See also:

• PAPER
• PAPER (Fr. papier, from Lat. papyrus)

PAPER (Fr. See also:

• PAPIER

papier, from See also:

• LAT

Lat. See also:

• PAPYRUS

papyrus)  , the See also:

• GENERAL
• GENERAL (Lat. generalis, of or relating to a genus, kind or class)

general name for the substance commonly used for See also:

• WRITING
• WRITING (the verbal noun of " to write," O. Eng. writan, to inscribe)

writing upon, or for wrapping things in . The origin and See also:

• EARLY
• EARLY, JUBAL ANDERSON (1816-1894)

early See also:

• HISTORY

history of See also:

• PAPER
• PAPER (Fr. papier, from Lat. papyrus)

paper as a writing material are involved in much obscurity . The See also:

• ART

art of making it from fibrous See also:

• MATTER

matter appears to have been practised by the See also:

• CHINESE, JAPANESE AND

Chinese at a very distant See also:

• PERIOD
• PERIOD (Gr. irepioSos, a going or way round, circuit, aepi, round, and &Sis, way, road)

period . Different writers have tracedit back to the 2nd See also:

• CENTURY (from Lat. centuria, a division of a hundred men)

century B.C . But, however remote its See also:

• AGE (Fr. age, through late Lat. aetaticum, from aetas)

age may have been in eastern See also:

• ASIA

Asia, paper first became available for the See also:

• REST (O. Eng. rest, reste, bed, cognate with other Teutonic forms, e.g. Ger. Rast, Riiste, rest, and probably Gothic Rasta, league, i.e. resting or stopping place)

rest of the See also:

• WORLD

world in the See also:

• MIDDLE

middle of the 8th century . In 751 the See also:

• ARABS

Arabs, who had occupied See also:

• SAMARKAND

Samarkand early in the century, were attacked there by Chinese . The invasion was repelled by the Arab See also:

• GOVERNOR (from the Fr. gouverneur, from gouverner, O. Fr. governer, Lat. gubernare, to steer a ship, to direct, guide)

governor, who in the pursuit, it is related, captured certain prisoners who were skilled in paper-making and who imparted their knowledge to their new masters . Hence began the Arabian manufacture, which rapidly spread to all parts of the Arab dominions . The extent to which it was adopted for See also:

• LITERARY

literary purposes is proved by the comparatively large number of early Arabic See also:

• MSS

MSS. on paper which have been preserved dating from the 9th century.' There has existed a not inconsiderable difficulty in regard to the material of which the Arab paper was composed . In See also:

• EUROPE

Europe it has been referred to by old writers as charta bombycina, gossypina, cuttunea, xylina, damascena and serica . The last See also:

• TITLE (0. Fr. title, mod. titre, from Lat. titulus)

title seems to have been derived from its glossy and silken See also:

• APPEARANCE (from Lat. apparere, to appear)

appearance; the title damascena merely points to its See also:

• GREAT

great central See also:

• EMPORIUM (a Latin adaptation of the Gr. Eµabpuov, from f)

emporium, See also:

• DAMASCUS

Damascus . But the other terms indicate an See also:

• IDEA (Gr. Ibia, connected with i&eiv, to see; cf. Lat. species from specere, to look at)

idea, which has been persistent, that the paper manufactured by the Arabs was composed of the See also:

• WOOL, WORSTED AND WOOLLEN MANUFACTURES

wool from the See also:

• COTTON
• COTTON (Fr. coton; from Arab. qutun)
• COTTON, CHARLES (163o–1687)
• COTTON, GEORGE EDWARD LYNCH (1813–1866)
• COTTON, JOHN (1585–1652)
• COTTON, SIR ROBERT BRUCE

cotton-plant, reduced to a pulp according to the method attributed to the Chinese; and it had been generally accepted that the distinction between See also:

• ORIENTAL

Oriental paper and See also:

• EUROPEAN

European paper See also:

• LAY

lay in the fact that the former was a cotton-paper and the latter a rag-paper .

But this theory has been disturbed by See also:

• RECENT

recent investigations, which have shown that the material of the Arab paper was itself substantially See also:

• LINEN

linen . It seems that the Arabs, and the skilled See also:

• PERSIAN
• PERSIAN, SYRIAN, EGYPTIAN AND TURKISH

Persian workmen whom they employed, at once resorted to See also:

• FLAX

flax, which grows abundantly in See also:

• KHORASAN, or KHORASSAN (i.e. " land of the sun ")

Khorasan, as their See also:

• PRINCIPAL

principal material, afterwards also making use of rags, supplemented, as the demand See also:

• GREW, NEHEMIAH (1641-1712)

grew, with any See also:

• VEGETABLE

vegetable fibre that would serve; and that cotton, if used at all, was used very sparingly . Still there remain the old titles charta bombycina, &c., to be explained; and an ingenious See also:

• SOLUTION (from Lat. solvere, to loosen, dissolve)

solution has been offered that the See also:

• TERM

term charta See also:

• BOMB

bomb ycina, or xaprns f oµl3uicevos, is an erroneous See also:

• READING

reading of charta bambycina, or Xapr17sl3a,ul3GKi.vos, paper manufactured at the Syrian See also:

• TOWN

town of Bambyce or l3a,uOUtcrt, the Arab Mambidsch (Karabacek in Mittheilungen aus der Sammlung der See also:

• PAPYRUS

Papyrus Erzherzog Rainer, ii.-iii . 87, iv . 117) . Without accepting this as an altogether sufficient explanation of so widely used a term as the See also:

• MEDIEVAL

medieval charta bombycina, and passing from the question of material to other See also:

• DIFFERENCES, CALCULUS OF (Theory of Finite Differences)

differences, paper of Oriental manufacture in the middle ages was usually distinguished by its stout substance and glossy See also:

• SURFACE

surface, and was devoid of See also:

• WATER

water-marks, the employment of which became universal in the European factories . Besides the titles referred to above, paper also received the names of charta and papyrus, transferred to it from the See also:

• EGYPTIAN

Egyptian writing material manufactured from the papyrus plant (see PAPYRUS) . It was probably first brought into See also:

• GREECE

Greece through See also:

• TRADE (O. Eng. trod, footstep, from tredan, to tread; in M. Eng. the forms teed, trod and trade appear, the last in the sense of a beaten track)
• TRADE, BOARD OF

trade ~yith Asia, and thence transmitted to neighbouring countries . See also:

• THEOPHILUS

Theophilus See also:

• PRESBYTER (Gr. apactObTepos, elder, the comparative of IrOo-Oas, an old man)

presbyter, writing in the 12th century (Schedula diversarum artium, i . 23), refers to it under the name of See also:

• GREEK
• GREEK, ETRUSCAN AND

Greek See also:

• PARCHMENT

parchment, pergamena graeca . There is a See also:

• RECORD (Lat. recordari, to recall to mind, from cor, heart or mind)

record of the use of ' A few of the earliest dated examples may be instanced . The Gharibu 'l-Haidth, a See also:

• TREATISE

treatise on the rare and curious words in the sayings of See also:

• MAHOMET (strictly MUHAMMAD, commonly also MOHAMMED)

Mahomet and his companions, written in the See also:

• YEAR

year 866, is probably one of the See also:

• OLDEST

oldest paper MSS. in existence (See also:

• PAL, KRISTO DAS (1839–1884)

Pal .

See also:

• SOC

Soc . Orient . See also:

• SER

Ser. pl . 6) . It is preserved in the University Library of See also:

• LEIDEN

Leiden . A treatise by an Arabian physician on the nourishment of the different members of the See also:

• BODY

body, of the year 960, is the oldest dated Arabic MS. on paper in the See also:

• BRITISH

British Museum (Or . MS . 2600; Pal . Soc., pl . 96) . The Bodleian Library possesses a MS. of the Didwnu 'l-A dab, a grammatical See also:

• WORK

work of A.D . 974, of particular See also:

• INTEREST

interest as having been written at Samarkand on paper presumably made at that seat of the first Arab manufacture (Pal .

Soc. pl . 60) . Other early examples are two MSS. at See also:

• PARIS
• PARIS (also called ALEXANDROS)
• PARIS, ALEXIS PAULIN (1800-x881)
• PARIS, BRUNO PAULIN GASTON (1839-1903)
• PARIS, FRANCOIS DE (169o-1727)
• PARIS, LOUIS PHILIPPE ALBERT
• PARIS, TREATIES OF (1814-1815)

Paris, of the years 969 (Fonds arabe, suppl., 952) and 980 (Fonds arabe, 55); a See also:

• VOLUME

volume of poems written at Baghdad, A.D . 990, now at See also:

• LEIPZIG

Leipzig, and the See also:

• GOSPEL (O. Eng. godspel, i.e. good news, a translation of Lat. bona annuntiatio, or evangelium, Gr. evayyeXwv; cf. Goth. iu spillon, " to announce good news," Ulfilas' translation of the Greek, from iu, that which is good, and spellon to announce)

Gospel of St See also:

• LUKE
• LUKE, GOSPEL OF ST

Luke, A.D . 993, in the Vatican Library (Pal . Soc., pls . 7, 21) . In the great collection of See also:

• SYRIAC

Syriac MSS., which were obtained from the Nitrian See also:

• DESERT

desert in See also:

• EGYPT

Egypt and are now in the British Museum, there are many volumes written on paper of the loth century . The two oldest dated examples, however, are not earlier than A.D . 1075 and 1084 . paper by the empress See also:

• IRENE

Irene at the end of the 11th or beginning of the 12th century, in her rules for the nuns of See also:

• CONSTANTINOPLE
• CONSTANTINOPLE, COUNCILS OF

Constantinople . It does not appear, however, to have been very extensively used in Greece before the middle of the 13th century, for, with one doubtful exception, there are no extant Greek MSS. on paper which See also:

• BEAR
• BEAR, BLACK
• BEAR, BROWN
• BEAR, GRIZZLY
• BEAR, ISABELLINE
• BEAR, WHITE

bear date See also:

• PRIOR (from Lat. prior—former, and hence superior, through O. Fr. priour)
• PRIOR, MATTHEW (1664-1721)

prior to that period .

The manufacture of paper in Europe was first established by the See also:

• MOORS (Lat. Mauri; Gr. Mavpot, dark men)
• MOORS, KABYLES, MZABITES

Moors in See also:

• SPAIN
• SPAIN (Espana)

Spain in the middle of the 12th century, the See also:

• HEAD (in 0. Eng. heafad; the word is common to Teutonic languages; cf. Dutch hoofd, Ger. Haupt, generally taken to be in origin connected with Lat. caput, Gr. KerbOvi7)
• HEAD, SIR EDMUND WALKER, BART
• HEAD, SIR FRANCIS BOND, BART

head-quarters of the See also:

• INDUSTRY (Lat. industria, from indu-, a form of the pre, position in, and either stare, to stand, or struere, to pile up)

industry being Xativa, See also:

• VALENCIA
• VALENCIA, or VALENTIA

Valencia and See also:

• TOLEDO
• TOLEDO, COUNCILS OF (Concilia toletana)

Toledo . But on the fall of the Moorish See also:

• POWER [WILLIAM GRATTAN] TYRONE (1797-1841)

power the manufacture, passing into the hands of the less skilled Christians, declined in the quality of its See also:

• PRODUCTION (Lat. productionem, from producere, to pro-duce)

production . In See also:

• ITALY
• ITALY (Italia)

Italy also the art of paper-making was no doubt established through the Arab occupation of See also:

• SICILY (Ital. Sicilia)

Sicily . But the paper which was made both there and in Spain, was in the first instance of the Oriental quality . In the See also:

• LAWS

laws of See also:

• ALPHONSO

Alphonso of 1263 it is referred to as See also:

• CLOTH

cloth parchment, a term which well describes its stout substance . The first mention of rag-paper occurs in the See also:

• TRACT (from Lat. tractare, to treat of a matter, through Provencal tractat and Ital. trattato)

tract of See also:

• PETER
• PETER (Lat. Petrus from Gr. irfpos, a rock, Ital. Pietro, Piero, Pier, Fr. Pierre, Span. Pedro, Ger. Peter, Russ. Petr)
• PETER (PEDRO)
• PETER, EPISTLES OF
• PETER, ST

Peter, See also:

• ABBOT (from the Hebrew ab, a father, through the Syriac abba, Lat. abbas, gen. abbatis, O.E. abbad, fr. late Lat. form abbad-em changed in 13th century under influence of the Lat. form to abbat, used alternatively till the end of the 17th century; Ger. Ab
• ABBOT, EZRA (1819-1884)
• ABBOT, GEORGE (1603-1648)
• ABBOT, ROBERT (1588?–1662?)
• ABBOT, WILLIAM (1798-1843)

abbot of See also:

• CLUNY, or CLUGNY

Cluny (A.D . 1122–1150), adversus Judaeos, cap . 5, where, among the various kinds of books, he refers to such as are written on material made " ex rasuris veterum pannorum." A few words may here be said respecting MSS. written in European countries on Oriental paper or paper made in the Oriental See also:

• FASHION (adapted from Fr. facon, agon, Lat. factio, making, facere, to do or make)

fashion . Several which have been quoted as early instances have proved, on further examination, to be nothing but vellum . The See also:

• ANCIENT
• ANCIENT (also spelt ANTIENT; derived, through the Fr. ancien, old, from the late Lat. antianum, from ante, before)

ancient fragments of the Gospel of St See also:

• MARK
• MARK, CARL (1858– )
• MARK, GOSPEL OF ST
• MARK, ST

Mark, preserved at See also:

• VENICE
• VENICE (continued)
• VENICE (Venezia)

Venice, which were stated by See also:

• MAFFEI, FRANCESCO SCIPIONE, MARCHESE DI (1675-1755)

Maffei to be of paper, by See also:

• MONTFAUCON, BERNARD DE (1655-1741)

Montfaucon of papyrus, and by the See also:

• BENEDICTINES, or BLACK MONKS

Benedictines of bark, are in fact written on skin . The oldest recorded document on paper was a See also:

• DEED (in O. Eng. dead, from the stem of the verb " to do ")

deed of See also:

• KING
• KING (O. Eng. cyning, abbreviated into cyng, cing; cf. O. H. G. chun- kuning, chun- kunig, M.H.G. kiinic, kiinec, kiinc, Mod. Ger. Konig, O. Norse konungr, kongr, Swed. konung, kung)
• KING [OF OCKHAM], PETER KING, 1ST BARON (1669-1734)
• KING, CHARLES WILLIAM (1818-1888)
• KING, CLARENCE (1842–1901)
• KING, EDWARD (1612–1637)
• KING, EDWARD (1829–1910)
• KING, HENRY (1591-1669)
• KING, RUFUS (1755–1827)
• KING, THOMAS (1730–1805)
• KING, WILLIAM (1650-1729)
• KING, WILLIAM (1663–1712)

King See also:

• ROGER (d. 1139)
• ROGER (d. 1181)

Roger of Sicily, of the year 1102; and there are others of Sicilian See also:

• KINGS, FIRST AND SECOND BOOKS OF

kings, of the 12th century . A Visigothic paper MS. of the 12th century from Silos near See also:

• BURGOS

Burgos is now in the Bibliotheque Nationale, Paris .

A notarial See also:

• REGISTER

register on paper, at See also:

• GENEVA
• GENEVA (Fr. Geneve, Ger. Genf, Ital. Ginevra, Late Lat. Gebenna, though Genava in good Latin)
• GENEVA, LAKE OF

Geneva, See also:

• DATES

dates from 1154 . The oldest known imperial deed on the same material is a See also:

• CHARTER (Lat. charta, carta, from Gr. Xap-rns, originally for papyrus, material for writing, thence transferred to paper and from this material to the document, in O. Eng. boc, book)

charter of See also:

• FREDERICK
• FREDERICK (Mod. Ger. Friedrich; Ital. Federigo; Fr. Frederic and Federic; M.H.G. Friderich; O.H.G. Fridurih, " king or lord of peace," from O.H.G. fridu, A.S. frith, " peace," and rfh " rich," " a ruler," for derivation of which see HENRY)

Frederick II. to the nuns of Goess in See also:

• STYRIA (German, Steiermark or Steyermark)

Styria, of the year 1228, now at See also:

• VIENNA (Ger. Wien; Lat. Vindobona)
• VIENNA, CONGRESS OF (1814-1815)

Vienna . In 1231, however, the same See also:

• EMPEROR (Fr. empereur, from the Lat. imperator)

emperor forbade further use of paper for public documents, which were in future to be inscribed on vellum . Transcripts of imperial acts of Frederick II. about A.D . 1241 are at See also:

• NAPLES
• NAPLES (Ital. Napoli, and Lat. Neapolis)
• NAPLES, KINGDOM OF

Naples . In Venice the See also:

• LIBER

Liber plegiorum, the entries in which begin with the year 1223, is made of rough paper; and similarly the registers of the See also:

• COUNCIL (Lat. concilium, from cum, together, and the root cal, to call)

Council of Ten, beginning in 1325, and the register of the emperor See also:

• HENRY
• HENRY (1129-1195)
• HENRY (c. 1108-1139)
• HENRY (c. 1174–1216)
• HENRY (Fr. Henri; Span. Enrique; Ger. Heinrich; Mid. H. Ger. Heinrich and Heimrich; O.H.G. Haimi- or Heimirih, i.e. " prince, or chief of the house," from O.H.G. heim, the Eng. home, and rih, Goth. reiks; compare Lat. rex " king "—" rich," therefore " mig
• HENRY, EDWARD LAMSON (1841– )
• HENRY, JAMES (1798-1876)
• HENRY, JOSEPH (1797-1878)
• HENRY, MATTHEW (1662-1714)
• HENRY, PATRICK (1736–1799)
• HENRY, PRINCE OF BATTENBERG (1858-1896)
• HENRY, ROBERT (1718-1790)
• HENRY, VICTOR (1850– )
• HENRY, WILLIAM (1795-1836)

Henry VII . (1308–1313) preserved at See also:

• TURIN

Turin, are also written on a like substance . In the British Museum there is an older example in a MS . (See also:

• ARUNDEL
• ARUNDEL, EARLDOM OF
• ARUNDEL, EARLS OF
• ARUNDEL, THOMAS (1353-1414)

Arundel 268) which contains some astronomical See also:

• TREATISES

treatises written on an excellent paper in an See also:

• ITALIAN

Italian See also:

• HAND
• HAND (a word common to Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Hand, Goth. handus)
• HAND, FERDINAND GOTTHELF (1786-185r)

hand of the first See also:

• HALF

half of the 13th century . The autograph MS. of See also:

• ALBERT
• ALBERT (1490'1545)
• ALBERT (149o-1568)
• ALBERT (1522–1557)
• ALBERT (FRANCIS CHARLES AUGUSTUS ALBERT EMMANUEL) (1819—1861)
• ALBERT (FRIEDRICH RUDOLF ALBRECHT)
• ALBERT, FREDERICK AUGUSTUS
• ALBERT, MADAME (c. 2805—2846)

Albert de Beham, 1238-1255, at See also:

• MUNICH (Ger. Munchen)

Munich, is on paper . In the Public Record See also:

• OFFICE (from Lat. officium, " duty," " service," a shortened form of opifacium, from facere, " to do," and either the stem of opes, " wealth," " aid," or opus, " work ")

Office there is a See also:

• LETTER (through Fr. lettre from Lat. littera or litera, letter of the alphabet; the origin of the Latin word is obscure; it has probably no connexion with the root of linere, to smear, i.e. with wax, for an inscription with a stilus)

letter on paper from See also:

• RAYMOND, HENRY JARVIS (1820-1869)

Raymond, son of Raymond, See also:

• DUKE (corresponding to Fr. duc, Ital. duca, Ger. Herzog)

duke of See also:

• NARBONNE

Narbonne and cou4t of See also:

• TOULOUSE
• TOULOUSE, LOUIS ALEXANDRE DE BOURBON, COUNT OF (1678-1737)

Toulouse, to Henry III. of See also:

• ENGLAND
• ENGLAND, THE CHURCH OF

England, written within the years 1216–1222 . The letters addressed from See also:

• CASTILE, or CASTILLE (Castilla)

Castile to See also:

• EDWARD

Edward I., in 1279 and following years (See also:

• PAULI, REINHOLD (1823-1882)

Pauli in Bericht, Berl .

Akad., 1854), are instances of See also:

• SPANISH

Spanish-made paper; and other specimens in existence prove that in this latter See also:

• COUNTRY (from the Mid. Eng. contre or contrie, and O. Fr. cuntree; Late Lat. contrata, showing the derivation from contra, opposite, over against, thus the tract of land which fronts the sight, cf. Ger. Gegend, neighbourhood)

country a rough See also:

• KIND (O. E. ge-cynde, from the same root as is seen in " kin," supra)

kind of charta bombycina was manufactured to a comparatively See also:

• LATE

late date . In Italy the first See also:

• PLACE (through Fr. from Lat. platea, street; Gr. IrAar6s, wide)

place which appears to have become a great centre of the paper-making industry was See also:

• FABRIANO

Fabriano in the marquisate of See also:

• ANCONA
• ANCONA, ALESSANDRO (1835– )

Ancona, where See also:

• MILLS, JOHN (d. 1736)
• MILLS, ROGER QUARLES (1832– )

mills were first set up in 1276, and which See also:

• ROSE
• ROSE (Rosa)
• ROSE, GEORGE (1744-1818)
• ROSE, HUGH JAMES (1795—1838)
• ROSE, WILLIAM STEWART (1775-1843)

rose into importance on the decline of the manufacture in Spain . The earliest known water-marks in paper from this factory are of the years 1293 and 1294 . The jurist Bartolo, in his treatise De insigniis et armis, refers to the excellent paper made there in the middle of the 14th century, an encomium which will be supported by those who have had occasion to examine the extant MSS. on Italian paper of that period . In 1340 a factory was established at See also:

• PADUA (Lat. Patavium ; Ital. Padova)

Padua; another arose later at Treviso; and others followed in the territories of See also:

• FLORENCE
• FLORENCE (Ital. Firenze, Lat. Florentia)

Florence, See also:

• BOLOGNA
• BOLOGNA, GIOVANNI DA (1524–1608)

Bologna, See also:

• PARMA

Parma, See also:

• MILAN
• MILAN (Ital. Milano, Ger. Mailand, anc. Mediolanum, q.v.)

Milan, Venice and other districts . From the factories of See also:

• NORTHERN

northern Italy the wants of See also:

• SOUTHERN

southern See also:

• GERMANY
• GERMANY (Ger. Deutschland)

Germany were supplied as late as the 15th century . As an instance the See also:

• CASE
• CASE, JOHN (d. 1600)

case of Gorlitzhas been cited, which See also:

• DREW
• DREW, SAMUEL (1765-1833)

drew its paper from Milan and Venice for the half century between 1376 and 1426 . But in Germany also factories were rapidly founded . The earlieslb are said to have been set up between See also:

• COLOGNE (Ger. Koln, or officially, since 1900, Coln)

Cologne and See also:

• MAINZ (Fr. Mayence)

Mainz, and in Mainz itself about 1320 . At See also:

• NUREMBERG (Ger. Nurnberg)

Nuremberg Ulman Stromer established a See also:

• MILL
• MILL (O. Eng. mylen, later myln, or miln, adapted from the late Lat. molina, cf. Fr. moulin, from Lat. mola, a mill, molere, to grind; from the same root, mol, is derived " meal;" the word appears in other Teutonic languages, cf. Du. molen, Ger. muhle)
• MILL, JAMES (1773-1836)
• MILL, JOHN (c. 1645–1707)
• MILL, JOHN STUART (1806-1873)

mill in 1390, with the aid of Italian workmen . Other places of early manufacture were Ratisbon and See also:

• AUGSBURG
• AUGSBURG, CONFESSION OF
• AUGSBURG, WAR OF THE LEAGUE OF

Augsburg . Western Germany, as well as the See also:

• NETHERLANDS

Netherlands and England, is said to have obtained paper at first from See also:

• FRANCE
• FRANCE, ANATOLE (1844– )

France and See also:

• BURGUNDY

Burgundy through the markets of See also:

• BRUGES (Flemish Brugge, a name signifying the bridge or place of bridges)

Bruges, See also:

• ANTWERP
• ANTWERP (Fr. Anvers)

Antwerp' and Cologne .

France owed the See also:

• ESTABLISHMENT (0. Fr. establissement, Fr. etablissement, late Norm. Fr. establishement, from O. Fr. establir, Fr. etablir, Lat. stabilire, to make stable)

establishment of her first paper-mills to Spain, whence we are told the art of paper-making was introduced, as early as the year 1189, into the See also:

• DISTRICT

district of See also:

• HERAULT

Herault . At a later period, in 1406, among the accounts of the See also:

• CHURCH
• CHURCH (according to most authorities derived from the Gr. Kvpcaxov [&wµa], " the Lord's [house]," and common to many Teutonic, Slavonic and other languages under various forms—Scottish kirk, Ger. Kirche, Swed. kirka, Dan. kirke, Russ. tserkov, Buig. cerk
• CHURCH, FREDERICK EDWIN (1826-1900)
• CHURCH, GEORGE EARL (1835–1910)
• CHURCH, RICHARD WILLIAM (1815–189o)
• CHURCH, SIR RICHARD (1784–1873)

church of See also:

• TROYES

Troyes, paper-mills appear as molins a toile . The development of the trade in France must have been very rapid . And with the progress of manufacture in France that of the Netherlands also grew . In the second half of the 14th, century the use of paper for all literary purposes had become well established in all western Europe; and in the course of the 15th century it gradually superseded vellum . In MSS. of this latter period it is not unusual to find a mixture of vellum and paper, a vellum See also:

• SHEET

sheet forming the See also:

• OUTER

outer, or the outer and inner, leaves of a See also:

• QUIRE (in earlier forms quaer, quaer and quere, from the O. Fr. quaier, modern cahier, a copy-book, manuscript book; Lat. quaterni, set of four, from quattuor)

quire while the rest are of paper . With regard to the early use of paper in England, there is See also:

• EVIDENCE (Lat. evidentia, evideri, to appear clearly)

evidence that at the beginning of the 14th century it was a not uncommon material, particularly for registers and accounts . Under the year 1310, the records of Merton See also:

• COLLEGE (Collegium)

College, See also:

• OXFORD
• OXFORD, EARLS OF
• OXFORD, EDWARD DE VERE, 17TH EARL
• OXFORD, JOHN DE VERE, 13TH EARL OF (1443-1513)
• OXFORD, PROVISIONS OF
• OXFORD, ROBERT DE VERE, 9TH EARL OF (1362-1392)
• OXFORD, ROBERT HARLEY, 1ST

Oxford, show that paper was See also:

• PURCHASED

purchased " See also:

• PRO

pro registro," which See also:

• PROFESSOR (the Latin noun formed from the verb profiteri, to declare publicly, to acknowledge, profess)

Professor See also:

• ROGERS, HENRY DARWIN (18o8—1866)
• ROGERS, JAMES EDWIN THOROLD (1823-1890)
• ROGERS, JOHN (1627–c. 1665)
• ROGERS, JOHN (1829-1904)
• ROGERS, JOHN (c. 1500-1555)
• ROGERS, ROBERT (1727-1784?)
• ROGERS, S
• ROGERS, SAMUEL (1763-1855)
• ROGERS, WILLIAM (1819-1896)

Rogers (Hist . Agricul. and Prices, i . 644) is of See also:

• OPINION (Lat. opinio, from opinari, to think)

opinion was probably paper of the same See also:

• CHARACTER (Gr. xapareri7p, from xap&crew, to scratch)

character as that of the See also:

• BORDEAUX

Bordeaux customs register in the Public Record Office, which date from the first year of Edward II . The college register referred to, which was probably used for entering the books that the See also:

• FELLOWS, SIR CHARLES (1799-1860)

fellows borrowed from the library, has perished . There is, however, in the British Museum a paper MS .

(Add . 31,223), written in England, of even earlier- date than the one recorded in the Merton archives . This is a register of the hustings See also:

• COURT
• COURT (from the O. Fr. court, Late Lat. cortis, curtis, a popular form of class. Lat. cohors, gen. cohortis; the mod. Fr. form tour is due to the influence of the Lat. curia, the word used in medieval documents to translate " court " in the feudal sense)
• COURT, ANTOINE (1696-176o)

court of Lyme Regis, the entries in which begin in the year 1309 . The paper, of a rough manufacture, is similar to the kind which was used in Spain . It may have been imported See also:

• DIRECT

direct from that country or from Bordeaux; and a seaport town on the See also:

• SOUTH
• SOUTH, ROBERT (1634–1716)

south See also:

• COAST (from Lat. costa, a rib, side)

coast of England is exactly the place where such early See also:

• RELICS (Lat, reliquiae, the equivalent of the English " remains " in the sense of a dead body)

relics might be looked for . Professor Rogers also mentions an early specimen of paper in the archives of Merton College, on which is written a See also:

• BILL

bill of the year 1332; and some leaves of water-marked paper of 1333 exist in the Harleian collection . Only a few years later in date is the first of the registers of the King's See also:

• HALL
• HALL (generally known as SCHWABISCH-HALL, tc distinguish it from the small town of Hall in Tirol and Bad-Hall, a health resort in Upper Austria)
• HALL (O.E. heall, a common Teutonic word, cf. Ger. Halle)
• HALL, BASIL (1788-1844)
• HALL, CARL CHRISTIAN (1812–1888)
• HALL, CHARLES FRANCIS (1821-1871)
• HALL, CHRISTOPHER NEWMAN (1816—19oz)
• HALL, EDWARD (c. 1498-1547)
• HALL, FITZEDWARD (1825-1901)
• HALL, ISAAC HOLLISTER (1837-1896)
• HALL, JAMES (1793–1868)
• HALL, JAMES (1811–1898)
• HALL, JOSEPH (1574-1656)
• HALL, MARSHALL (1790-1857)
• HALL, ROBERT (1764-1831)
• HALL, SAMUEL CARTER (5800-5889)
• HALL, SIR JAMES (1761-1832)
• HALL, WILLIAM EDWARD (1835-1894)

Hall at See also:

• CAMBRIDGE
• CAMBRIDGE, EARLS AND DUKES OF
• CAMBRIDGE, RICHARD OWEN (1717-1802)

Cambridge, a See also:

• SERIES (a Latin word from serere, to join)

series of which, on paper, is preserved in the library of Trinity College . Of the middle of the 14th century also are many municipal books and records . The knowledge, however, which we have of the history of paper-making in England is extremely scanty . The first maker whose name is known is See also:

• JOHN
• JOHN (1167–1216)
• JOHN (1290-c. 1320)
• JOHN (1296-1346)
• JOHN (1371–1419)
• JOHN (1468-1532)
• JOHN (1801-1873)
• JOHN (Heb. llni')
• JOHN (ZAPOLYA) (1487-1540)
• JOHN, 4TH MARQUESS OF TWEEDDALE (c. 1695-1762)
• JOHN, DON (1545-1578)
• JOHN, DON (1629–1679)
• JOHN, GOSPEL OF ST
• JOHN, or HAYS (1513–1571)
• JOHN, THE APOSTLE
• JOHN, THE EPISTLES OF

John See also:

• TATE, JAMES (1771-1843)
• TATE, NAHUM (1652-1715)
• TATE, RALPH (1840-1901)
• TATE, SIR HENRY, BART

Tate, who is said to have set up a mill in See also:

• HERTFORD
• HERTFORD, EARLS AND MARQUESSES OF

Hertford early in the 16th century; and See also:

• SIR

Sir John Spilman, See also:

• QUEEN
• QUEEN (O.E. cwen, wife, related to "quean," O.E. cwene, a hussy; cf. Gr. yvvi7: from root gan-, to produce; cf. genus, " kin," &c.)

Queen See also:

• ELIZABETH
• ELIZABETH (1533-1603)
• ELIZABETH (1596-1662)
• ELIZABETH (1635–1650)
• ELIZABETH [ AMELIE EUGENIE ] (1837—1898)
• ELIZABETH [1lisabeth Philippine Marie Helene of France] (1764—1794)
• ELIZABETH [PAULINE ELIZABETH OTTILIE LOUISE] (1843– )
• ELIZABETH [PETROVNA] (1709-1762), EMPRESS
• ELIZABETH, SAINT (1207-1231)

Elizabeth's jeweller, erected a paper-mill at See also:

• DARTFORD

Dartford, and in 1589 obtained a See also:

• LICENCE (through the French from Lat. licentia, licere, to be lawful)

licence for ten years to make all sorts of See also:

• WHITE
• WHITE, ANDREW DICKSON (1832– )
• WHITE, GILBERT (1720–1793)
• WHITE, HENRY KIRKE (1785-1806)
• WHITE, HUGH LAWSON (1773-1840)
• WHITE, JOSEPH BLANCO (1775-1841)
• WHITE, RICHARD GRANT (1822-1885)
• WHITE, ROBERT (1645-1704)
• WHITE, SIR GEORGE STUART (1835– )
• WHITE, SIR THOMAS (1492-1567)
• WHITE, SIR WILLIAM ARTHUR (1824--1891)
• WHITE, SIR WILLIAM HENRY (1845– )
• WHITE, THOMAS (1628-1698)
• WHITE, THOMAS (c. 1550-1624)

white writing-paper and to gather, for the purpose, all manner of linen rags, scrolls or scraps of parchment, old fishing nets, &c . (Dunkin, Hist. of Dartford, 305; Had . MS .

2296, f . 124 b) . But it is incredible that no paper was made in the country before the See also:

• TIME (0. Eng. Lima, cf. Icel. timi, Swed. timme, hour, Dan. time; from the root also seen in " tide," properly the time of between the flow and ebb of the sea, cf. O. Eng. getidan, to happen, " even-tide," &c.; it is not directly related to Lat. tempus)
• TIME, MEASUREMENT OF
• TIME, STANDARD

time of the Tudors . The comparatively cheap rates at which it was sold in the 15th century in inland towns seem to afford ground for assuming that there was at that time a native industry in this commodity . As far as the prices have been observed at which different kinds of paper were sold in England, it has been found that in 1355–1356 the See also:

• PRICE
• PRICE, BARTHOLOMEW (1818–1898)
• PRICE, BONAMY (1807-1888)
• PRICE, RICHARD (1723-1791)

price of a quire of small See also:

• FOLIO (properly the ablative case of the Lat. folium, leaf, but also frequently an adaptation of the Ital. foglio)

folio paper was 5d., both in Oxford and See also:

• LONDON

London . In the 15th century the See also:

• AVERAGE

average price seems to have ranged from 3d. to 4d. for the quire, and from 3s . 4d. to 4s. for the See also:

• REAM (either through Du. riem, or O.Fr. reyme, reyme, mod. rame, Med. Lat. risma, from Arabic rizmah, bale or bundle)

ream . At the beginning of the 16th century the price See also:

• FELL
• FELL, JOHN (1625-1686)

fell to 2d. or 3d. the quire, and to 3s. or 3s . 6d. the ream; but in the second half of the century, owing to the debasement of the coinage, it rose, in See also:

• COMMON

common with all other commodities, to nearly 4d. the quire, and to rather more than 5s. the ream . The relatively higher price of the ream in this last period, as compared with that of the quire, seems to imply a more extensive use of the material which enabled the trader to dispose of broken bulk more quickly than formerly, and so to sell by the quire at a comparatively cheap See also:

• RATE

rate . See also:

• BROWN
• BROWN, CHARLES BROCKDEN (1771-181o)
• BROWN, FORD MADOX (1821-1893)
• BROWN, FRANCIS (1849- )
• BROWN, GEORGE (1818-188o)
• BROWN, HENRY KIRKE (1814-1886)
• BROWN, JACOB (1775–1828)
• BROWN, JOHN (1715–1766)
• BROWN, JOHN (1722-1787)
• BROWN, JOHN (1735–1788)
• BROWN, JOHN (1784–1858)
• BROWN, JOHN (1800-1859)
• BROWN, JOHN (1810—1882)
• BROWN, JOHN GEORGE (1831— )
• BROWN, ROBERT (1773-1858)
• BROWN, SAMUEL MORISON (1817—1856)
• BROWN, SIR GEORGE (1790-1865)
• BROWN, SIR JOHN (1816-1896)
• BROWN, SIR WILLIAM, BART
• BROWN, THOMAS (1663-1704)
• BROWN, THOMAS (1778-1820)
• BROWN, THOMAS EDWARD (1830-1897)
• BROWN, WILLIAM LAURENCE (1755–1830)

Brown paper appears in entries of 1570-1571, and was sold in bundles at 2S. to 2s . 4d .

Blotting paper is apparently of even earlier date, being mentioned under the year 1465 . It was a coarse, See also:

• GREY, CHARLES GREY, 2ND EARL (1764-1845)
• GREY, HENRY GREY, 3RD EARL (1802-1894)
• GREY, LADY JANE (1537-1554)
• GREY, SIR EDWARD
• GREY, SIR GEORGE (1812–1898)

grey, unsized paper, fragments of which have been found among the leaves of 15th-century accounts, where it had been See also:

• LEFT

left after being used for blotting . Early in the 16th century blotting-paper must have been in See also:

• ORDINARY (med. Lat. ordinarius, Fr. ordinaire)

ordinary use, fdr it. is referred to in W . Horman's Vulgaria, 1519 (p . 8o b): " Blottyng papyr serveth to drye weete wryttynge, lest there be made blottis or blurris "; and early in the next century " charta bibula " is mentioned in the See also:

• PINACOTHECA

Pinacotheca (i . 175) of Nicius Erythraeus . It is remarkable that, in spite of the comparatively early date of this invention, See also:

• SAND
• SAND, GEORGE (1804-1876)

sand continued generally in use, and even at the See also:

• PRESENT

present See also:

• DAY (O. Eng. dreg, Ger. Tag; according to the New English Dictionary, " in no way related to the Lat. dies")
• DAY, JOHN (1574-1640?)
• DAY, THOMAS (1748-1789)

day continues in several countries in fairly common use as an See also:

• INK (from Late Lat. encaustum, Gr. gysavorov, the purple ink used by Greek and Roman emperors, from iyKaiew, to burn in)

ink absorbent . A study of the various water-marks has yielded some results in tracing the different channels in which the paper trade of different countries flowed . Experience also of the different kinds of paper and a knowledge of the water-marks (the earliest of which is of about the year 1282) aid the student in fixing nearly exact periods of undated documents . European paper of the 14th century may generally be recognized by its See also:

• FIRM

firm texture, its stoutness, and the large See also:

• SIZE

size of its wires . The water-marks are usually See also:

• SIMPLE

simple in See also:

• DESIGN (Fr. desiin, drawing; Lat. designare, to mark out)

design; and, being the result of the impress of thick wires, they are therefore strongly marked . In the course of the 15th century the texture gradually becomes finer and the water-marks more elaborate .

While the old subjects of the latter are still continued in use, they are more neatly outlined, and, particularly in Italian paper, they are frequently enclosed in circles . The practice of inserting the full name of the maker in the water-mark came into fashion early in the 16th century . But it is interesting to know that for a very brief period in the 14th century, from about 1307 to 1320, the practice actually obtained at Fabriano, but was then abandoned in favour of simple initial letters, which had already been used even in the 13th century . The date of manufacture appears first in the water-marks of paper made in 1545 . The variety of subjects of water-marks is most extensive . Animals, birds, fishes, heads, See also:

• FLOWERS, ARTIFICIAL

flowers, domestic and warlike implements, armorial See also:

• BEARINGS

bearings, &c., are found from the earliest times . Some of these, such as armorial bearings, and See also:

• NATIONAL

national, provincial or See also:

• PERSONAL

personal cognizances, as the imperial See also:

• CROWN

crown, the crossed keys or the See also:

• CARDINAL (Lat. cardinalis)

cardinal's See also:

• HAT

hat, can be attributed to particular countries or districts; and the wide dissemination of the paper bearing these marks in different countries serves to prove how large and See also:

• INTERNATIONAL, THE

international was the paper trade in the 14th and 15th centuries . Koops, See also:

• HISTORICAL

Historical See also:

• ACCOUNT
• ACCOUNT (through O. Fr. acont, Late Lat. comptum, cornputare, to calculate)

Account, &c . (London, 1801); Sotzmann, " Uber See also:

• DIE
• DIE (Fr. de, from Lat. datum, given)

die altere Papierfabrikation," in Serapeum (Leipzig, 1846) ; C . M . Briquet, " Recherches sur See also:

• LES

les premiers papiers, du xe au xive siecle " in Mem. antiquaires de France, xlvi . (Paris, 1886), and Le See also:

• PAPIER

Papier arabe au moyen age (See also:

• BERN (Fr. Berne)

Bern, 1888); C .

See also:

• PAOLI, CESARE (1840-1902)
• PAOLI, PASQUALE (1725-1807)

Paoli, " Carta di cotone e carta di lino," in Archivio storico italiano, ser . 4, tom. xv . (1885) ; J . Karabacek, Mittheilungen aus der Sammlung der Papyrus Erzherzog Rainer, ii.-iii . 87 (1887), iv . 117 (1897); Midoux and Matton, Etude sur les Filigranes (Paris, 1868); C . M . Briquet, Les Filigranes: Dictionnaire historique See also:

• DES

des marques du papier des leur apparition vers 1-282 jusqu'en 'See also:

• DON
• DON (anc. Tanais)

don (Paris, 1907), with a bibliography of See also:

• WORKS

works on water-marks; W . See also:

• WATTENBACH, WILHELM (1819–1897)

Wattenbach, Das Schriftwesen See also:

• IM(K2+a2+h2—2 ah cos 0)

im Mittelalter (Leipzig, 1896) ; J . E . T . Rogers, History of See also:

• AGRICULTURE
• AGRICULTURE (from Lat. ages, field, and colere, to cultivate)
• AGRICULTURE, BOARD OF

Agriculture and Prices in England (Oxford, 1866-1882) .

(E . M .