)
• MEYER, JULIUS LOTHAR (183o-1895)
• MEYER, KONRAD FERDINAND (1825-1898)
• MEYER, VICTOR (1848-1897)
• MEYER, [MARIE] PAUL HYACINTHE (184o- )

Meyer (18or—1869) beginning in 1829, especially in his Beitrtige zur Petrefactenkunde (1829—1830) and his Zur Fauna der Vorwelt (4 vols., 1845—186o) . Successive discoveries gradually revealed the See also:

• WORLD

world of extinct Reptilia; in 182 r Charles See also:

• KONIG, KARL RUDOLPH (1832-1901)

Konig (1784—1851), the first keeper of the mineralogical collection in the See also:

• BRITISH

British Museum, described See also:

• ICHTHYOSAURUS

Ichthyosaurus from the Jurassic; in the same year William See also:

• DANIEL
• DANIEL (DANIL)
• DANIEL, BOOK
• DANIEL, GABRIEL (1649-1728)