PAPER  MANUFACTURE In the See also:

• MODERN

modern sense " paper " may best be described as a more Or less thin See also:

• TISSUE (Fr. tissu, tissue, participle of tisser, Lat. texere, to weave)

tissue composed of any fibrous material, whoseindividual See also:

• FIBRES
• FIBRES (or FIBERS, in American spelling; from Lat. fibra, apparently connected either with filum, thread, or findere, to split)

fibres, first separated by See also:

• MECHANICAL

mechanical See also:

• ACTION

action, are then deposited and felted together on See also:

• WIRE (A.S. wir, a wire; cf. Swed. vire, to twist, M.H.G. wiere, a gold ornament, Lat. viriae, armlets, ultimately from the root wi, to twist, bind)

wire See also:

• CLOTH

cloth while suspended in See also:

• WATER

water (see FIBRES) . The See also:

• MAIN (from the Aryan root which appears in " may " and " might," and Lat. magnus, great)
• MAIN (Lat. Moenus)

main constituent in the structure of all See also:

• PLANTS

plants is the fibre or See also:

• CELLULOSE

cellulose which forms the casing or walls of the different cells; it is tfie woody portion of the plant freed from all See also:

• FOREIGN

foreign substances, and forms, so to speak, the See also:

• SKELETON

skeleton of See also:

• VEGETABLE

vegetable fibre to the amount of 75 to 78% . Its forms and combinations are extremely varied, but it always consists of the same chemical elements, See also:

• CARBON (symbol C, atomic weight 12)

carbon, See also:

• HYDROGEN [symbol H, atomic weight x-oo8 (0=16)]

hydrogen and See also:

• OXYGEN (symbol 0, atomic weight 16)

oxygen, and in the same proportions . It is the See also:

• OBJECT

object of the paper-maker to eliminate the glutinous, resinous, siliceous and other intercellular matters and to produce the fibre as pure and as strong as possible . See also:

• LINEN

Linen and See also:

• COTTON
• COTTON (Fr. coton; from Arab. qutun)
• COTTON, CHARLES (163o–1687)
• COTTON, GEORGE EDWARD LYNCH (1813–1866)
• COTTON, JOHN (1585–1652)
• COTTON, SIR ROBERT BRUCE

cotton rags, having already undergone a See also:

• PROCESS

process of manufacture, consist of almost pure fibres with the addition of fatty and colouring matters which can be got rid of by See also:

• SIMPLE

simple boiling under a See also:

• LOW, SETH (1850- )
• LOW, WILL HICOK (1853- )

low pressure of See also:

• STEAM
• STEAM (0. Eng. steam, vapour, smoke, cf. Du. steam; the origin is unknown)

steam with a weak alkaline See also:

• SOLUTION (from Lat. solvere, to loosen, dissolve)

solution; but the substitutes for rags, See also:

• ESPARTO, or SPANISH GRASS

esparto, See also:

• WOOD, ANTHONY A2 (1632-1695)
• WOOD, JOHN GEORGE (1827—1889)
• WOOD, MRS HENRY [ELLEN] (1814—1887)
• WOOD, SEARLES VALENTINE (1798—188o)

wood, See also:

• STRAW

straw, &c., being used as they come from the See also:

• SOIL

soil, contain all the intercellular See also:

• MATTER

matter in its See also:

• ORIGINAL

original See also:

• FORM (Lat. forma)

form, which has to be dissolved by strong chemical treatment under a high temperature . The vegetable fibre or cellulose, being of a tougher and stronger nature, is untouched by the action of See also:

• CAUSTIC (Gr. rcavvraubs, burning)

caustic soda (which is the chemical generally employed for the purpose), unless the treatment be carried too far, whilst See also:

• ANIMAL
• ANIMAL (Lat. animalis, from anima, breath, soul)

animal fibres or other organic matters are rendered soluble or destroyed by it . The cellulose, after its See also:

• RESOLUTION

resolution by chemical treatment, is still impregnated with insoluble colouring matters, which have to be eliminated or destroyed by treatment with a solution of See also:

• CHLORINE (symbol Cl, atomic weight 35`46 (0=16)

chlorine or See also:

• BLEACHING

bleaching-See also:

• POWDER (through O. Fr. puldre, modern poudre, from Lat. pulvis, pulveris, dust)

powder . The object of the paper-maker in treating any one particular fibre is to carry the action of the dissolving and bleaching agents just so far as to obtain the fibre as See also:

• FREE

free from impurities and as See also:

• WHITE
• WHITE, ANDREW DICKSON (1832– )
• WHITE, GILBERT (1720–1793)
• WHITE, HENRY KIRKE (1785-1806)
• WHITE, HUGH LAWSON (1773-1840)
• WHITE, JOSEPH BLANCO (1775-1841)
• WHITE, RICHARD GRANT (1822-1885)
• WHITE, ROBERT (1645-1704)
• WHITE, SIR GEORGE STUART (1835– )
• WHITE, SIR THOMAS (1492-1567)
• WHITE, SIR WILLIAM ARTHUR (1824--1891)
• WHITE, SIR WILLIAM HENRY (1845– )
• WHITE, THOMAS (1628-1698)
• WHITE, THOMAS (c. 1550-1624)

white in See also:

• COLOUR (Lat. color, connected with celare, to hide, the root meaning, therefore, being that of a covering)

colour as is desired . The usefulness of a plant for a See also:

• GOOD, JOHN MASON (1764-1827)

good white paper depends upon the strength and See also:

• ELASTICITY

elasticity of its fibres, upon the proportion of cellular tissue contained in them, and upon the ease with which this can be freed from the encrusting and intercellular matters . Although experiments had previously been made with many fibrous materials, paper was made in See also:

• EUROPE

Europe, until the See also:

• MIDDLE

middle of the 19th See also:

• CENTURY (from Lat. centuria, a division of a hundred men)

century, almost entirely from rags, either linen or cotton . At that See also:

• PERIOD
• PERIOD (Gr. irepioSos, a going or way round, circuit, aepi, round, and &Sis, way, road)

period other fibres began to be adopted as substitutes, due in See also:

• PART

part, no doubt, to insufficient See also:

• SUPPLY (through Fr. from Lat. supplere, to fill up)

supply of rags for the increasing See also:

• CONSUMPTION (Lat. consumere)

consumption of paper, and to the consequent rise in See also:

• PRICE
• PRICE, BARTHOLOMEW (1818–1898)
• PRICE, BONAMY (1807-1888)
• PRICE, RICHARD (1723-1791)

price . The most important of these substitutes are esparto-grass, wood and straw, and these, together with See also:

• FLAX

flax (linen), See also:

• HEMP (in O. Eng. henep, cf. Dutch hennep, Ger. Hanf , cognate with Gr. Kavval3er, Lat. cannabis)

hemp, jute and cotton rags, form the See also:

• PRINCIPAL

principal raw material for the manufacture of paper .

Paper was first entirely made by See also:

• HAND
• HAND (a word common to Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Hand, Goth. handus)
• HAND, FERDINAND GOTTHELF (1786-185r)

hand, See also:

• SHEET

sheet by sheet, but in 1798 the invention of the paper See also:

• MACHINE
• MACHINE (through Fr. from Lat. form machina of Gr. µnxavil)

machine by See also:

• LOUIS
• LOUIS (804–876)
• LOUIS (893–911)
• LOUIS, JOSEPH DOMINIQUE, BARON (1755-1837)
• LOUIS, or LEWIS (from the Frankish Chlodowich, Chlodwig, Latinized as Chlodowius, Lodhuwicus, Lodhuvicus, whence-in the Strassburg oath of 842-0. Fr. Lodhuwigs, then Chlovis, Loys and later Louis, whence Span. Luiz and—through the Angevin kings—Hungarian

Louis See also:

• ROBERT
• ROBERT (1275—1343)
• ROBERT, HUBERT (1753-1808)
• ROBERT, LOUIS LEOPOLD (1794-1835)

Robert, a clerk•in the employ of Messrs See also:

• DIDOT

Didot, of the Essonne Paper See also:

• MILLS, JOHN (d. 1736)
• MILLS, ROGER QUARLES (1832– )

Mills in See also:

• FRANCE
• FRANCE, ANATOLE (1844– )

France, gave a new impetus to the See also:

• INDUSTRY (Lat. industria, from indu-, a form of the pre, position in, and either stare, to stand, or struere, to pile up)

industry . The invention was introduced into See also:

• ENGLAND
• ENGLAND, THE CHURCH OF

England by See also:

• HENRY
• HENRY (1129-1195)
• HENRY (c. 1108-1139)
• HENRY (c. 1174–1216)
• HENRY (Fr. Henri; Span. Enrique; Ger. Heinrich; Mid. H. Ger. Heinrich and Heimrich; O.H.G. Haimi- or Heimirih, i.e. " prince, or chief of the house," from O.H.G. heim, the Eng. home, and rih, Goth. reiks; compare Lat. rex " king "—" rich," therefore " mig
• HENRY, EDWARD LAMSON (1841– )
• HENRY, JAMES (1798-1876)
• HENRY, JOSEPH (1797-1878)
• HENRY, MATTHEW (1662-1714)
• HENRY, PATRICK (1736–1799)
• HENRY, PRINCE OF BATTENBERG (1858-1896)
• HENRY, ROBERT (1718-1790)
• HENRY, VICTOR (1850– )
• HENRY, WILLIAM (1795-1836)

Henry Fourdrinier (1766-1854), the proprietor of a See also:

• MILL
• MILL (O. Eng. mylen, later myln, or miln, adapted from the late Lat. molina, cf. Fr. moulin, from Lat. mola, a mill, molere, to grind; from the same root, mol, is derived " meal;" the word appears in other Teutonic languages, cf. Du. molen, Ger. muhle)
• MILL, JAMES (1773-1836)
• MILL, JOHN (c. 1645–1707)
• MILL, JOHN STUART (1806-1873)

mill at See also:

• DARTFORD

Dartford in See also:

• KENT
• KENT, EARLS AND DUKES OF
• KENT, JAMES (1763-1847)
• KENT, WILLIAM (1685-1748)

Kent . He secured the assistance of See also:

• BRYAN, WILLIAM JENNINGS (186o– )

Bryan See also:

• DONKIN, SIR RUFANE SHAW (1773-1841)

Donkin (1768-1855), an engineer, and after much toil and perseverance, attended with See also:

• GREAT

great expense, for which he received no recompense, succeeded in 1803 in erecting a machine at See also:

• FROGMORE

Frogmore, Herts, which worked comparatively well . This machine, by the subsequent improvements of See also:

• DICKINSON, ANNA ELIZABETH (1842– )
• DICKINSON, JOHN (1732–1808)

Dickinson, Causon, See also:

• CROMPTON
• CROMPTON, SAMUEL (1753-1827)

Crompton and others, has been brought to the See also:

• STATE
• STATE, GREAT OFFICERS OF

state of perfection in which it now stands . It embraces a multitude of most ingenious and delicate operations, and produces in a few minutes, and in one continuous process from the prepared pulp, sheets of paper ready for use . Machine-made paper has now gradually supplanted that made by hand for all except See also:

• SPECIAL

special purposes, such as See also:

• BANK

bank-See also:

• NOTE
• NOTE (Lat. nota, mark, sign, from noscere, to know)

note, See also:

• LEDGER (from the English dialect forms liggen or leggen, to lie or lay; in sense adapted from the Dutch substantive logger)

ledger, See also:

• DRAWING

drawing and other high-class papers—in one word, in cases where great durability is the See also:

• CHIEF (from Fr. chef, head, Lat. caput)

chief requisite . The various uses to which paper is put in the See also:

• PRESENT

present See also:

• DAY (O. Eng. dreg, Ger. Tag; according to the New English Dictionary, " in no way related to the Lat. dies")
• DAY, JOHN (1574-1640?)
• DAY, THOMAS (1748-1789)

day are multitudinous, but the main classes may be grouped into four: (1) See also:

• WRITING
• WRITING (the verbal noun of " to write," O. Eng. writan, to inscribe)

writing and drawing papers; (2) See also:

• PRINTING (from Lat. imprimere, O. Fr. empreindre)

printing and See also:

• NEWS

news-papers; (3) wrapping papers; (4) tissue and cigarette papers . The process of paper manufacture consists of two main divisions: (I) the treatment of the raw material, including cleaning, dusting, boiling, washing, bleaching and reducing to pulp; (2) the methods by which the prepared pulp or fibres are converted into paper ready for the See also:

• MARKET (Lat. mercatus, trade or place of trade)

market; this is paper-making proper, and includes the operations of beating, sizing, colouring, making the sheet or See also:

• WEB (a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Du. webbe, Dan. vaev, Ger. Gewebe, all from the Teutonic wabh—to weave)

web, surfacing, cutting, &c . Rags arrive at the mill from the rag merchants, either roughly sorted into grades or mixed in quality and material, and the first Rags. process is to free them from See also:

• SAND
• SAND, GEORGE (1804-1876)

sand, dust and other See also:

• IM(K2+a2+h2—2 ah cos 0)

im- purities . To effect this they are usually passed in bulk through an See also:

• ORDINARY (med. Lat. ordinarius, Fr. ordinaire)

ordinary revolving duster . They are then sorted into grades, and cut to a workable See also:

• SIZE

size about four inches square . For the best See also:

• WORK

work', hand-cutting, done by See also:

• WOMEN

women, is still preferred, but it is expensive and good See also:

• MACHINES

machines have now been designed for this urppose .

After further See also:

• THRASHING, or THRESHING (from " to thrash," O. Eng. llerscan, cf. Ger. dreschen, Du. dorschen, &c.)

thrashing and dusting, the rags are ready For boiling, the object of which is not only to get rid of the dirt still remaining in them and to remove some of the colouring matter, but also to decompose a particular glutinous substance which would impair the flexibility of the fibres and render them too harsh and stiff for readily making into paper . Various forms of vessels are used for boiling, but usually they are made to revolve by means of suitable gearing, and are either cylindrical or spherical (fg . 1) . _se In these the rags are boiled with an alkaline solution under a low steam pressure for six to twelve See also:

• HOURS, CANONICAL

hours . The next step is that of washing and " breaking in," which takes See also:

• PLACE (through Fr. from Lat. platea, street; Gr. IrAar6s, wide)

place in an See also:

• ENGINE
• ENGINE (Lat. ingenium)

engine called the " breaker." This (fig . 2) is an oblong shallow See also:

• VESSEL (O. Fr. vaissel, from a rare Lat. vascellum, dim. of vas, vase, urn)

vessel or trough with rounded ends and dished bottom, usually about 13 ft. See also:

• LONG, GEORGE (1800-1879)
• LONG, JOHN DAVIS (1838– )

long by 6 ft. wide, by about 2 ft . 6 in. in See also:

• DEPTH

depth, but the size varies greatly . It is partly divided along the centre by a See also:

• PARTITION

partition or See also:

• MID

mid-See also:

• FEATHER (0. Eng. (ether, Ger. Feder, from an Indo-European root seen also in Gr. lrrepov, and aEreo-Oat, to fly)

feather," and furnished with a heavy See also:

• CAST (from the verb meaning " to throw "; the word is Scand. in origin, cf. Dan. kaste, and Swed. kasta; " cast " in Middle Eng. took the place of the A.S. weor pan, cf. Ger. werf en)

cast-See also:

• IRON [symbol Fe, atomic weight 55.85 (0=16)]

iron See also:

• ROLL (O. Fr. rolle, roulle, mod. role, Lat. rotulus, dim. of rota, wheel)
• ROLL, ALFRED PHILIPPE (1846– )

roll fitted See also:

• ROUND (O. Fr. rond, Lat. rotundus, the Fr. is the source also of Du. rond; Ger., Swed., Dan. and Nor. rond)

round its circumference with knives or bars of See also:

• STEEL, FLORA ANNIE (1847– )

steel in bunches or clumps . Underneath the roll and fixed in the bottom of the trough is the " See also:

• PLATE

plate," consisting of a number of parallel steel bars bedded in a wooden See also:

• FRAME

frame . The roll can be raised or lowered on the plate so as to increase or diminish, as desired, the cutting action of the bars and plate on the material . The See also:

• DUTY (from " due," that which is owing, O. Fr. deu, dil, past participle of devoir; Lat. debere, debitum; cf. " debt ")

duty of the roll is to cut and tease out the rags, and also to See also:

• ACT (Lat. actus, actum)

act as a lifter to cause the stuff to circulate round the trough . The breaker is See also:

• HALF

half filled with water and packed with the boiled rags; an ample supply of clean water is run Into the engine for washing the rags, the dirty water being withdrawn by the " See also:

• DRUM (early forms drome or dromme, a word common to many Teut. languages, cf. Dan. tromme, Ger. Trommel: the word is ultimately the same as " trumpet," and is probably onomatopoeic in origin; it appears late in Eng. about the middle of the 16th century)

drum-washer," a hollow See also:

• CYLINDER (Gr. KvAwSpos, from KvXivaety, to roll)

cylinder fitted with buckets and covered with See also:

• FINE

fine wire-cloth .

During the washing process the roll is gradually lowered on the plate to tease out the rags into their original fibres; this operation takes from two to four hours . As soon as all signs of the textile nature of the material are destroyed, the washing water is turned off, the drum-washer lifted, and a solution of chlorine or bleach is run in to bring the ppulpp up to the degree of whiteness desired, after which the rag " See also:

• HALL
• HALL (generally known as SCHWABISCH-HALL, tc distinguish it from the small town of Hall in Tirol and Bad-Hall, a health resort in Upper Austria)
• HALL (O.E. heall, a common Teutonic word, cf. Ger. Halle)
• HALL, BASIL (1788-1844)
• HALL, CARL CHRISTIAN (1812–1888)
• HALL, CHARLES FRANCIS (1821-1871)
• HALL, CHRISTOPHER NEWMAN (1816—19oz)
• HALL, EDWARD (c. 1498-1547)
• HALL, FITZEDWARD (1825-1901)
• HALL, ISAAC HOLLISTER (1837-1896)
• HALL, JAMES (1793–1868)
• HALL, JAMES (1811–1898)
• HALL, JOSEPH (1574-1656)
• HALL, MARSHALL (1790-1857)
• HALL, ROBERT (1764-1831)
• HALL, SAMUEL CARTER (5800-5889)
• HALL, SIR JAMES (1761-1832)
• HALL, WILLIAM EDWARD (1835-1894)

hall! stuff," as it is now called, is emptied into steeps or drainers, where it is stored ready for use . In treating esparto (the use of which for paper-making is almost confined to Great See also:

• BRITAIN (Gr. Hperavuml vi7vot, Bperravia; Lat. Britannia, rarely Britannia)

Britain) the object is to free It from all encrusting Esparto. and intercellular matter . To effect this it is digested with a strong solution of caustic soda under a high temperature, in boilers which are almost invariably stationary . The most usual form is that known as See also:

• SINCLAIR
• SINCLAIR, SIR JOHN, BART

Sinclair's. patent (fig . 3) . This See also:

• BOILER

boiler is constructed of wrought-iron or steel plates, and holds from 2 to 3 tons of grass . It is charged through the opening at the See also:

• TOP (cf. Dan. top, Ger. Topf, also meaning pot)

top A, and the boiled material taken out from a See also:

• DOOR (corresponding to the Gr. Bbpa,. Lat. fores or valvae; the English word, with other forms common in allied languages, comes from the same Indo-European stem as the Gr. Obpa and Lat. fares)

door B at the See also:

• SIDE
• SIDE (mod. Eski Adalia)

side; the grass rests on a false bottom of perforated plates C, through which the liquor drains, and by means of two ' vomiting pipes, D, D, at the sides of the boiler, connecting the space at the bottom with a similar spice at the top, a continuous circulation of steam and liquor is maintained through the grass . The steam pressure is kept up to 30 to 40 lb per sq. in. for three or four hours; then the strong liquor or See also:

• LYE (0. Eng. leag, cf. Dutch loog, Ger. Lauge, from the root meaning to wash, see in Lat. lavare, and Eng. " lather," froth of soap and water, and " laundry ")

lye, which contains all the resinous and inter-cellular matters dissolved by the action of the caustic soda, is run off and stored in tanks for subsequent recovery of the soda, while the grass is taken to the " potcher " or washing engine . In construction and working this is similar to the breaking engine used for rags; in it the grass is reduced to pulp, and washed for about twenty minutes to free it from the traces of soda liquor remaining See also:

• ELEVATION

Elevation See also:

• PLAN
• PLAN (from Lat. planes, flat)

Plan after the partial washing in the boiler . As soon as the See also:

• WASH, THE

wash water is See also:

• RUNNING

running clear it is shut off, and the necessary quantity of a solution of bleaching powder or chlorine (averaging about 6 to 8% on the raw material) is run into the potcher, and the contents are heated by steam to a temperature of about 90° F . After about four to six hours the bleaching is See also:

• COMPLETE

complete, the drum-washer is let down, fresh water run into the potcher, and the grass washed to free it from all traces of chlorine, an operation generally assisted by the use of a little antichlor or hyposulphite of soda .

The esparto, as shipped in See also:

• BALES [BALESIUS], PETER (1547–1610?)

bales from the See also:

• SPANISH

Spanish or See also:

• AFRICAN

African See also:

• FIELDS, JAMES THOMAS (1817-1881)

fields, is mixed with roots, weeds and other impurities; and as most of these do not See also:

• BOIL

boil or bleach as rapidly as the esparto they would, if not taken out of the pulp, show up in the finished paper as specks and spots . To get rid of them the esparto pulp when washed and bleached is run from the potcher into storage chests, from which it is pumped over a long, narrow See also:

• SERPENTINE

serpentine settling table or " sand-table," made of wood and fitted with divisions, or " weirs," behind which the heavy impurities or weeds fall to the bottom and are caught . The pulp is next passed over what is known as a " presse-pate " (fig . 4) or " half-stuff " machine, very similar to the wet end of a paper machine, consisting of strainers fitted with coarse-cut strainer plates, a See also:

• SHORT, FRANCIS JOB (1857– )

short wire and a pair of See also:

• COUCH, DARIUS NASH (1822-1897)

couch and See also:

• PRESS (through Fr. presse from Lat. pressare, frequentative of premere, to crush, squeeze, press)

press rolls . The pulp is See also:

• DRAWN

drawn by suction through the strainers, which keep back the finer impurities that have passed the sand-table, and then flows on to the wire-cloth in the form of a thick web of pulp . After pecoing through the couch and press rolls, the pulp leaves the machine with about 7o % of moisture, and is ready for the beating engine, the first operation of paper-making proper . This is the usual process, though various modifications are introduced in different mills and for different purposes . Most kinds of straw can be utilized for making into paper, the varieties generally used being See also:

• RYE

rye, See also:

• OAT (O. Eng. ate; the word is not found in cognate languages; it may be allied with Fr. eitel, knot, nodule, cf. Gr. oiSos swelling)

oat, See also:

• WHEAT
• WHEAT (Triticum)

wheat and See also:

• BARLEY (Hordeum sativum)

barley; of these, the two former are the most important, as they give Straw. the largest yield in fibre . See also:

• GERMANY
• GERMANY (Ger. Deutschland)

Germany and France are the two principal users of straw, which closely resembles esparto in its chemical constitution, and is reduced to a pulp by a somewhat similar process . Scandinavia, Germany, the See also:

• UNITED

United States and See also:

• CANADA

Canada are the countries which mainly use wood as a material for paper-making . owing to their See also:

• POSSESSION
• POSSESSION (Lat. possessio, possidere, to possess)

possession of large See also:

• FOREST

forest areas . They also export large quantities of wood-pulp to other countries .

In Europe the Wood . Scotch See also:

• FIR

fir (Pinus sylvestris), the spruce (Picea excelsa), the See also:

• POPLAR
• POPLAR (Lat. Populus)

poplar (Populus See also:

• ALBA

alba) and the See also:

• ASPEN

aspen (Populus tremula), are the timbers principally employed; and in See also:

• AMERICA

America the See also:

• BLACK
• BLACK, ADAM (1784-1874)
• BLACK, JEREMIAH SULLIVAN (1810–1883)
• BLACK, WILLIAM (1841-1898)

black spruce (Picea See also:

• NIGRA, COSTANTINO, COUNT (1828-1907)

nigra), the See also:

• HEMLOCK (in O. Eng. hemlic or hymlice; no cognate is found in any other language, and the origin is unknown)

hemlock (Tsuga canadensis) , the poplar (Populus grandidentata) and the aspen (Populus tremuloides) . Two kinds of wood-pulp are used for paper manufacture, one prepared mechanically and the other chemically . The former is obtained by disintegrating the wood entirely by machinery without the use of chemicals, and is, as may readily be understood, a very inferior g"&Ip• In the manufacture of chemical wood-pulp, very greatabout seven or eight hours, in a similar manner to esparto and straw, though it requires much severer treatment . The steam pressure varies from 90 1b to as much as Igo lb per sq. in., and the amount of soda required is about 16% of Na2O, estimated on the barked and cleaned wood . The essential feature of the sulphite process is the employment of a solution of sulphurous See also:

• ACID (from the Lat. root ac-, sharp; acere, to be sour)

acid combined with a certain amount of See also:

• BASE

base, either See also:

• MAGNESIA

magnesia or See also:

• LIME
• LIME (O. Eng. lim, Lat. limes, mud, from linere, to smear)

lime . As the acid reaction of the bisulphite solution would attack any ex-posed ironwork with which it comes in contact, the boilers in all cases should be lined with See also:

• LEAD
• LEAD (pronounced iced)

lead . The type of boiler employed varies according to the process adopted . The principal See also:

• PATENTS

patents connected with the sulphite process are those of Tilghman, Ekman, _,.xor$WwPipe 11 lrr Il~~l~~lllllllllili 11 (sq . 11 llJlp'I See also:

• WASTE (O. Fr. wast, guast, gast, gaste; Lat. vastus, vast, desolate)

waste See also:

• PIPE

Pipe advances have been made since 188o, and wood-pulp has grown to be one of the most important fibres for paper-making purposes . Two methods are in use, known respectively as the soda or alkaline process, and the sulphite or acid process, according as soda or See also:

• SULPHUR

sulphur (or rather sulphurous acid) forms the base of the reagent employed . Trees of See also:

• MEDIUM

medium See also:

• AGE (Fr. age, through late Lat. aetaticum, from aetas)

age are usually selected, varying from seventy to eighty years' growth and running from 8 to 12 in. in See also:

• DIAMETER (from the Cr. &a, through, µErpov, measure)

diameter .

They are felled in See also:

• WINTER, JOHN STRANGE
• WINTER, PETER (c. 1755-1825)

winter and reach the mill in logs about 4 ft. long . After being freed from bark and the knots taken out by machinery, the logs are cut into small cubical chips about a to a in. in size by a revolving cutter . The chips are then bruised by being passed between two heavy iron rolls to allow the boiling solution thoroughly to penetrate them, and are conveyed to the boilers over a See also:

• SCREEN (usually, but very doubtfully, connected with Lat. scrinium, a box for holding books, from scribere, to write; a connexion with Ger. Schranke, barrier, has been suggested)

screen of coarse wire-cloth, which separates out the fine sawdust as well as any dirt or sand . In the soda process the wood is boiled in large revolving or upright stationary boilers for See also:

• FRANCKE, AUGUST HERMANN (1663-1727)

Francke, See also:

• RITTER, HEINRICH (1791-1869)
• RITTER, KARL (1779–1859)

Ritter-Kellner, See also:

• MITSCHERLICH, EILHARDT (1794–1863)

Mitscherlich, and Partington . The subsequent operations, in both the acid and alkaline processes of washing, bleaching and straining the pulp, are all very similar to those described for esparto . Wood-pulp produced by the sulphite process differs in a marked degree from that made by the soda process; the fibre in the former See also:

• CASE
• CASE, JOHN (d. 1600)

case is harsher and stronger, and papers made from it are characterized by their hardness and transparency, whereas those made from soda pulp are softer and more mellow, corresponding in some way to the difference between linen and cotton fibres . Each class of pulp is largely used, both alone and mixed with other materials . Within See also:

• RECENT

recent years important modifications and improvements have been adopted in the preparation of esparto and wood half-stuff with a view to reduce the cost of manufacture and See also:

• SAVE, or SAVA (Ger. Sau; Hungarian Szdva; Lat. Savus)

save waste of material . From the boiler to the beater the process becomes a continuous one, so that the prepared pulp requires practically no cc co handling till it is made into finished paper at the end of the machine; this effects a considerable saving in cost of labour and reduces the waste of material incidental to a See also:

• SERIES (a Latin word from serere, to join)

series of disconnected operations . From the potcher or breaking engine the esparto or wood pulp is discharged, by means of a patent circulator or See also:

• PUMP

pump, into the first of a series of upright bleaching towers . These towers (fig . 5) are built up of wrought-iron rods and a special See also:

• KIND (O. E. ge-cynde, from the same root as is seen in " kin," supra)

kind of See also:

• CEMENT (from Lat. caementum, rough pieces of stone, a shortened form of caedimentum, from caedere, to cut)

cement .

They are usually about i6 ft. high in the parallel by 81 ft. in diameter; the bottom of the See also:

• TOWER (Lat. turris; Fr. tour, clocker; Ital. torre; Ger. Thurm)

tower is conical and connected to a powerful circulator or pump, which discharges the pulp into the top of the tower and causes thereby a continuous circulation and a thorough mixing of the pulp and bleach . A special form of concentrator is fixed on the top of the first tower, which reduces the water in the pulp as it leaves the potcher to the minimum quantity necessary for per- fect circulation in the tower; by this means a considerable saving is effected in the quantity of bleach required . After the necessary concen- tration of the pulp in No . I tower, the bleaching liquor is added and the circulator at the See also:

• FOOT

foot of the tower put in See also:

• MOTION (Lat. motio, from movere, to move)
• MOTION, LAWS OF

motion . A two-way See also:

• VALVE (Lat. valva, a leaf of a double or folding door, allied to volvere, to roll, as of a door on its hinges)

valve in the See also:

• DISCHARGE (adapted from the O. Fr. discharge, modern decharge, from a med. Lat. discargare, to unload, dis- and earn care, to load, cf. " charge ")

discharge pipe allows the pulp to pass on to tower No . 2, and so on through the series . The circulator in each tower is only put in working for a short See also:

• TIME (0. Eng. Lima, cf. Icel. timi, Swed. timme, hour, Dan. time; from the root also seen in " tide," properly the time of between the flow and ebb of the sea, cf. O. Eng. getidan, to happen, " even-tide," &c.; it is not directly related to Lat. tempus)
• TIME, MEASUREMENT OF
• TIME, STANDARD

time once in every See also:

• HOUR

hour and there is never more than one circulator working in the series at one time . There is no See also:

• MANUAL

manual labour in working the process, perfect cleanliness, and a great saving in See also:

• POWER [WILLIAM GRATTAN] TYRONE (1797-1841)

power over the old process . Each tower will hold about two tons of dry pulp . When the pulp is fully bleached in the last tower of the series, fresh water is run into it, and a second concentrator, similar to the one on the first tower, is put in motion and washes out all traces of the bleach in about 25 to 30 minutes . These concentrators effect also another purpose, taking to some extent the place of the presse-pate machine for removing roots, weeds and other impurities . From the last tower and concentrator the bleached pulp is pumped through a See also:

• LINE

line of pipes to the beaters, valves being fixed in the line of pipes to discharge into whichever beater is desired .

These beaters are constructed in tower-form like the bleachers, the roll and plate being fixed on the top of the tower and the circulation effected in the same way as in the bleachers . Fig . 5 shows plan and elevation of such an arrangement of beaters and bleachers arranged in series . The beaters are made to hold each about t5oo lb of dry paper and a series of four of these can make from 55 to 6o tons of paper per See also:

• WEEK (from A.S. wicu, Germanic *wikon, probably=change, turn)

week . f/tiya //1, ! 1//a/yiya//1////1//// ye/e/1/i/eay/N/e///1//1////0////0////////A- Fibres like jute,, hemp, See also:

• MANILA

manila, &c., are chiefly used for the manufacture of coarse papers where strength is of more importance than See also:

• APPEARANCE (from Lat. apparere, to appear)

appearance, such as wrapping-papers, paper for See also:

• TELEGRAPH (Gr. Tike, far, and rypaq5eiv, to write)

telegraph-forms, &c . The boiling processes for them are similar to those used for esparto and straw . The alkaline liquors in which rags, esparto and other paper-making materials had been boiled were formerly run into the nearest water-course; but now, partly because it is Soda insisted upon in England by the See also:

• RIVERS
• RIVERS, ANTHONY WOODVILLE, or WYDEVILLE, 2ND EARL (c. 1442—1483)
• RIVERS, EARL
• RIVERS, RICHARD SAVAGE, 4TH EARL (c. 1660—1712)

Rivers Pollution Acts, Recovery. and partly because the recovery of the soda can be made remunerative, all these liquors are preserved and the soda they contain utilized . One of the best and most economical of the simple recovery plants is that invented by Potion, a See also:

• FRENCH
• FRENCH, DANIEL CHESTER (1850– )
• FRENCH, NICHOLAS (1604-1678)

French distiller, and named after him . This consists of an evaporating chamber A, on the See also:

• FLOOR (from O. Eng. flor, a word common to many Teutonic languages, cf. Dutch vloer, and Ger. Flur, a field, in the feminine, and a floor, masculine)

floor of which a few inches of the liquid to be evaporated See also:

• REST (O. Eng. rest, reste, bed, cognate with other Teutonic forms, e.g. Ger. Rast, Riiste, rest, and probably Gothic Rasta, league, i.e. resting or stopping place)

rest . By the action of fanners B, B revolving at a high See also:

• SPEED, JOHN (1552–1629)

speed and dipping into the liquid, it is thrown up in a fine spray through which the heated gases pass to the See also:

• CHIMNEY (through the Fr. cheminee, from caminata, sc. camera, a Lat. derivative of caminus, an oven or furnace)

chimney . After being concentrated in the evaporating chamber the liquid flows into the incinerating furnaces C,C, where the remaining water is driven off by the See also:

• HEAT (0. E. haktu, which like " hot," Old Eng. hat, is from the Teutonic type haita, hit, to be hot; cf. Ger. hitze, heiss; Dutch, hitte, heet, &c.)

heat of the See also:

• FIRE (in O. Eng. f j'r; the word is common to West German languages, cf. Dutch vuur, Ger. Feuer; the pre-Teutonic form is seen in Sanskrit pu, pavaka, and Gr. irup; the ultimate origin is usually taken to be a root meaning to purify, cf. Lat. purus)

fire D, and the See also:

• MASS (O.E. maesse; Fr. messe; Ger. Messe; Ital. messa; from eccl. Lat. missa)
• MASS, IN

mass afterwards ignited to drive off the carbonaceous matter .

A considerable feature in this evaporator is Menzies and See also:

• DAVIS (or DAVYS), JOHN (1550 ?-16o5)
• DAVIS, ANDREW JACKSON (1826—1910)
• DAVIS, CHARLES HOWARD (1857- )
• DAVIS, CUSHMAN KELLOGG (1838-1900)
• DAVIS, HENRY WILLIAM BANKS (1833- )
• DAVIS, HENRY WINTER (1817-1865)
• DAVIS, JEFFERSON (1808–1889)
• DAVIS, THOMAS OSBORNE (1814–1845)

Davis's patent See also:

• SMELL (connected etymologically with " smoulder " and " smoke ")

smell chamber E, a chamber filled with See also:

• MASONRY

masonry in which the strongly-smelling gases from the incinerating See also:

• FURNACE

furnace are allowed to remain at a red heat for a short time . After being recovered, the soda, in the form of crude carbonate, is lixiviated and re-causticized by boiling with See also:

• MILK (0. Eng. meoluc; from a common Indo-European root, cf. Lat. mulgere, Gr. ?t dXyetv)

milk of lime . Porion's method is open, however, to the objection that the -whole of the sulphur in the See also:

• COAL

coal employed for the furnaces finds its way into the recovered soda, and forms sulphur compounds, thus reducing the value of the ash for boiling purposes; in addition, a considerable amount of soda is volatilized during the evaporation . By the application of the See also:

• SYSTEM

system of multiple-effect evaporation to the recovery of waste liquors these drawbacks disappear, and an important See also:

• CHANGE (derived through the Fr. from the Late Lat. cambium, cambiare, to barter; the ultimate derivation is probably from the root which appears in the Gr. «a urmu', to bend)

change has been made in the soda-recovery plant of the paper-mill . This system of multiple-effect evaporation, originally introduced by M . Rillieux, was perfected by the invention of See also:

• HOMER, WINSLOW (1836-191o)

Homer T . Yaryan, of See also:

• TOLEDO
• TOLEDO, COUNCILS OF (Concilia toletana)

Toledo, See also:

• OHIO

Ohio, U.S.A . This type may here be taken for description, though other types of evaporator are now also employed, notably the ordinary See also:

• VERTICAL (from Lat. vertex, highest point)

vertical See also:

• TUBE (Lat. tuba)

tube multiple effect evapor- ator as used for concentrating See also:

• SUGAR

sugar liquors . The Yaryan evapor- ator was originally applied in the United States to the concentration of the waste alkaline liquors of paper-mills; it then came into extensive use for the manufacture and refining of sugar, the See also:

• PRO

pro- duction of See also:

• GLUCOSE (from Gr. - twais, sweet)

glucose and a variety of other purposes . The principle of multiple-effect evaporation is to utilize the latent heat of a vapour given off from a liquid under a certain pressure to vaporize a further quantity of the liquid under a pressure maintained by mechanical means below that of the first . The essential feature which dis- tinguishes the Yaryan evaporator consists in the boiling of the liquor to be treated while it is passing through a series of tubes, which constitute a coil and are heated externally by steam or vapour . The quantity of liquor entering the coil is so controlled that it is only permitted partially to fill the tubes, and thus leaves See also:

• ROOM

room for the instantaneous liberation of the vapour and its free See also:

• ESCAPE (in mid. Eng. eschape or escape, from the O. Fr. eschapper, modern echapper, and escaper, low Lat. escapium, from ex, out of, and cappa, cape, cloak; cf. for the sense development the Gr. iichueoOat, literally to put off one's clothes, hence to sli

escape.' As the liquor descends from tube to tube it becomes concentrated and reduced in See also:

• VOLUME

volume until it ultimately passes into a " separator," where it impinges on a plate or disk, which causes a complete separation of the vapour and liquid; each then passes un to the next " effect," the liquid through the second coil of tubes and the vapour to the chamber enclosing them .

This See also:

• COMBINATION (Lat. combinare, to combine)

combination of a series of tubes, or coil, and separator constitutes a vessel or " effect," and the evaporator consists of a series, usually three or more, of these vessels, one above the other (fig . 7) . The vital feature, it will be understood, is therefore that the latent heat of the original steam, after per- forming its See also:

• FUNCTION

function in the first effect, is passed on to the second and then to the third or more effects, in each of which an equal amount of work is done before passing to the final See also:

• CONDENSER

condenser, where a vacuum is maintained . Thus, if the See also:

• TOTAL

total temperature be divided three times, the result is a triple-effect, if four times, a quadruple-effect . Taking an evaporation of 10 lb of water per See also:

• POUND
• POUND (2)—(a)

pound of coal, a single-effect apparatus will evaporate to lb of water, a ' In England, it should be stated, it is found that both for paper liquors and other liquors equally good evaporation results are obtained and the tubes kept cleaner by keeping them under a See also:

• HEAD (in 0. Eng. heafad; the word is common to Teutonic languages; cf. Dutch hoofd, Ger. Haupt, generally taken to be in origin connected with Lat. caput, Gr. KerbOvi7)
• HEAD, SIR EDMUND WALKER, BART
• HEAD, SIR FRANCIS BOND, BART

head of liquor, i.e. the liquor is fed into the bottom See also:

• ROW, JOHN (c. 1525—1580)

row of tubes and has to ascend row by row to the top row, from which it flows to the separator . Elevation See also:

• SCALE
• SCALE (1) A

Scale of Feet gi93$$41I, 9' ? 8/eaching Touter rte...._-d ra_s Motor ! See also:

• MASSON, DAVID (1822–1907)
• MASSON, LOUIS CLAUDE FREDERIC (1847– )

Masson, See also:

• SCOTT, ALEXANDER (fl. 1550)
• SCOTT, DAVID (18o6-1849)
• SCOTT, MICHAEL (1789-1835)
• SCOTT, ROBERT (1811-1887)
• SCOTT, SIR GEORGE GILBERT (1811-1878)
• SCOTT, SIR WALTER, BART
• SCOTT, WILLIAM BELL (1811-1890)
• SCOTT, WINFIELD (1786-1866)

Scott and Co., Ltd . Beating Plant . t i ~ III O~ Plan 5/l///1/////////1/1///1///////1/1N///1/1H//////////p////1//1///////1////1//1//1///1////// . See also:

• DOUBLE
• DOUBLE (from the Mid. Eng. duble, the form which gives the present pronunciation, through the Old Er. duble, from Lat. duplus, twice as much)

double-effect 20 lb, a triple-effect 30 lb, and so on." The liquor to be concentrated is pumped from the storage tanks to the top or first effect of the Yaryan apparatus through a series of multiple-effect heaters, corresponding to the number of effects in the machine, by means of which the liquor is heated to as near the boiling point as possible of the liquor in the tubes of the first effect . The Mirrlees See also:

• WATSON, RICHARD (1737-1816)
• WATSON, THOMAS (c. 1557–1592)
• WATSON, WILLIAM (1858- )
• WATSON, WILLIAM (c. 1559-1603)

Watson Co., Ltd .

Live steam is introduced into the chamber surrounding the tubes of the first effect, and from the separator of the last effect the concentrated liquor is pumped to the incinerator . Any form of incinerating See also:

• HEARTH (a word which appears in various forms in several Teutonic languages, cf. Dutch haard, German Herd, in the sense of " floor ")

hearth can be used in See also:

• CONJUNCTION (from Lat. conjungere, to join together)

conjunction with the multiple-effect evaporator, but one very suitable to the continuous work of, and the high degree of concentration produced by, the Yaryan machine is that known as the See also:

• WARREN
• WARREN, GOUVERNEUR KEMBLE (183o-1882)
• WARREN, JOSEPH (1741—1775)
• WARREN, MERCY (1728—1814)
• WARREN, MINTON (1850-1907)
• WARREN, SAMUEL (1807-1877)
• WARREN, SIR JOHN BORLASE, BART
• WARREN, WILLIAM (1812-1888)

Warren rotary furnace . This consists of a revolving iron cylinder lined with See also:

• BRICK (derived according to some etymologists from the Teutonic bricke, a disk or plate; but more authoritatively, through the French brique, originally a " broken piece," applied especially to bread, and so to clay, from the Teutonic brikan, to break)

brick, about 12 ft. long by Io ft. in diameter . The lining being 6 in. thicker at the inlet 2 than at the discharge, the interior of the furnace is conical in form so that the ash gradually See also:

• WORKS

works forward and is eventually discharged fully burnt into trucks for storage, or on a travelling See also:

• BAND

band, and so carried automatically to the dissolving or lixiviating tanks . The strong liquor runs in at one end in a slow continuous stream; by the rotation of the hearth the burning mass is carried up the sides and drops through the See also:

• FLAME (Lat. flamma; the root flag- appears in flagrare, to burn, blaze, and Gr. d, XEryew)

flame again to the bottom, much in the same manner as rags do in a revolving duster . In this way all the labour required to stir the ash of the ordinary hearth is dispensed with, and the burning material comes continuously in See also:

• CLOSE
• CLOSE (from Lat. clausum, shut)
• CLOSE, MAXWELL HENRY (1822-1903)

close contact with the flame, a complete and thorough See also:

• COMBUSTION (from the Lat. comburere, to burn up)

combustion being the result . The fire-See also:

• BOX
• BOX (Gr. irl or, Lat. buxus, box-wood; cf. 2r6Eir, a pyx)

box is situated at the delivery end of the furnace, and is mounted on trucks so that it can be run back when cleaning or repairing the See also:

• BRICKWORK

brickwork . The waste heat is utilized in raising steam in a steam boiler set behind the furnace, and often in keeping the thick liquor hot after leaving the evaporator and before entering the rotary furnace . Paper-making proper from prepared pulp, whether of rags, esparto, wood or other raw material, may be said toi begin with the operation technically known as " beating " which is i The figures given here are theoretical rather than actual . In practice a double effect is not capable of evaporating twice as much with i lb of coal as a single-effect, owing to loss' of efficiency through See also:

• RADIATION, THEORY OF

radiation, &c . 2 This was the original Warren principle, but has largely been abandoned in favour of a parallel brick lining throughout; the ash gradually works forward and is discharged as described . A later method is to build the fire-box on the descending side of the rotary furnace, while a specially constructed door and ash discharge shoot are provided at the ascending side, which gives See also:

• ACCESS (Lat. accessus)

access to the inside of the furnace and provides all the other essentials without the loss of heat which resulted from the portable fire-box, due to leakage between the box and the rotary furnace proper.carried out in one of the various forms of beating engine or " Hollander." The object of the beater is to reduce the fibres to suitable lengths and also to See also:

• BEAT (a word common in various forms to the Teutonic languages; it is connected with the similar Romanic words derived from the Late Lat. battere)

beat or bruise them into a stiff pulp of sufficient consistency to absorb and carry the water necessary to See also:

• FELT (cognate with Ger. Filz, Du. vilt, Swed. and Dan. fill; the root is unknown; the word has given Med. Lat. filtrum, " filter ")

felt them together on the wire- Masson, Scott & Co., Ltd .

Fin . 8.-See also:

• TAYLOR
• TAYLOR, ANN (1782-1866)
• TAYLOR, BAYARD (1825–1878)
• TAYLOR, BROOK (1685–1731)
• TAYLOR, ISAAC (1787-1865)
• TAYLOR, ISAAC (1829-1901)
• TAYLOR, JEREMY (1613-1667)
• TAYLOR, JOHN (158o-1653)
• TAYLOR, JOHN (1704-1766)
• TAYLOR, JOSEPH (c. 1586-c. 1653)
• TAYLOR, MICHAEL ANGELO (1757–1834)
• TAYLOR, NATHANIEL WILLIAM (1786-1858)
• TAYLOR, PHILIP MEADOWS (1808–1876)
• TAYLOR, ROWLAND (d. 1555)
• TAYLOR, SIR HENRY (1800-1886)
• TAYLOR, THOMAS (1758-1835)
• TAYLOR, TOM (1817-1880)
• TAYLOR, WILLIAM (1765-1836)
• TAYLOR, ZACHARY (1784-1850)

Taylor's Patent Beater . cloth of the paper-machine . This operation is one of the most important and most delicate processes in the manufacture, requiring experience, skill and careful manipulation . Not only does every class of fibre demand its own special treatment, but this treatment has to be modified and varied in each case to suit the qualities and substances of the papers to be made from it . Although there are now in use a great many forms of beating engine, they are all, more or less, modifications of the original Hollander, which in its essential details differs little from the breaking engine already described . There are usually more bars in the roll and plate than in the breaker; the bars of the plate are set at a slight See also:

• ANGLE (from the Lat. angulus, a corner, a diminutive, of which the primitive form, angus, does not occur in Latin; cognate are the Lat. angere, to compress into a bend or to strangle, and the Gr. ayKOS, a bend; both connected with the Aryan root ank-, to

angle to the See also:

• FLY (formed on the root of the supposed original Tent. fleugan, to fly)

fly-bars of the roll to act as See also:

• SHEARS

shears in a similar manner to a pair of See also:

• SCISSORS

scissors . Bars and plates of See also:

• BRONZE

bronze are frequently used for the higher grades of paper to avoid See also:

• RUST (O.E. rust, a word which appears in -many Teutonic languages, cf. Du. roest, Ger. rost); in origin it is allied with " ruddy " and " red," the reddish-brown powdery substance which forms on the surface of iron or steel exposed to atmospheric corrosio

rust and dirt and to produce a softer and less violent action on the fibres . The time required for the beating process varies from 3 to 4 hours up to 10 and 12 and even more . Beating engines fitted with mechanical circulation by pumps or otherwise have been extensively adopted, more particularly for working esparto and the other substitutes for rags . Fig . 8 shows one of these beaters, known as the Taylor beater; the roll and plate are fixed above the trough of the beater, which has no partition or mid-feather, and from the See also:

• LOWER

lower end a powerful circulator or pump circulates the pulp through the beater and discharges it through a pipe in a continuous stream in front of the roll .

In the pipe is fixed a two-way valve, so that when the beating operation is complete the finished pulp can be run into the stuff-chests of the paper machine . The advantages of this form of beater are that a quicker and more thorough circulation of the pulp takes place than when the roll has to do the double duty of making the pulp travel and beating it up at the same time, and thus tends to reduce the time of the operation . Also more bars can be fixed in the roll, increasing its effect on the pulp, and less power is required than when the roll revolves in the middle of the stuff as in the ordinary form of beater . Beating engines of quite a different construction are now largely used in See also:

• AMERICAN

American mills, and also to some extent in Great Britain . These are known as " refiners," and the most important forms are the See also:

• JORDAN (the down-comer; Arab. esh-Sheri'a, the watering-place)
• JORDAN, CAMILLE (1771—1821)
• JORDAN, DOROTHEA (1762—1816)
• JORDAN, THOMAS (1612 ?–1685)
• JORDAN, WILHELM (1819–1904)

Jordan and Kingsland beaters (so called from the names of the inventors), or modifications of them . The first (fig . 9) consists of a conical plug or roll fixed on a See also:

• SHAFT
• SHAFT (O. Eng., sceaft, from scafan, to shave; the word is common to Teutonic languages)

shaft and revolving at a high See also:

• RATE

rate of speed within an See also:

• OUTER

outer casing of corresponding shape; both the plug and the casing are furnished with steel bars parallel with the shaft, but set at slightly different angles, taking the place of the bars in the roll and plate of the ordinary beater . This conical plug or roll can be moved in either direction parallel to its See also:

• AXIS (Lat. for " axle ")

axis and by this means the cutting action Beating, of the two sets of bars can be increased or reduced . The pulp flows into the top of the beater at the smaller end of the See also:

• CONE (Gr. Kwvos)

cone through a box provided with an arrangement for regulating the flow and passes out through an opening in the casing at the other end . The roll or plug revolves at from 350 to 400 revolutions per See also:

• MINUTE
• MINUTE (Lat. minutes, small; minuere, to make less)

minute, and requires a power to drive it of from 25 to 40 h.p., Tirflowthe machine process . Only the finest qualities of rags are used for hand-made paper; and the preparation of the half-stuff is the same as that already described under treatment of rags . The pulp after being prepared in the beating engine is run into Paper-maker according to the work to be done, and one engine is capable of passing as much as moo lb See also:

• WEIGHT

weight of dry pulp per hour .

The Kingsland beater consists of a circular box or casing, on both inside faces of which are fixed a number of knives or bars of steel or bronze; inside the case is a revolving disk of See also:

• METAL
• METAL (through Fr. from Lat. metallum, mine, quarry, adapted from Gr. µATaXAov, in the same sense, probably connected with ,ueraAAdv, to search after, explore, µeTa, after, aAAos, other)

metal fitted on both sides with corresponding and similar bars . The contact between the revolving and stationary bars can be regulated, as in the Jordan engine, to give the required amount of beating action on the pulp . The refiner is essentially a See also:

• FINISHING

finishing process as an See also:

• ADJUNCT (from Lat. ad, to, and jungere, to join)

adjunct to the beating process proper . The advantages to be derived from its use are a considerable saving in the time occupied in beating and the See also:

• PRODUCTION (Lat. productionem, from producere, to pro-duce)

production of a more See also:

• UNIFORM

uniform and evenly divided pulp, particularly where a mixture of different fibres is used . By the use of the refiner the time occupied in the beater can be reduced by nearly one-half, the half-beaten pulp passing through the refiner from the beater on its way to the paper-machine . It is not, however, generally employed for the best kinds of paper . During the operation of beating various materials and chemicals are added to the pulp for the purposes of sizing, loading, colouring, &c . Papers for writing and most of those for printing purposes must be rendered non-absorbent of See also:

• INK (from Late Lat. encaustum, Gr. gysavorov, the purple ink used by Greek and Roman emperors, from iyKaiew, to burn in)

ink or other liquid applied to them . To effect this some form of animal or vegetable size or See also:

• GLUE (from the O. Fr. glu, bird-lime, from the Late Lat. gluten, glus, glue)

glue must be applied to the paper, either as a coating on the finished web or sheet, or mixed with the pulp in the beating engine . The former, called " tub-sizing" will be described later; the latter which is known as " engine-sizing" consists in filling up the interstices of the fibres with a chemical precipitate of finely-divided See also:

• RESIN (through O.Fr. resine, modern reline, from Lat. resina, prcbably Latinized from Greek Pirivrt, resin)

resin, which, when dried and heated on the cylinders of the paper-machine, possesses the See also:

• PROPERTY

property of being with difficulty wetted with water . Except in the very best qualities of paper, it is usual to add to the pulp a certain quantity of cheap loading material, such as See also:

• CHINA

china-See also:

• CLAY (from O. Eng. claeg, a word common in various forms to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Klei)
• CLAY, CASSIUS MARCELLUS (1810-1903)
• CLAY, CHARLES (1801–1893)
• CLAY, FREDERIC (1838–1889)
• CLAY, HENRY (1777–1852)

clay or See also:

• KAOLIN

kaolin, or See also:

• PEARL
• PEARL, THE

pearl-hardening, a chemically precipitated form of sulphate of lime . The addition of such loading material to a moderate extent, say to to 15%, is not entirely in the nature of an adulterant, as it serves to close up the pores of the paper, and for ordinary writing, printing and lithographic papers renders the material softer, enabling it to take a much better and more even See also:

• SURFACE

surface or glaze .

But if added in excess it is detrimental to the strength and hardness of the sheet . Most materials, however well bleached, have a more or less yellowish tinge; to produce the desired white shade in the paper certain quantities of red and See also:

• BLUE (common in different forms to most European languages)

blue in the form of See also:

• PIGMENTS (Lat. pigmentum, from pingere, to paint)

pigments or dyes must be added to the pulp . The blues usually employed are See also:

• ULTRAMARINE

ultramarine, smalts and the See also:

• ANILINE, PHENYLADIINE, or A